Leadership and Organizational Development: Exam 2

Examples of individual factors

- High self-monitor - high core self-evaluation - high Machiavellian personality - high perceived job alternatives - high expectations of success - low organizational investment (nothing to lose is punished for engaging in political behavior)

What is true about egoism?

- It embodies few, if any objective moral principles - It is a moral POV derived from consequentialist Theory - It triggers behavior that varies based on the person's perception - It produces behavior driven by self-interest

What are the key behavioral characteristics of ethical leadership?

- Raise awareness of ethical standards - Uphold other-centered values - Fair and equal treatment of followers (believe in and act in ways to uphold fairness) - Act with high integrity

What are the key behavioral characteristics of servant leadership?

- Sacrifices self-interests to help others - Listening and empathizing - Actively involved in developing others - Focused on other's well-being

Legitimate

Acceptance of authority Tied to the extent to which people accept your position of authority - simply having the title or rank might be enough to grant you legitimate power, even if you don't actually have access to rewards or the ability to punish

Prevention

Actively trying to prevent threatening change from occurring

Historical Precedents

Affects trajectory of future decisions that need to be made (one drop of water in stream of choices being made every day)

Ethical leadership

Influence through modeling morally sound, other-focused behaviors (typically pro-socially motivated rather than selfishly motivated) Persuade followers to conform and increase trust in followers The ethical standards touted by these leaders are ones following the commonly accepting moral principles Ex. Abraham Lincoln, Mother Teresa, and Hiccup

Better method

Instead of saying don't, say do - pursuit objectives and goals we have Focus on role modeling and promoting ethical values to encourage ethical behavior Creates a self-fulfilling prophecy Prevents teleopathy Promotes ethical behaviors for multiple stakeholders and it is more likely to promote than prevent

Contrast effect

Involves making comparisons - used to make quick judgments about whether a person is better or worse than another - we don't evaluate a person in isolation Judgment most impacted by how others around s behave Ex. at a competition or best writer in class (can operate in the other direction too) Applies to when direct comparisons can be made to recent encounters with others behaving in similar ways (if you're the only one to do something, contrast effect is less likely to happen)

Consultation

Involving target in the planning Often used to get a person's buy-in and support for something by including them in decisions about hoe to execute the task (used to increase sense of ownership over a decision and course of action)

What is an example of the consequentialist theory?

Is stealing wrong? "Stealing makes the victim unhappy and hurts them" The assessment of why stealing is wrong hinged on the outcome of what happens to the person who is affected from having something stolen

Consensus

Is this person the only one responding this way? Is it exhibited by other people in a similar situation?

Consistency

Is this unusual behavior for this person? The person's behavioral tack-record

Why is knowing your natural leadership style important?

It gives you an idea of where you may be lacking

Trust

It is a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically - it takes time to demonstrate trustworthiness It is completely based on follower perceptions (perceptions are affected by a number of different things and can be very different than the objective reality if based on judgment shortcuts) 3 factors: Integrity, benevolence, and ability The more positively followers perceive of these 3 aspects of trustworthiness are high in their leader, the more likely they are to trust their leader Trust offers a host of behaviors that orgs find valuable such as risk taking info sharing, group effectiveness, and productivity

Judgment shortcuts

Judgments not always based on fully thought out and conscious processes (often allows us to make accurate perceptions quickly, but result in serious distortions of objective reality)

Charismatic leadership

Key trait: charisma (describes how charming someone is) - they are "larger than life", extraordinarily unique, and tend to be narcissistic They influence through inspiration - they tend to be very emotional speakers and are particularly good at conveying their position for their visions Vision casting and emotional contagion (enthusiasm is infectious and contagious) Ex. Martin Luther Kind Jr and Adolf Hitler

Situational leadership theory

Knowing when to lead and how to be effective - need to understand your followers and the context Combine consideration and initiating variables

A followers implicit leadership schema affects___________.

LMX relationships

Tasks affect. ___________ and determines a follower's _________

Leader behaviors (can be taught) Determines a follower's maturity (are they ready - motivated and willing - to do the task) - look at what you need to do as a leader to improve their motivation and/or skills

__________ and __________ affect LMX relationships

Leader behaviors and followers traits

Trait-based approach leads to...

Leader selection (identify who is likely to emerge as a leader) Traits alone are not sufficient nor absolutely necessary to be an effective leader; they are only a precondition that may help incline you towards being an effective leader IF you take the right actions Having the natural ability or skills, but just because you're a natural doesn't mean you don't need to practice (where behavior theory comes in)

Behavior-based approaches lead to...

Leader training *who aspire to be or are leaders) Behavioral techniques are important for effective leadership, but they do not generalize across all situation Certain behaviors facilitate leadership effectiveness, but their effects are not black and white (don't generalize to all situation, and part of training as a leader means improving your ability to engage in the right behaviors at the right time)

Trait theories of leadership

Leaders are born, not made Posits that people are born with innate abilities and characteristics that are conducive to being a leader Traits = personality, qualities, abilities, intelligence, etc.

Behavioral leadership theory

Leaders are made, not born Those who operate with these theories believe that you can teach someone to be a leader Ohio state studies identified two main dimensions: initiating structure and consideration

Power vs leadership

Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals (power is a means by which leaders achieve group goals, but leaders are able to influence even without power - dependency is not the only way to get people to comply)

What does more leadership research focus on?

Leadership emergence (who will become a leader - predict) and effectiveness (identify what makes a good leader) (can learn behaviors and adapt)

What does leadership depend on?

Leadership is a dynamic process that depends on the leader, the followers, and the context.

What is leadership about?

Leadership is not about you - it is about helping the organization to achieve a goal and having self-awareness of your abilities, context, and followers (you need to know when you are and are not the right person to lead the effort)

What is one of the key areas people have conflict over?

Leadership roles

Power vs leadership: Influence direction

Leadership: Downward (to followers) Power: All direction (could have power to influence people who are of higher, lower, or equal status)

Power vs leadership: Emphasis

Leadership: Leadership styles (groupings of behavior in terms of style) and consideration of followers (how behaviors affect and benefit followers) Power: tactics to gain compliance

Power vs leadership: Wielder

Leadership: individual Power: individual or group

Power vs leadership: Goal compatibility

Leadership: requires goal congruence (followers and leader have some shared goal) Power: requires only dependency

Benevolent result

Less unethical behavior

Principles result

Less unethical behaviors

Rational persuasion

Logical arguments and factual info Leverages logical arguments and factual info that help to affirm the behavioral requests are reasonable and guided by practical thought ex. Company show data of consumer behavior to show changes

All of the following individuals were given as examples of effective leaders who primarily utilized a specific leadership style in lecture videos...

Mahatma Ghandi, Mother Teresa, Jesus Christ, and Adolf Hitler

Situational leadership theory

Main argument: effective leadership results from appropriately tailoring behaviors to the level of followers' maturity All leader behaviors can be grouped into initiating structure behaviors or consideration behaviors - can and should engage in a combination of the two - the right combination is dictated by the follower's maturity

Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Main argument: leaders form a special relationship with only a few followers - it is essentially impossible for leaders to have high quality relationships with all followers, especially in larger groups There are natural differences in the quality of exchange relationships and leaders form high-quality relationships with only a few members because they are limited on psychological resources Limited resources - high LMX = high-quality relationships

Consequentialist theory

Main argument: morality is defined in terms of the goodness or badness of the result of an action Perhaps the most prevalent moral POV - often used to justify what others view to be questionable behavior and aligns closely with the notion that the ends justify the means The results or outcome of a decision is what determines whether something is good or bad

Virtue theory

Main argument: morality is determined by the virtues and character represented in the behavior (focus on what is noble or morally "good") Act consistently with who you aspire to be Behavior is driven by how it reflects your character (or the character you aspire to have) The more virtuously your character is reflected, the more appealing the choice

Horn effect

Make a negative judgment about someone based on a single characteristic Explains why people might think an unattractive person might not be as talented or intelligent

Halo effect

Make a positive judgment about someone based on a single characteristic why people might think a sociable person is always happy

How do transactional and transformational leader behaviors work together?

Make up what researchers refer to as the full range of leadership that varies on two dimension: how effective behaviors are and how passive vs active they are

Misrepresenting

Manipulating info through distortion, embellishment, or selective representation Blatantly manipulating the truth (not the same thing as lying which is pure fabrication) Grey area between lying and the truth - involves embellishing a story, withholding certain info to shape how the truth is interpreted or distorting info to purposely point the truth in a different way

What are the problems with the bounded rationality model?

Misidentification of features and limits Clearest options are often biased "people behave rationally with respect to the models they construct, which are related to their perception" - Herbert Simon People's indifferences, those characteristics about the perceiver, influence their decision

What two characteristics drive the behavior of apples?

Moral development and moral POV

Why might an ethical leader behave in unethical behavior?

Moral licensing: Reflects the tendency people have to internally and even subconsciously keep score of their good deeds and the more you accrue in moral licenses, the less severe engaging in immoral behavior might be perceived by the individual Though counter-intuitive, it does take place (just because you exhibit ethical leadership doesn't mean you're perfect and are always going to be acting in a morally right manner)

Stereotyping

Most damaging because it affects the most people Judge others based on our perceptions of the group which they belong (pre-conceived opinions we have of a particular group are projected onto an individual in that group) Carry a strong negative connotation that is often a lot harder to shake (especially if the stereotype is negative - can be positive too though for someone like a DR)

Leadership

Most effective element is the informal system created by day-to-day behaviors - specifically, the behaviors of leaders, managers, officers, directors, and those higher up, etc. Need to walk the talk - systems are less likely to be effective without this support and employees will likely follow suit of their leaders

Organizational factors

Motivates and encourages political behaviors - few resources or their constraint reallocation (up for grabs) - More promotion opportunities - low trust - high role ambiguity - unclear performance evaluation systems and methods for decision making - high performance pressure - highly self-serving managers -Zero-sum reward for practices (forces you to choose between gaining something at someone else's expense or losing it to someone else's gain - it can push people to look out for themselves and try to influence others to get what they need or want)

Followers preferences

Ned to connect with these and adjust your behaviors accordingly

Are being a morally good and being an effective leader the same thing?

No - it is very easy to take followers down the wrong path while still being an effective leader (ex. Hitler) Effectiveness is when you achieve the job/get it done and your followers learn/can d it without you Effectiveness does not necessarily mean ethically good, just effective

Does your implicit leadership schema have to be shared by others?

No - less likely to facilitate effective practices and leadership if don't recognize this and team effectiveness

Mental ability

Smart people still make errors due to overconfidence and emotions (emotionally defensive); but they learn how to avoid them more quickly Intelligence results in faster info processing and high accuracy, but doesn't help you avoid all decision biases and errors Susceptible to anchoring bias, overconfidence bias, and escalation of commitment

Personality

Some socially desirable traits hurt your ability to make good decisions (be careful to not cast a positive assessment simply because the person appears to have a good personality) High conscientiousness -> escalation of commitment High self-esteem -> self-serving bias

Avoiding blame

Sometimes action isn't avoidable, so people engage in defensive behaviors directed at avoiding blame in sticky situations Bluffing, playing safe, justifying, scapegoating, and misrepresenting

Power tactics and political skills

Sometimes, the power tactic isn;t necessarily the tactic itself as much as it is the individual trying to use it A person'e ability to use power tactics effectively and influence others to enhance their own objectives refers to their political skill

Expert

Special skills and knowledge - have access to info and abilities which others might be dependent on (ex. Dr medical opinion., Lawyer, etc.)

Reward structure

Specifically communicate to employees what kind if decisions have the better personal payoff ex. rewarding risk-adverse decisions leads to employees being more likely to make conservative choices

Taking more time than necessary to complete a task you've been assigned and using it as an excuse to avoid taking action is called ___________.

Stretching

Over-conforming

Strictly interpreting your responsibility to avoid complying - use rules and regulations in an organization as an excuse to not engage in an activity, complete a task, or act in a certain way Point out rules that supposedly limit your ability to engage in the activity

Context

Task, stress, environment, change, group climate, etc. - all about the task and working environment of the team

How do you determine which is best?

Team task, situational leadership theory, follower preferences, team development, and team climate

Self-serving bias

Tendency for attribute own success to internal factors (such as personality and abilities) and our failures to external factors Our tendency to be kinder to ourselves when passing judgment

What is a common misconception about leadership?

That is has to be appointed - leadership isn't limited to someone that has that title or position Informal leaders - individuals who emerge from their groups or teams as someone who is influential is just as valid as those who are appointed Team effectiveness and leadership process are closely tied together (having the right leadership is an important contributing factor to team effectiveness and can make or break a team)

Leadership

The ability to influence other towards achieving a set of goals or toward fulfilling a vision An ongoing, dynamic process that unfolds depending on the interaction between three elements: the leader, followers, and context

Power

The capacity or potential to influence other people's behavior The key to power is dependence

Followers

The characteristics of the followers and the collective properties Values, norms, personality, cohesiveness, size, work history, etc. A lot of previously discussed group elements of leadership

General Dependence Posulate

The greater B's dependence on A, the greater A's power over B Power boils down to how depended one is on another - the greater your dependence on a person, the more power they hold over you Not just limited to a person, one group can also be dependent on another

Consequentialist theory: Egoism

The greatest good for me Behavior is driven by what's best for me - the more I get out of it, the more appealing the choice (the best payoff or more pleasurable outcome for me) Almost always violates objective moral principles (like don't kill, lie, or steal) Highly inconsistent and unpredictable (decisions change every time their preferences, desires, and perceptions of what's good change) Narcists and psychopaths more likely to adopt this POV Operates under the premise that the ethical decision is the one that results in the greatest good for me (focus is on self-preservation - even at the cost of other people's well being)

Consequentialist theory: Utilitarianismq

The greatest good for the greatest number (benefits - costs = utility) Behavior is driven by the utility of the outcome (the more useful the outcome, the more appealing the choice) Operates under the impression that the ethical decision is the one that offers the greatest good for the greatest number of people

What is the key difference between transformational leadership and servant leadership?

The main difference is in their motives: Transformational leaders seek to develop followers but with the sole purpose of getting the job done and making sure the group's goals are met (different underlying motives) Servant leaders are truly concerned with heling their followers develop and grow on a personal level

What is the best leadership style?

The one that best addresses the followers'/teams' needs in the given context/situation

What is teleopathy?

The unbalances pursuit of a single purpose (fixation, rationalization, and detachment)

The behavior of those who adopt the utilitarian moral point of view are driven by their perceptions of __________.

The utility of the outcome

The trifecta of responsible leadership

These 3 styles are focused on some aspect of building trust in their followers and maintaining ethical standards in their own conduct as well as influencing that of their follower - Ethical leadership (doing the right thing and modeling ti for others) - Authentic leadership (being honest, transparent, and consistent in behavior and about who they are) - Servant leadership (caring about others and making the collective's well-being a priority) These three are built in trust and ethics

What do excellent leaders do?

They recognize that there are differences in LMX and proactively work to minimize these differences and outcomes to reduce conflict, resentment, and divisions in their teams

What do you need to do to determining which leadership style and/or behavior is best?

You need to weigh various option and properly evaluate your followers' "maturity" level Need to evaluate context to actually decide the leadership style (often mix a lot) If things fail, you may want to look at context (such as group too big, followers not willing, etc.) to see why

Implicit leadership theory

Your perceptions (affected by experience, values etc.) of a leader are affected by the attributions you make about the leader based on what you believe constitutes an effective leader Your opinion about someone in a leadership position is affected by the attributes you believe make an effective leader (often implicit)

People with a conventional level of moral development are likely to __________.

conform to behavioral norms in the work group

Ethical breakdowns

ill conceived goals, motivated blindness, indirect blindness, the slippery slope, overvaluing outcomes

Ohio State University conducted research to identify leader behaviors. The two types of leader behaviors they identified are called ____________ and ___________ behaviors.

initiating structure and consideration

Internally caused

is the behavior we believe to be within someone's control We tend to be quick to blame people when we judge their behavior to be internally caused (within their control)

The Fully Rational Model of decision-making aims to achieve ___________by selecting ___________ alternative that ___________ addresses the problem.

optimization; the absolute best; fully

Perception

organizes the sensory impressions your receive from the world and interpreting them to give meaning to you environment A two-fold process, not just about the impressions we get form our different senses - perception incorporated the sense-making elements or rather the judgments we make based on out sensory impressions What we perceive can be very different than the objective reality (we could misidentify or misjudge it) Ex. examining elephant based on impressions alone (based on these perceptions, they may misjudge and react in a costly way)

Your ability to influence others to enhance and promote your own objectives is your ____________. How you leverage it to influence the way rewards and punishments are distributed in the organization is your ____________.

political skill; political behavior

The following are defensive behaviors aimed at avoiding change.

prevention and self-protection

What is true about leadership?

- Trait-based approaches are best for helping make leader selections and predicting leader emergence - Leadership is based on the leader, context, and followers - Behavioral-based approaches are best to use for training leaders to be effective - Leadership is all about influences and how you go about influencing people - Leadership is a process that emphasizes the interactions of the leader, follower, and context

Those who have good political skills and appropriately sue them in different situations...

- are effective users of all 9 power tactics - can exert influence without others detecting it - are particularly effective even when the stakes are high - have higher self-efficacy and career success - Are more satisfied with their jobs - are less likely to be victims of workplace aggression and political behavior by other people because of their ability to influence others)

Charismatic leadership: Key behavioral characteristics

- articulate a clear vision (return to it as a rallying cry) - take on personal risk - passionate and emotional in communication to followers - engage in unconventional behavior

The following are all true about power.

- attempting to motivate others through reward and legitimate power bases have been found to be ineffective - leveraging personal power bases tend to be the most effective way to influence those who are dependent on you - Having on base of power does not necessarily guarantee you have other bases of power - the key to power is creating dependence; if others are dependent on you, you will have power over them

Transformational leadership: Key characteristics

- idealized influence - role model high standards of moral conduct) - inspirational motivation - stimulate desire to work hard towards goals that have been set - intellectual stimulation - challenge followers, encourage creativity, and think outside of the box (present challenging tasks) - individualized consideration - attends to the individual, listens, supports, learns names, and customized support

The following are all arguments made by the Leader-member exchange theory (LMK)...

- those who experience high leader-member exchange have high-quality relationships and are more satisfied with their leader - to make the best use of their limited resources, leaders form special, close, relationships with only a few of their follower - The more similar and relationally compatible you are with your leader, the more likely you are to be in their ingroup -Those who are members of a leader's ingroup are likely to be favored by the leader and rated as high performers

What are the key behavioral characteristics of Authentic leadership?

-honest portrayal of self and values - Encourage open communication - uphold ideas in all situations - model humility and consistency

Bluffing

1 of the most common - Rigorously documenting activity to project image of competence; covering your ass

Team decision making (reducing biases and errors)

1. Assume that all info has not been shared (ALWAYS) (keep asking questions - team members need to be comfortable speaking up - needs to be the norm) 2. Prioritize establishing norms that encourage info sharing (straw poll vs systematic info sharing) 3. Actively evaluate unique info (appreciate the diversity of knowledge it brings) 4. Avoid evaluating ideas or suggestions until after all info has been shared (encourage out of the box thinking)

Transactional leadership: Key characteristics

1. Contingent rewards - rewards and punishments (a focused, clear-cut action and consequence system) 2.Action management by exception (prevention-oriented - hovers to try and prevent a problem - actively manage to avoid crisis) 3. Passive management by exception (damage-control oriented - dishes example - only step in if already gone wrong and fix rather than prevent) 4. Laissez-faire (hands-off, almost aloof and not present)

What are the six steps of the fully rational model?

1. Define the problem 2. Identify decision criteria 3. Allocate importance to criteria (guides the next) 4. Develop all alternatives 5. Evaluate all alternatives 6. Select best alternative

What are the steps of the bounded rationality model?

1. Extract problem's critical features 2. Construct simplified model 3. Identify time and budget limits 4. Search for clearest alternatives 5. Evaluate alternatives 6. Select most sufficient alternative

Individual decision-making (reducing biases and errors)

1. focus on goals (eliminate what isn't consistent with them) 2. Look for disconfirming information (something that argues your counterpoint, play your own devil's advocate) 3. Random events are just that - random (some events are outside of your control - accept it - not everything has an explanation) 4. Increase your options (don't stop searching for alternatives until you absolutely have to - use the time you have) Need to think about if the people who are reporting the info are reliable? (all have a level of bias and subjectivity - come to table with an opinion - count positive and negatives to make a decision - need quantity as well as quality of what is being told)

What should a follower's maturity determine?

A leader's behaviors

Implicit leadership schema (ILS)

A mental model of what you believe a leader should look like and how they should behave (something that affects the way we think about things) We make assumptions (mosule 3) - this affects the way we interact with an individual (especially if they don't align) Associations we make LMX relationships (ingroup is inclined to go to similar people - you need to manage relationships - how followers will view you is based on this) Motivation and performance Team dynamics and processes

What values are a person with a virtue moral POV likely to have?

A person with a virtue moral POV is likely to hold a number of values of high importance, namely values such as integrity, honesty, kindness, love, and compassion

Political skills

Ability to influence others to enhance one's own objectives Political skills and being political in the workplaces does have a negative stigma and association - but political skills are not always used to promote self-interest (can be pro-self or prosocial)

What do we ultimately want?

All followers to be able and willing - while they may not all start out that way, the beauty of the situational leadership theory is that is plays to the strengths of the leadership process and encourages the development of followers Changes their maturity over time so that they all become willing and able members of the group - meet them where they are and facilitate this growth As they grow in maturity, the way you behave as a leader should also change

Time

All important decision have a deadline - amount of time organization allocates to making decisions can seriously affect the quality of a decision being made (too little time can lead to a bad decision)

What are dependent on our perceptions?

All of our judgments and subsequently our decision making is dependent on our perceptions - the further off our perception are from the objective reality, the more likely we are to misjudge others or situations and make less than ideal decisions

Justifying

Already done it (avoiding blame) - Coming up with explanations to reduce responsibility and/or apologizing to show remorse Offer an excuse for why you aren't responsible, while you are also apologizing (excuses may be realistic or true)

Decision-making errors

An error represents an actual state of having made the wrong decision - the state or condition of being wrong in judgment Escalation of commitment, randomness error, and risk aversion

Distinctiveness

Are similar behaviors exhibited in different situations?

Virtue theory continued

Argues that moral behavior is determined by whether or not virtues and good character is represented in said behavior Emphasis on those objective moral Principles and letting them guide our behavior so that we do what is noble, or morally good according to these virtues This is where values are really heightened, because virtue theory hinges on values (not just references them like the other two) and moral code of conduct, the values that are basic convictions people have about what they believe are good, right, or desirable is much more salient

Leaders who predominantly adopt the ____________ leadership style influence their followers through open and honest communication.

Authentic

Escalation of commitment

Automatically sticking with and increasing commitment to a previous decision, despite negative information (need to stop and evaluate) Continue to pursue poorly guided decisions or direction and even increase commitment to it despite info suggesting you should stop and cut your loses Ex. poker game or when teams or groups already invested resources and time in a particular direction of the product, harder to change direction because of what has already been committed or because thinking of all they have to lose to start over

Stretching

Avoid action/doing it - prolonging a task to appear occupied and unavailable - going out of way to prolong tasks you already have to present yourself as busier than you actually are (stretching out existing responsibilities for as long as possible)

Personal appeals

Based on friendship or loyalty A dig at your relationships, friendships, and sense of loyalty to the person trying to influence you

Slippery slope remedies

Be alert for even trivial ethical infractions and address them immediately Investigate whether a change in behavior has occurred - follow up (don't wait - if see something, say something)

Why might Machiavellians be more accepted in workplaces that narcissists and psychopaths?

Because they have a greater likelihood that they would adopt a utilitarian moral POV

Externally caused

Behavior out of that person's control (more likely to excuse their behavior when we judge it to be externally caused)

A leader's trustworthiness is determined by his or her ____________.

Benevolence, ability, and integrity

Decision-making bias

Bias is a prejudice in favor of or against something - different from an actual error because errors are actual mistakes, whereas biases incline you towards making these mistakes Have overconfidence bias, anchoring bias, confirmation bias, and availability bias

Scapegoating

Blaming external factors that are not entirely blameworthy for a negative outcome Point the finger at someone or something outside of the situation as the reason for a negative outcome Key distinction is that in scapegoating, the scapegoat is likely blameless (more so than you are at least)

If trying to avoid being blamed, you can engage in ____________, a defensive behavior that involves keeping a detailed record of everything you do as proof of your abilities.

Bluffing

The following are all defensive behaviors aimed at avoiding blame.

Bluffing, scapegoating, misrepresenting, justifying, and playing safe

What are the similarities between charismatic and transformational?

Both influence through inspiration (though the manner in which they inspire is different) and effectively styles to promote change

What is ethical behavior a combination of?

Both the organization and the individuals (so it si possible that even in the egotistical climate, there is a variance in the amount of ethical behavior) Ex. a lot of virtuous moral POV working in an egotistical environment you'll see less unethical behavior than if this individual held an egotistical POV The problem can be exacerbated or reduce some of the unethical behavior expected

Avoiding change

Preventions and self-protection Generally people don't like change - so in response to political behavior, people may avoid change all together by engaging in prevention or self-protection

Bounded rationality model

Boundaries are our desires to make an optimal decision and the limitations under which we have to make that decision The "real world" model Goal: satisfaction - select a satisfactory alternative that sufficiently address the problem (more feasible and realistic) Rather than looking for the objectively best decision, it focuses on the essential point of the problem to sufficiently address it with a satisfactory solution

Ill-conceived goals remedies

Brainstorm unintended consequences when devising goals and incentives. (want devil's advocate) Consider alternative goals that may be more important to reward Brainstorm potential unintended consequences of goals/incentives and consider alternative goals that may be more important to reward

What must servant leaders be mindful to avoid?

Burn out Caring for others and facilitating their growth and development demands large amounts of emotional and psychological resources (if not replenished regularly, leaves the servant leader feeling exhausted and drained from all they've given and invested into others)

Leader

Characteristics and behaviors of the leader and his/her leadership style Personality, intelligence, position, power, expertise, behavior, etc.

What are the differences between charismatic and transformational?

Charismatic: Impressive power of persuasion in their comm. - Focus: vision (may nor may not be self-serving) - Quantity: few (hard to teach someone to be charismatic) - Emergence timing: Crisis (because of stigma attached to it - people call for and demand change) - Communication: how they communicate (stir up follower's emotions and communicate an intense passion for their vision) Transformational: - Focus: organization's interests - Quantity: more - Emergence timing: everyday (can be effective even in times of peace) -Communication: what they communicate (communicate messages of empowerment, rather than stirring up their follower's emotions)

Unable and unwilling (incompetent's and uncommitted)

Coaching; high initiating behaviors and high consideration behaviors Leaders focus here is split on both increasing ability and willingness to do the work - help their follower to build necessary skill set while working on increasing their motivation through relationally-oriented behaviors

Which power tactic involves bringing back-up in the form of other people to trying to influence someone as a group?

Coalitions

Which bases are power are damaging?

Coercive - decrease satisfaction and organizational commitment Experience decreases in desired outcomes (particularly satisfaction and org commitment)

What can increase your chances to successfully influence people to behave in a certain way?

Combining tactics or even ordering them in certain ways - all of which depends on your audience, context, and compatibility with the tactics you've chosen Some power tactics are more effective than others

Organizational approach to ethics

Common and better method

Benevolent focus

Concern for others

What decision-making bias involves seeking out only the information that affirms one's decision and discounting any contradictory information.

Confirmation bias

When are transformational leaders most effective?

Contextually: direct interaction with followers, in smaller groups/organizations, stressful situations, and uncertain situations Have a constant and direct interaction with followers, so need smaller groups and orgs Where the differences in leader-member relationships are minimal and leaders are not stretched "too thin" (LMX)

What are some examples of a judgment shortcut?

Contrast effect, stereotyping, selective perception, and the horn/halo effect

When is servant leadership the most effective?

Correct identification of followers' needs and cultures that see value in quiet, supportive role of leaders Being quiet goes against other common implicit leadership theories that portray leaders as outspoken, assertive, and agentic individuals

Organizational constraints

Decisions are not made in a vacumm - have regulations, performance evaluations, reward structures, time, and historical precedent

Able and willing

Delegating; low initiating structure behaviors and low consideration behaviors Leaders should delegate the decision-making responsibilities and tasks to followers Delegating gives followers high levels of autonomy (this reinforces their motivation)

Moral development

Describes the state of a person's moral reasoning and abilities - goes from low to high: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional We are more likely to see more unethical behavior and less courage to challenge unethical behavior from people lower on the moral development scale

Referent

Desirable resources and/or traits - hinges on the desirable resources an individual has or traits that they have Ex. celebrity spokesperson (have traits and access to things that others want)

Reward

Desire for rewards Opposite of coercive power - reflects person's control over awarding rewards and allowing them to influence others because of others desires to gain these rewards

Ethics department

Devote resources and physically represents Ex. all universities now have internal review boards If there is not a checks and balance system in place or when people's behavior is not being monitored, it is more tempting to engage in unethical behavior (ex. electroshock therapy, monster study, experiment on prison inmates, Zimbardo's prison experiment, etc.) When a company creates this and dedicates resources to it - it shows that it values ethical behavior

Cultural background

Different orientations towards time, rationality vs emotion, finding solutions, and group vs individual decisions Influences how they view, approach, and make decisions and how they view elements about decision making

Ethical climate

Different than culture because the climate is much more proximal to an employee It is informal shared perceptions of what the employees perceive are the appropriate practices and procedures at work - the immediate environment in which the employee works Unique to each group, department, team, etc. - can be more or less ethical than an organization's culture

Reducing biases and errors: Put on a different hat

Different ways to approach a problem Try to wear every hat for every decision you make (may need to know which hat everyone tends to wear and balance it out as much as possible) Adjust to the best of your ability and it forces you to challenge your biases and find errors in your decision making

Code of ethics

Directs attention to the behavior that is values by the organization (sets the tone), emphasizes virtues, written down on website, in handbook, sometimes even in the organization's mission statement Code of ethics represents a codified, or written down set of guidelines and rules that should be circulated among and easily accessible by org employees Outlines the standards of behavior the org has for its employees (clear and explicit - emphasis on virtues makes them salient)

Attribution Theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination depends largely on which three factors?

Distinctiveness, consistency, and consensus

What are the 3 types of ethical climates?

Egotistical, benevolent, and principled

Coalitions

Enlist support of others to persuade Age old saying that there is strength in numbers embodies here - unions can be effective and harder to say no to a group rather than just a person

Gender

Equally capable of making good decisions, women tend to be more empathetic while men tend to become more egocentric Non-stressful situations -> both Stressful situations -> Women women tend to overanalyze a problem before making a decision and then rehashing that decision once it has been made

What two characteristics drive the behavior of barrels?

Ethical culture and Ethical climate Perpetuate a culture for facilitating unethical behavior or failure to catch unethical behaviors of individuals

What is true about ethical culture and ethical climate?

Ethical culture and ethical climates set the context for ethical behavior.

At its core, the leadership styles that make up the "Trifecata of Responsible Leadership" are built on ____________.

Ethics and trust

Playing safe

Evading situations that may reflect unfavorable on you; avoiding risks; being neutral in conflict only taking on assignments that are almost guaranteed to succeed and avoid tasks and activities that might reflect unfavorably on them

Performance evaluations

Every organization has a metric on how they evaluate employees - depending in what's emphasized, communicates what the organization values in their employee's behaviors (even if it is unethical) Managers beliefs on what a high performer looks like and what they do will affect the way they communicate expectations to employees

What 3 factors affect perception?

Everything that influences out perceptions can be grouped under the following 3 factors: target, perceiver, and context

Over-valuing outcomes remedies

Examine both "good" and "bad" decisions for their ethical implications - rewards solid decision processes, not just good outcomes Along the whole process, need to be evaluating

Formal Power

Exclusively tied to/based on one's position in the organization's hierarchy Bases: coercive, reward, and legitimate Having one formal base does not guarantee that you have the other bases of formal power

Political behavior

Extra-role activities that influence (or attempt to influence) the distribution of rewards and punishments Having and and actually using political skills are two different things - just because you have political skills, doesn't necessarily mean they will engage in political behavior Part of being skilled is knowing when to engage in political behavior by leveraging these political skills Extra-role activities that people engage in with their political skills in an attempt to influence the distribution of various rewards (such as promotions) and various punishments (such as tedious work)

Which personality trait has been found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness?

Extraversion

Stalling

Project support publicly but engage in little action privately Being two-faced about your support for a decision

What traits and behaviors help people emerge as leaders?

Extraversion (more likely to emerge as one, bit doesn't necessarily mean you are an effective one) Authenticity sometimes, charisma is big (likability), high level of emotional intelligence, integrity (consistency), openness sometimes, core self-evaluation (having confidence in you abilities and yourself) Low neuroticism, being proactive (not always the extraverted person) We need to align the needs of the organization with the traits of the leader ( you may pick on the highest skill level, but that does not mean that they will be effective leaders, they need to also have the manager skillset)

Playing dumb

Falsely project ignorance or incompetency to avoid having to do an unwanted task Pretending that you don't know how to do a task and avoid having to complete it, when, in reality, you're perfectly capable of getting it done

What benefits does a follower experience as a member of his/her leader's ingroup?

Favortism, higher performance ratings, greater satisfaction with leader

Coercive

Fear of negative results Reflects a person's control over dishing out punishment - influences people because of their fear of negative results

Anchoring bias

Fixating on initial info and failing to adjust to new info as you work towards your goal Info given first becomes starting point and everything else you're given will always be compared against that initial anchor - if new info seems too different, people are quick to dismiss it (even if it's more accurate)

Ingratiation

Flattery, praise, friendly behavior Flattery, praise, showering someone with compliments, or being friendly

Conventional

Focus on conforming - follow the norms - monkey see, monkey do Where a good majority of people sit in their moral reasoning - focus on conforming to others around them Look to see what other's are doing, good at following the crowd, and operate with a copy-cat matter (don't think for themselves but allow what others are doing to influence them) "What is everyone else doing?"

Common method

Focus on training highlighting prevention and punishment to deter unethical behavior Not very effective because more reactive than pro-acive - have to talk about undesirable behavior to tell them what not to do (now they notice it and we have interjected a thought that they may not have had before)

Hat color: A stern judge (black)

Focus: caution and wariness Playing the devil's advocate and critically consider all options

Hat color: Growing plants (green)

Focus: creative thinking explore and generate new ideas by thinking out of the box

Hat color: white paper

Focus: data and information Record-keeping of existing info and identification of needed info

Hat color: Fire and warmth (red)

Focus: feeling, intuition, and emotion Consider you gut feelings that may not have an explanation

Hat color: Sunshine (yellow)

Focus: optimism look at the bright side, encourage positivity, look for the value in ideas

Hat color: Bird's eye view (blue)

Focus: process control and metacognition "think about thinking" to assess and manage the process and other hats

Post-conventional

Focusing on guiding morals - conscience, reason, logic, religious teachings, etc. - "universal" moral riles (ex. the golden rule) People stop and think about the relevant principles that should guide behavior "What are the relevant principles?"

Pre-conventional

Focusing on me, myself, and I - disregard for others and for the "rules" and for norms Behave in ways that max pleasure or gains for themselves - allows their decision to be driven solely by what is in it for them "what is in it for me"

Availability bias

Focusing on the readily available info - not doing "due diligence" to find info to make a decision One part laziness and one part convenience - don't do research in general - readily available info is often driven by our own experiences ex. overstate risk of flying and understate risk of driving because of what the media reports on (or performance 2nd half of the year example)

Principled focus

Following rules and procedures

Ethical culture

Formal and informal systems encouraging ethical behavior in organizational members Set in place by organizations (how the organization sets up its internal checks and balances and communicates its culture can encourage or discourage ethical behavior) Code of ethics, ethics department, and leadership

Moral POV

Framework of values an individual uses to develop their internal compass for ethical behavior - to develop internally consistent and logically justified principles and standards of right and wrong Influences process of ethical decision-making and behavior Provides the perspective of the situation (varies from person to person because values systems vary from person to person) Just like perception affects judgments and decision making, an individual's values also influence their decision-making and behavior when it comes to ethics Lenses through which a person views a situation and those lenses are made up of their values

According to Attribution Theory, people have a tendency to overestimate internal factors and underestimate external factors when making judgments about other people. What is this called?

Fundamental attribution error

Egotistical result

Greater unethical behavior (greatest unethical behavior here)

Slef-protection

Guarding info and resources to protect self-interests during change Often seen where there's a change in leadership - often a period of time where new leaders have to prove themselves before those working with them might be willing to offer info Lack of trust, but info is also a resource and protecting your resources makes you valuable

When is ethical leadership the most effective?

High person-supervisor fit and clear communication Through modeling other-centric behaviors, ethical leaders persuade their followers to conform to ethical standard - they need a high level of integrity to encourage followers to trust their leader (need a certain level of person-supervisor fit and clear communication - help to reinforce the effectiveness of this leadership style)

What is the likely judgment for the following: John is late to a meeting but he submits his work on time and is usually the first one to arrive for the day. Others were also late to the meeting and he's never been late to a meeting before.

His coworkers will likely judge that something out of the ordinary happened to make him late. This isn't how he usually is (something unexpected must have happened) Contribute it to external factors

What is trust based on?

How followers perceive their leaders It is the belief people have in their leader that he/she will not act in a way that is self-serving and harmful to other people

Benevolence

How genuinely interested in follower well-being?

Integrity

How honest and truthful?

Ability

How knowledgeable and skilled? competence

Target

Identifies what is being perceived - such as behavior of a person - characteristics of the target affect what we perceive about the things around it - also impacts how we perceive (sense and interpret) a target

Avoiding action

If you perceive yourself as a pawn in organizational politics and you don't want to get involved, you likely turn to one of these defensive behaviors Over-comforming, buck passing, playing dumb, stretching, and stalling

What creates dependence?

Importance of a resource, scarcity of a resource, and non-substitutability of resource Dependence is created when there is a need of a resource (literal resource, reward or punishment, reputation, etc.) Greatest level of dependence (on an individual or group that controls said resource) is created when the resource you need is highly critical/important, when it is scarce and hard to come by and when there are no other alternatives to the resource

Transactional leadership

In contrast to transformational leadership (which was inspiring and empowering) - more fixed on managing by influencing their followers through the offer of rewards and threats of punishments Influence through rewards and punishments Clarification of task requirements and correction of behavior and work ex. Senator Joseph McCarthy, Charles de Gualle and Umbridge (she had contingent rewards and punishments and active management by exception to prevent issues)

When are charismatic leaders most effective?

In times of crisis and when follower lack self-esteem and experience negative emotions (are angry and upset and ready for change)

What is the ethical breakdown characterized by deflecting blame to third parties and not taking responsibility for failing to hold them accountable?

Indirect blindness

What two factors influence political behavior?

Individual and organizational

Apple

Individual characteristics of "bad apples" in the organization are to blame for unethical behavior

Servant leadership

Influence through genuine desire to help followers grow and develop (focus on follower well-being) It is this selflessness that highlights the benevolence of a leader's trustworthiness Help them realize their potential, facilitate trust and commitment, and set followers up for growth Heart and positioning is to help someone develop skills (create opportunities for them to learn, grow, and then use these skills (prompting and challenging them)(ex. Yoda and problem solving) Ex. Jesus Christ and Yoda

Transformational leadership

Influence through inspiration and empowerment (closely related to charismatic leadership, because both are inspirational, but transformational leaders also empower their followers) They forego self-interest and delegate decision-making and facilitate follower development (motivate and influence them to do this - situational leadership theory: leaders should tailor their behaviors depending on their follower's maturity) they have a clear objective in mind Ex. Mother Teresa and Princess Diana, Harry Potter (specific goal he is going after - a lot of encouragement and empowerment)

Does honest always equate to perceived honesty?

No - they strive to be ethical, but what they perceive as ethical may be different from what their followers perceive as ethical Some might be seen as individuals who overshare because moral points of view vary and people have differing levels of moral development (honesty does not always mean it will lead to ethicality in all situations)

What are the problems with the fully rational model?

Not enough time or budget (all decisions have an implicit or explicit deadline) Missing information "The complexities of the real-world decision situations often make rationality impossible to achieve" (Herbert Simon)

What is the key problem with stereotyping?

Often do not contain a shred of truth when applied to a particular situation or person - ignore the uniqueness of individuals

What can a follower do to become part of a leader's ingroup?

Often done very quick and done unconsciously - there is very little members can do to become part of the leader's ingroup

Inspirational appeals

Opposite of rational persuasion - emotional, target values, needs, and hopes (used a lot by motivational speakers and coaches) It is the attempt to influence people to behave a certain way by appealing to their needs, hopes, dreams, or values (drive their behavior through emotions)

Barrel

Organizational characteristics of the "bad barrel" are to blame for unethical behavior

Unethical behavior

Organizations are comprised of people, when dealing with an organization's unethical behavior, we are really dealing with the collective behavior of the people who make up the organization

Overconfidence bias

Overestimating your own and others' abilities When you say you're 90% sure of something, you're actually only right about 50% of the time - translates into optimism In general, the more optimistic or confident you are, the more likely you'll struggle with success because you don't spend enough time planning for possible problems

If someone is unable but willing...

Participate in Directing behaviors: high initiating structure behaviors and low consideration behaviors followers are already enthusiastic about the work, so the focus is on getting your skills up to speed - leader's appropriate response would be to focus on directing the followers on the task rather than trying t build the relationships and get their buy-in on the group's goals

According to Situational Leadership Theory, what is the most appropriate type of behavior in which a leader should engage if their followers' maturity level is characterized by and unwillingness to do the work despite having the skills and competence to complete it?

Participating

Able but unwilling (lacking in commitment or motivation)

Participating; low initiating behaviors and high consideration behaviors leaders should focus on addressing the lack of motivation by including followers in the decision-making process, supporting them, and being more democratic

What is the best power tactic to influence laterally?

Peers - rational persuasion, personal appeal, and coalitions With peers and subordinates, just about any tactic could be effective in the right situation

Bases of power effectiveness

People are likely to comply with you if they are dependent on you, no matter the base of power you have - but, if you want the desired outcome, your best bet is to be a likable and knowledgeable person It is important to remember the output you desire before choosing which power base to leverage (need to carefully consider the power we want to leverage)

Egotistical focus

Perserving self-interest

Which bases of power are the most effective?

Personal bases of power - increase satisfaction, organizational commitment, performance, and motivation Most efficient in generating desired outcomes such as job satisfaction, org commitment, performance, and motivation You you want these things, it is best to leverage your personal characteristics and ability - this might be why so much of your experience in the workplace hinges on whether or not you like the people you work with

Personal Power Bases

Personality traits, abilities, or likeability - exclusively based on individual's unique, personal characteristics, regardless of rank, status or position Exclusively tied to characteristics about a person that does not involve their rank, status, or position in an org Two bases: expert and referent Having on personal base of power does not guarantee that you have the other base of personal power.

Individual factors

Personality traits, level of investment in the org, and alternative options available to an employee that motivate their engagement in political behavior (make intuitive sense - such as having the opportunity to climb the social hierarchy may make you more likely to engage in political behavior)

What are individual differences and decisions based on?

Personality, gender, cultural background, and mental ability

Initiating structure

Positive outcomes - team productivity, organization productivity, and performance evaluations (higher for follower, leaders, and team) These behaviors are all focused on the task

Consideration

Positive outcomes: follower job satisfaction, follower motivation, follower respect for leader These behaviors are all focused on the relationship the leader has with their followers Positive outcomes for followers in particular when a leader engages in consideration behaviors Neither trait not behavior theory is perfect

Risk aversion

Preference for the sure, moderate gain over taking the risk for greater gain (playing it safe) Can make the difference between having a competitive advantage or not Goring for sure gain over a possible larger payoff that involved taking a risk, you succumb to risk aversion Sometimes, the risk is worth it and it's important to evaluate risks carefully before deciding rather than simply choosing to avoid it at all costs

What is the least effective power tactic?

Pressure Tends to backfire in some way (behave in some way that negates the intended effect) The more aggressive tactics are pressure, exchange, and coalitions

How does one manage an ingroup/outgroup?

RESPECT every member in the tam you're leading (regardless of ingroup) Be aware of the bias an putting in extra effort to include everyone (be intentional to not make it as obvious) - listen to every POV and create a safe psychological environment If choose to build an ingroup, build it base don performance rather than similarities (the team does better and the team dynamics are better)

The most effective power tactic across all situations and directions of influence is ____________.

Rational persuasion

Which power tactic is effective in any direction?

Rational persuasion

What is the best power tactic to influence upward?

Rational persuasion (ex. boss to get raise)

Fully rational model

Rational: requires conscious thought about the decision - ideal way to make a decision (impossible) The "perfect world" model Goal: Optimization - to select the best alternative (among all of the alternatives) that fully addresses all criteria of the problem Assumes you have complete info to identify all possible alternatives and that your selected solution will certainly, without a doubt, yield the highest payoff Can't know with certainty that the decision you made is objectively the best choice possible

Bounded rationality model continued

Recognizes that a solution cannot possibly optimize all aspects of the problem - people encourages to find the critical features of the problem (parts most important and central to the decision that has to be made) Prompts people to consider the time and resources (let constraints guide how much searching they do for alternative options (begin with most obvious and continue search until can no longer expand those resources)

____________ hinges on followers' appreciation for desirable resources and traits they believe a leader to have.

Referent power

Leadership styles

Reflect patterns of behaviors commonly associated with a particular way of leading Leadership is a process and the leader's behaviors/characteristics is only one part of that process everyone has one "natural style" of leadership - leadership styles blend together sometimes (very rarely does a person exclusively have 1 style but there are key indicators that indicate a leader's predominant style) Charismatic, transformational, transactional, authentic, ethical, and servant

Attribution theory

Regarding perception - argues that we judge other people based on how we interpret their behavior according to our perceptions Judgments we make about others is based on our interpretation of their behavior, particularly, with regards to whether behavior is internally or externally caused (these are key elements driving these interpretations) Three elements interpretation of whether behaviors are internally or externally caused: Distinctiveness, consensus, consistency

Legitimacy

Relying on your authority position people lean heavily on their formal position of authority (ex. Parent saying because I said so)

Which bases of power are not effective?

Reward and legitimate power (no support for relationship to outcomes) Not effective - on average, the effects wash out and no support suggesting that either result in high levels of satisfaction, motivation, or org commitment)

The following are all a base of power.

Reward, expert, referent, coercive, and legitimate

Exchange

Rewarding with benefits or favors - Quid pro quo approach where a person is rewarded for their compliance Ex. a sticker chart

Motivated blindness remedies

Root out conflicts of interest - simply being aware of them doesn't necessarily reduce their negative effect on decision making Focus efforts on trying to identify and be honest about any conflicts of interest

Regulations

Rules, guidelines, and red tape in an organization that limits an employee's decision (limits freedom of choice)

Confirmation bias

Seeking out only info that affirms past choices - discounting contradictory info Different from ignoring new info - it is proactively writing research paper and only using references that support your arguments, rather than thoroughly going through research and drawing an accurate conclusion Closely connected to selective perception and is how it is reinforced - proactively seeks out affirming information

____________ leaders have a genuine desire to help their followers grow and reach their full potential whereas ____________ leaders are more focused on inspiring their followers and influencing them to behave in ways the best serves the collective's interests.

Servant; transformational

Ethics

Set of principles or moral standards that differentiate right from wrong (a lot of variance between what people believe is or isn't unethical) Apple and Barrel (both matter) - unethical behavior is a combination of both apples and barrels Individual characteristics that do contribute to a person's ethicality, but also an organization's characteristics that may make unethical behavior more or less appealling

Ingroup members are typically...

Similar to the leader (in appearance, age, functional background, interests, and even personality) relationally compatible with the leader (have the highest person-supervisor fit) exhibit desired competence and favorable characteristics

Context

Situational elements that affect your perception (ex. how dark it is or work vs social environment) Also gives people a reference for what is and isn't appropriate ex. each scientist in the elephant example is blindfolded (blindness is a characteristic of the perceiver, but being blindfolded is a contextual factor)

What is the likely judgment for the following: John is late to a meeting. He is also late to submitting work and he's always the last one to arrive to work. Nobody else was late to the meeting and he's been late to most of the other meetings.

This is how he is. He is responsible for his behavior (negative judgment that is based in his personality or character - internally caused)

What is decision making bias and how is it different from a judgment shortcut?

Those misjudgments often fuel your reasoning for why you make a decision (you make a bad decision because of a number of biases and errors)

What is the goal of all the theories?

To explain leadership: the goal of leadership is to effectively influence followers towards high performance (a particular objective or goal and can the team continue without the leader)

Are traits better at predicting leadership emergence or effectiveness?

Traits can predict both leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness, but traits are better predictors of emergence than effectiveness Big 5 are better predictors of leadership emergence than they are of leadership effectiveness (true for all traits in general - able to predict who is going to become a leader, but not as capable of consistently predicting who will be a good leader)

_______ predicts leadership emergence, but _______ predicts leadership effectiveness

Traits; behaviors Leadership emergence is your potential to be an effective leader

Full range of leadership model

Transformational behaviors inspire followers to go "above and beyond" and distinguishes a great leader from a mediocre one (tend to be more effective than transactional leadership behaviors and even within the leadership style, there is variance in how effective specific types of behaviors are) The best leaders are able to engage both in transformational and transactional leadership behaviors (they know when it is appropriate to engage in one vs the other) Transactional behaviors produce, at best, "minimally sufficient" results

A followers implicit leadership schema affect perceptions of leader's traits and behaviors, their willingness to follow, performance, and evaluations of leaders

True

What are the two sub-theories/moral points of view within the consequentialist theory?

Utilitarianism and Egoism

Pressure

Warnings, threats, repeated demands

Power tactics

Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure, and coalition

the slippery slope

We are less able to see others' unethical behavior when it develops gradually Ex. auditors may be more likely to accept a client firm's questionable financial statements if infractions accrued over time 1st unethical act is the hardest to commit, but once you've commited it, it gets easier and easier to engage in unethical behavior Small signs and indicators of ethicality slipping (harder to detect these)

overvaluing outcomes

We give a pass to unethical behavior if the outcome is good ex. a researcher whose fraudulent clinical trial saves lives is considered more ethical than one whose fraudulent trial leads to deaths Related to ill-conceived goals but still distinctive - happens when the org encourages people to operate by the belief that the ends justify the means (often causes people to cut corners) Communicate to their employees that they need to use whatever means necessary to produce the outcome

indirect blindness

We hold others less accountable for unethical behavior when it's carried out through third parties Ex. a drug company deflects attention from a price increase by selling rights to another company, which imposes the increase A lot of orgs outsource their work and many diversify to operate a sister company rather than 1 large one - when handing off work to a supplier or another third party not directly in your org, may be tempted to wash hands of all responsibility of any unethical behavior conducted by them Not our responsibility and deflect the blame if it ever does arise - can pit divisions against one another to reduce responsibility to hold others responsible

What does high LMX mean?

You have high-quality relationships and are in leader's ingroup (social identity theory applies here too)

motivated blindness

We overlook the unethical behavior of others when it's in our interest to remain ignorant ex. baseball officials failed to notice they'd created conditions that encourages steroid use (to not damage their image by accidently encouraging it) Times when individuals or orgs have a reason to look the other way - like when it's in their best interest not to call out unethical behavior and report it (if you have something to lose)

ill conceived goals

We set goals and incentives to promote desired behavior, but they encourage a negative one ex. the pressure to maximize billable hours in accounting, consulting, and law firms leads to unconscious padding Orgs can have an ethical culture, but don't think too carefully through the goals they set for their employees While the goals are very useful and helpful for motivating employees, goals set without careful thought can unintentionally encourage unwanted behaviors (doesn't reflect implicit or explicit permission to engage in unethical behaviors to get the job done)

Indirect blindness remedies

When handing off or outsourcing work, ask whether the assignment might invite unethical behavior and take ownership of the implications Need to vet 3rd party and see if their values align with out own

When are transactional leaders most effective?

When rewards are actually enticing, followers are extrinsically motivated, followers are susceptible to the pull of rewards and threat of punishment The follower characteristic element of the leadership process tends to drive the effectiveness of this style If followers are extrinsically motivated by the incentives and the incentives are actually appealing to them, the transactional leadership style can produce a fair level of performance (works in the other direction as well with the fear of being punished)

When are authentic leaders the most effective?

When there is high person-supervisor fit and followers have a need for consistency and communication

Defensive behaviors

When witnessing or experiencing workplace politics, people engage in defensive behaviors to try and protect themselves Reactive and proactive behaviors aimed to avoid change, action, and blame Response to politics perceived as threats (direct response to workplace politics that are perceived as threats - what people perceive is their reality) Short-term solutions (dangerous to frequently fall back on these defensive behaviors because they can quickly become the norm for your behavior) Tend to lose trust and support of others over time

Selective perception

When you interpret what you're seeing based on your preferences, interests, background, experiences, and attitudes You lose the ability to make an objective judgment (shortcut that leverages ad amplifies the perceiver's factors of perception)

What is a base of power?

Where an individual might get their power from

Team development

Where are you in this

Authentic leadership

Where emotions on sleeves - can tell if they are genuine or not - influence through honest and open communication Honesty and transparency (followers learn to trust because there are no games, or hidden agendas) Gain follower trust and faith (know what to expect and have faith that the leader will behave in ways that align with those expectations) Ex. Nelson Mandela, Mahatma Ghandi, and Katniss Everdeen

IS leadership dynamic?

Yes, it needs to be passed from person to person (maybe let someone else lead in an area where you have a limitation) Your head constantly needs to be on a swivel and constantly evaluation and adapting behaviors (train more or motivate more, etc.)

Perceiver

You are the person doing the perceiving - your prior experiences and attitudes affect how you perceive a given target (hear and see what you want to a lot of times because aligns with our thinking) Ex. working in teams or under pressure

Maturity

ability and willingness (motivation to do the work they are being given - collectively or individually)

What is intuitive decision making?

an unconscious process created out of distilled experience

What are the most effective power tactics?

rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation Particularly effective if those one the receiving end of these tactics are highly invested and interested in the outcomes of the decision Softer tactics (personal appeals inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation) that rely on personal power are generally more likely to be successful and are the best starting point to influence others (especially true if audience is more intrinsically motivated, have high self-esteem, and desire to have some autonomy and control)

What is the best power tactic to influence downward?

subordinates - Rational persuasion and inspirational appeals

Time effects __________, _____________, and ___________.

task, follower maturity, and LMX relationships Need to invest time in very member (follower) as a leader Here, the follower's maturity is their readiness to accept responsibility for a taks

Fundamental attribution theory

tendency to underestimate impact of external factors and overestimate impact of internal factors Tendency to blame other people and we typically tend to overestimate how much control someone might have in a situation and underestimate the impact external factors have

Buck passing

transferring responsibility for executing task or decision to someone else (avoid a task) Ex. "I am honored to have the opportunity, but if you want it done quickly, Jimmy is the better person to do it"

Randomness error

trying to create meaning from truly random events - superstition best explained by superstition - ex. lucky socks - when we create meaning from truly random events, we handicap ourselves for when we have to make important decisions (not driven by weighing different options and practicing making good decisions)