Leadership Exam 1

Employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices

1. change inputs 2. change outputs 3. distort perceptions of self 4. distort perception of others 5. choose a different referent 6. leave the field

Three-step approach to closing the gap

1. define the problem 2. identify OB concepts to solve the problem 3. make recommendations and take action

Stages of Social Perception

1. selective attention/comprehension 2. encoding and simplification 3. storage and retention 4. retrieval and response

Four step process for goal implementation

1. set goals 2. promote goal attainment 3. provide support, feedback 4. create action plans

Any job can be desired in terms of what 5 core dimension?

1. skill variety 2. task variety 3. task significant 4. autonomy 5. feedback

intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

inter-rater reliability

A measure of how similarly two different test scorers would score a test.

Pay Policy Line

Allows a company to adjust compensation for all jobs to lead, meet, or lag based on strategic considerations

Instrumentality

An individual's beliefs regarding the likelihood of being rewarded in accord with his or her own level of performance

Machiavellianism

Believe the ends justify the means, often maintain emotional distance, and are manipulative

psychopathy

Can be aggressive and lack/have a lack of concern for others, guilt, or remorse when their actions do others harm

event memory

Categories with information about both specific events and general events

When defining a problem, what should you do immediately after you determine your desired outcome or state?

Compare the desired state or outcome to your current situation

consistency

Does this person always do this when performing this task?

Attitude toward the behavior

Favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question.

Common Perceptual Errors

Halo effect Leniency Central Tendency Recency Effects Contrast Effects

narcissism

Have a grandiose sense of self-importance Require or demand attention Sense of entitlement Lack of empathy

Positive justice outcomes

Increased... - job satisfaction - organizational commitment - motivation - innovation and creativity - task / team performance

Openness to change

Independence of thought, action, and feelings and readiness for change

external benchmarking

Looking outside the firm to determine what excellent performers are doing

Performance management is used to...

Make Employee-Related Decisions Guide Employee Development Send Strong Signals to Employees

results method

Managers and employees define goals, employees evaluated on goal attainment

Contingent Assessment Methods

Medical and drug tests, and background checks

person-situation distinction

OB concepts and theories can be classified into two broad categories: person factors and situation factors.

central tendency error

Occurs when a rater gives all employees a score within a narrow range in the middle of the scale.

Schwartz's Value Theory

Schwartz believes that values are motivational in that they "represent broad goals that apply across contexts and time

Using the Organizing Framework for Problem Solving

Select the most effective solution considering: Selection criteria Consequences Choice process Necessary resources

SMART goals

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Timely

What criteria determines which applicant is hired?

Technical skills and the ability to get the job done

Halo effect error

Tendency to see one quality of a person and applying it to a person's total personality

knowledge tests

Tests that measure a person's information or knowledge.

Perception is influenced by three key components

The characteristics of the perceiver, Of the target, and of the situation

organizational commitment

The extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals

Relatedness

The need to be connected and involved with the social world

self-determination theory

Theory assumes that people are driven and influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness

high distinctiveness

This person does not usually behave this way in different situations.

low distinctiveness

When individual has similar behavior/results on other tasks.

perception

a cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings

categorization

a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information

Dark Triad

a constellation of negative personality traits consisting of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

weighted application blank

a form used to assign a numerical value to items on candidates application

Job Characteristics Model

a job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties

behavioral interview

a structured interview in which the interviewer asks the candidate to describe how he or she handled a type of situation in the past

situational interview

a structured interview in which the interviewer describes a situation likely to arise on the job, then asks the candidate what he or she would do in that situation

diversity climate

a subcomponent of an organization's overall climate and is defined as the employees' aggregate perceptions about the organization's diversity-related formal structure characteristics and informal values

equity theory

a theory stating that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities

McClelland's Theory of Needs

a theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation

What criteria determines which employee is promoted?

ability to manage people, strong team skills, and the ability to build and manage relationships

moderators of goal setting theory

ability, resources, goal commitment, feedback

personal values

abstract ideals that guide one's thinking and behavior across all situations

values

abstract ideals that guide one's thinking and behavior across all situations

Recognition that the organization's markets and constituencies are culturally diverse is called a ______ perspective on diversity.

access and legitimacy

option 6 of the framework to manage diversity: tolerate

acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them

Problems can be views as a gap between ______ and _____.

actual, desired outcome

Step 4 Performance Management Process

administer valued rewards and appropriate punishment

What are some common types of diversity?

age, education, political views, seniority, gender, race

option 8 of the framework to manage diversity: foster mutual adaption

allows people to change their views for the sake of creating a positive relationships with others

low consistency

always an external attribution

job satisfaction

an effective or emotional response toward facets of one's job

expectancy

an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance

Valence

an individual's personal preferences for the value of the reward or outcome

organizational behavior

an interdisciplinary field dedicated to understanding and managing people at work

organizational justice

an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

internal consistency reliability

assess the consistency of responses across questions that measure the same construct

forced distribution method

assigns a certain percentage of employees to each category in a set of categories

self-serving bias

attributing success to internal factors while attributing failure to external factors

compensation system consideredations

base pay, pay for performance, employee benefits

cognitive

beliefs and knowledge one has about a situation

how values affect behavior

can help us self-manage our decisions and can be more effective and influencing others' attitudes and behaviors

person factors

characteristics that give individuals their unique identities (values, attitudes, personality)

Three components of attitude

cognitive, affective, behavioral

negative inequity

comparison in which another person receives greater outcomes for similar inputs

positive inequity

comparison in which another person receives lesser outcomes for similar inputs

commission

compensation based on a percentage/flat rate of goods or services sold

Piecework

compensation on a per-unit basis rather than time spent

What is the first dimension of Schwartz's Value Theory

concern for others to pursuit of own interest (self-transcendence to self-enhancement)

self-transcendence

concern for the welfare of others

pursuit of incongruent goals may lead to ____ employee actions and behaviors.

conflicting

What is the best personality predictor of job performance?

conscientiousness

Which of the big 5 personality traits can predict performance across most occupations?

conscientiousness and emotional stability

reliability

consistency of measurement

alternate or parallel form reliability

consistency of measures when two forms of the same test are administered to the same person or group of people

personality trait

consistent pattern of behavior or emotions

long-term memory

consists of separate by related apartments one each of events, semantic materials and people

Types of Validity

content, criterion, construct

characteristics of the situation

context of interaction, culture and race consistency

Which selection method is the final check before employment?

contingent tools

_______ represents a broad personality trait composed of four narrow traits.

core-self evaluations

A lack of integrity is associated with _____ behaviors.

counterproductive

Step 3 Performance Management Process

delivery feedback and coaching

locus of control

describes how much personal responsibility someone takes for their behavior and its consequences

option 4 of the framework to manage diversity: suppress

differences are squelches or discouraged

mediators of goal setting theory

direction of attention, effort, persistence, strategies

characteristics of the target

direction of gaze, facial features and body shape, nonverbal cues, appearance or dress, physical attractiveness

motivation = ____ + _____ + _____

direction, intensity, persistence

Relative Evaluation Method

directly comparing employees to one another

internal behavior causes are also called

dispositional factors

types of organizational justice

distributive, procedural, interactional

consensus

do other people react this way to the situation

stable behavior causes

due to permanent factors

unstable behavior causes

due to temporary factors

What are the three components to managing diversity?

educational component, enforcement component, exposure component

situation factors

elements outside us that influence what we do, the way we do it, and the ultimate results of our actions (economy, bad bosses, ethics inside an organization)

The ability to monitor your own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions is ____.

emotional intelligence

The ability to monitor your own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions is...

emotional stability

criterion data

employee performance data

Which term describes the idea that not all individuals prefer an equal ratio of outputs to incomes?

equity sensitivity

Can I accomplish the task given to me? Is a measure of ______.

expectancy

The question "What are the chances of reaching my performance goal?" represents which element of Vroom's expectancy theory?

expectancy

Major elements of the expectancy theory

expectancy, instrumentality, valence

Motivation = __ x __ x __

expectancy, instrumentality, valence

Traits ____ behavior.

explain.

employee engagement

extent to which employees give it their all at work

What are the two types of locus of control?

external and internal

What is the best personality predictor of jobs involving a social component?

extraversion

Rewards that come from the environment are ____ rewards.

extrinsic

T/F We do not differ along a vast number of personal attributes.

false

affective

feelings and emotions

Big Five

five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures

external behavior causes

from the outside

Assigning someone's behavior to his or her personal characteristics instead of the circumstances is called _____.

fundamental attribution bias

Pay for performance examples at the team level

gain sharing, team bonus

semantic memory

general knowledge about the world including definitions and associated traits, emotional states, physical characteristics, and behavior

option 3 of the framework to manage diversity: assimilate

given time and reinforcement, all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group

The use of feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals is part of which theory?

goal setting theory

Goal Setting Theory

goals that are specific and quantifiable lead to higher performance than general goals

cognitive categories

groups of objects that are considered equivalent

Managing diversity gives an organization the ability to...

grow and maintain a business in an increasingly competitive marketplace

Which term describes someone who cares more about what they put into a group project than the rewards they receive from participating in the project?

high equity sensitivity

What is low emotional stability called?

high neuroticism

Customer satisfaction and employee productivity were ____ when the racial-ethnic composition of store employees matched that of customers

higher

Positive outcomes of performance management

higher profitability higher productivity higher employee engagement higher customer service lower turnover

Intensity

how hard the person tries

persistence

how long a person can maintain effort

What does motivation boil down to?

how much effort to exert in a specific situation based on the expected results

validity

how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure

Asking "Why or how does this cause a problem" is an important method for achieving which step of the 3-Step Approach to problem solving?

identifying potential causes

In general, people extend more trust, positive regard, cooperation, and empathy to ____ members.

in-group

Bipolar values are _____ while adjacent values are complementary.

incongruent

option 1 of the framework to manage diversity: include/exclude

increase or decreased the number of diverse people at all levels of the organization

The term ______ is used to collectively describe people's traits and behaviors that are influenced by genetics and environment. Multiple choice question.

individual differences

Organizing framework outcomes

individual level, group/team level, organizational level

organizing framework processes

individual level, group/team level, organizational level

stereotype

individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group

Three levels of OB

individual, group/team, organization

stereotype inferences

infer people in categories have same traits or characteristics

Organizing Framework

inputs lead to processes, which lead to outcomes.

Feedback serves what two functions?

instructional and motivational

Will I be rewarded for my task? Is a measure of _____.

instrumentality

common and voluntary employee benefits

insurance, pension/retirement, paid time off

affirmation action

intervention aimed at giving management a change to correct an imbalance, injustice, mistake or outright discrimination that occurred in the past

Types of Motivation

intrinsic and extrinsic

behavioral

inventions and actions

code switching

involves adjusting one's style of speech, appearance, behavior, and expression in ways that will optimize the comfort of others in exchange for fair treatment, quality service, and employment opportunities

Distinctiveness

is the person's behavior consistent across many circumstances, do they act this way all the time

The activities that involve alteration of specific jobs or sets of interdependent jobs to improve employee experience and motivation are known as _____.

job design

According to Schwartz's Value Theory opposing values are ____ likely to be held by the same person.

less

option 5 of the framework to manage diversity: isolate

maintains the status quo by setting the diverse person off to the side

results-evaluation method

managers and employees set goals for the employees together

Step 2 Performance Management Process

measure and evaluate progress outcomes

Conscientiousness

measures dependability, personal responsibility, persistence

openness to experience

measures interest with novelty (curious, imaginative)

emotional stability

measures our ability to withstand stress (relaxed, unworried)

Extraversion

measures our relational approach towards the social world (outgoing, talkative, assertive)

agreeableness

measures propensity to defer to others (cooperative, trusting)

_________ means measuring, tracking, or otherwise verifying progress and ultimate outcomes.

monitoring performance

According to Schwartz's Value Theory adjacent values are ____ compatible.

more

Employees who feel that they belong are...

more committed, more engaged, less likely to experience burnout

portable skills

more or less relevant in every job, at every level, and throughout your career

low consensus

most people would behave differently

high consensus

most people would behave the same

Values are ____ and represent broad goals overtime.

motivational

Screening tools ____ applicant pool.

narrow down

need for affiliation

need to establish friendly and close interpersonal relationships

need for achievement

need to excel or achieve to a set of standards

Discrimination in the workplace

occurs when employment decisions about an individual are based on reasons not associated with performance or related to the job

individual bonus

one time additional compensation, not added to base pay

Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior

one's behavior beliefs influence their attitude towards a behavior, which affects how they decide to behave

What is the best personality predictor of performance in school and willingness to look for a new job?

openness

What are the big five personality traits?

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional-stability

Skinner labeled behavior that is learned when one acts on the environment to produce desired consequences ______ behavior.

operant

conservation

order, preservation of the part, resistance to change

Key Workplace Attitudes

organizational commitment, employee engagement, perceived organizational support, job satisfaction

Traits predict...

other more specific behaviors

In Vroom's expectancy theory, instrumentality is the relationship between which two factors?

outcomes and performance

Where do values stem from?

parents' values and experiences

Expectancy Theory

people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes

option 2 of the framework to manage diversity: deny

people deny that differences exist and that success is determined solely by merit and performance

external locus of control

people who believe their performance is the product of circumstances beyond their immediate control

internal locus of control

people who believe they control the events and consequences that affect their lives

perceived behavioral control

perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior

disruptive justice

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

subject norm

perceived social pressure for or against a behavior

perceptions are based on the characteristics of...

perceiver, target, situation

When a manager monitors, evaluates, and creates consequences for an employee's work so that it meets defined performance expectations, it is an example of _____.

performance management

What two factors contribute to employee engagement?

person and situation factors

Organizing framework inputs

person factors, situation factors

Pay for performance examples at the individual level

piecework, commission, merit pay increase, individual bonus

There is a ____ correlation between high pay and organizational performance.

positive

selection seeks correlation between

predictive data and criterion data

criterion-related validity

present when a person's score on a selection measure predicts how well they will perform if given the job

construct-related validity

present when the test actually assesses the thing it claims to measure

content related validity

present when the test measures things that are actually done on the job

cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort that a person experiences when they experience inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes

When Lindsay was late three times in two weeks, her manager told her that her pay would be docked by the amount of time she was late. This is an example of _____.

punishment

self-enhancement

pursuit of one's own interest

Two Methods of Relative Approach

ranking and forced distribution

behavioral evaluation methods

rated relative to an absolute standard of what ideal performance looks like in a job (use of rating scale)

BARS (behaviorally anchored rating scale)

rates employee gradations in performance according to scales of specific behaviors

psychological safety

reflects the extent to which people feel free to express their ideas and beliefs without fear of negative consequences

test-related reliability

reflects the reliability of scores over time

Traits summarize ____ in behavior.

regularity

soft skills

relate to human interactions and include both interpersonal skills and personal attributes

option 7 of the framework to manage diversity: build relationships

relationship building is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences

Performance Evaluation Methods

relative, behavioral, results

Evaluative tools examine...

remaining applications to determine who to hire

high consistency

repeated behavior/result

attitudes

represent our feelings or opinions about people, places and objects

Schema

represents a person's mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus

implicit cognition

represents any thoughts or beliefs that are automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness

Predictive Data

results from selection tests

merit pay increase

rewards employees' high performance over a set period of time and can be added into the employee's total base pay

Categories of Selection Methods

screening tools, evaluative tools, contingent tools

We use the ____ to predict who will be the best employees for the company.

selection system

What is the second dimension of Schwartz's Value Theory

self-directed independence to conformity (openness to change to conservation)

What are the core self evaluations?

self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, emotional stability

Step 1 Performance Management Process

set goals and communicate performance expectations

job simulation

simulations that measure people's job skills by having them perform tasks similar to those performed on the job

Strong situations

situation strength is the degree to which norms, cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior

What are the two types of structured interviews?

situational and behavioral

external behavior causes are also called

situational factors

Typical Evaluative Methods

skill/ability test, integrity test, job simulation/work sample, knowledge test, cognitive ability test, personality test, structured interviews

The theory that there is a purposeful if-then link between a target behavior and a consequence is ________.

skinners operant theory

trait activation theory

some situations, events, or interventions "activate" a trait more than others

integrity tests

specific type of personality test designed to assess an applicant's tendency to be honest, trustworthy, and dependable

effective performance management system steps

step 1: define performance step 2: monitor and evaluate performance step 3: review performance step 4: provide consequences

Studies show that women have a harder time being perceived as effective leaders, which is a result of a negative ________.

stereotype

Pay for performance examples at the organizational level

stock ownership, stock options, profit sharing

performance management purposes

strategic, administrative, developmental

Person Memory

supply information about a single individual or groups of people

Causal attributions refer to _____

suspected causes of behavior

problem solving

systemic process for closing such gaps

affinity bias

te tendency to trust/prefer people like ourselves

hard skills

technical expertise and knowledge to do a particular task or job function

contrasts effects

tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them to recently observed people or objects

recency effect

tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information

task significance

the degree to which a job affects the lives or work of other people

autonomy

the degree to which a job provides the worker freedom and independence to determine how to the work gets done

task identity

the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

skill variety

the degree to which a variety of different skills or talents are used on the job

feedback

the degree to which carrying out the activities required by the job provides employees with clear information about how well they're performing

Interaction Justice

the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in interpersonal interactions

perceived organizational support

the extent to which employees believe their organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being

individual differences

the many attributes, such as traits and behaviors, that describe each of us as a person

diversity

the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people

competence

the need to feel desired, knowledgeable, and capable to complete tasks

autonomy

the need to feel independent to influence one's environment, the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it

need for power

the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

reliability measures ...

the precision of the test

attention

the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone

performance management

the process through which managers ensure that employees' activities and outputs contribute to the organization's goals

demographics

the statistical measurements of populations and their qualities over time

leniency error

the tendency to give all workers very positive performance appraisals

surface level characteristics

those that are quickly apparent to interactants, such as race, gender, and age

deep-level characteristics

those that take time to emerge in interactions, such as attitudes, opinions, and values

T/F If one of the pieces of the expectancy theory is missing, the outcome (motivation) is zero.

true

T/F Managers should influence behavior by creating work environments that support each of the three self-determination theory needs.

true

T/F Personal assessments are useful in hiring decisions.

true

manager can better manage their employees when they ____ are employees' values and motivation

understand

Contingency Approach

using the OB concepts and tools that best suit the situation, instead of trying to rely on "one best way"

Is the reward valuable to me? Is a measure of _____.

valence

Direction

what the person is trying to accomplish

internal behavior causes

within the person

Pros of Relative Method

- Clear succession planning - Easy to develop and use - Excellent administrative data

Cons of Results Method

- Prioritizes results over behavior - Employee may not control outcome - Can result in resource conflict

characteristics of the perceiver

- direction of gaze - needs and goals - experience with target - category-based knowledge -gender and emotional status -cognitive load

Why is feedback important?

- has the potential to boost performance - given less often and less well than people would like - dramatically underutilized

Why focus on money as an extrinsic motivator?

- it motivates people (most of the time) - there is a positive correlation between high pay and organizational performance

legally required employee benefits

- social security and medicare - worker's compensation and unemployment - family medical leave act

Cons of Code Switching

-Can be a "requirement for entry" that denies individual identity -Cognitively costly/tiring -Requires denial of potentially core identities -Can create double-binds

pros of code switching

-Helps us understand one another better -Connects us with others who share our identity -Allows us to participate fully in broader communities

What are the three key general motives that influence intention and behavior?

-attitude toward the behavior -subject norm -perceived behavior control

People are motivated to maintain consistency by...

-changing attitudes, behaviors, or both -belittle the importance of inconsistent behavior -find consonant elements that outright dissonant ones

organizational commitment leads to...

-greater employee retention -greater motivation in pursuit of organizational goals

Most common barriers to implementing successful diversity programs

-inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice -ethnocentrism -poor career planning -negative diversity climate -a hostile working environment for diverse employees

Increases in employee engagement have been linked to...

-increased customer loyalty and satisfaction -increased employee performance -increased employee well-being greater financial performance

perceived organizational support is associated with...

-increased organizational commitment -job satisfaction -organizational citizen behavior -task performance -lower turnover

Pros of BARS Method

-increases inter-rater reliability -provides standardized feedback -gives developmental direction -easy to update

behavioral outcomes linked with job satisfaction

-job performance -organizational citizenship behavior -counterproductive work behavior -turnover

An employer can win a discrimination case if they can prove that their actions or decisions are based on what criteria?

-job relatedness -business necessity -seniority

What are the three strategies relative to the marketplace with external benchmarking?

-lead = pay above industry average -meet = pay at industry average -lag = pay below industry average

What are characteristics of people who have a need for power?

-likes to be in charge -like to be in control of people and events -appreciates being recognized

What are characteristics of people how have a need for affiliation?

-likes to work in teams with cooperation and collegiality -tends to avoid conflict -liked to be praised in private

attitudes outcomes linked with job satisfaction

-motivation -job involvement -withdrawal cognitions -perceived stress

Cons of Relative Method

-no absolute standard -little developmental feedback -competition

framework of options to manage diversity

-option 1: include/exclue -option 2: deny -option 3: assimilate -option 4: supporess -option 5: isolate -option 6: tolerate -option 7: build relationships -option 8: foster mutual adaption

stereotype maintenance

-overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others -incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors -differentiating minority individuals from ourselves

How companies are responding to changes in diversity

-paying attention to sexual orientation -addressing changing customer demographics -helping women navigate their career -helping Hispanics succeed -retraining and valuing skills and expertise in aging workforce

What are characteristics of people who have a need for achievement?

-prefers working on challenges -best in situations in which performance is due to effort and ability -prefers to work with other high achievers

Typical Screening Tools

-resumes and cover letters -job applications/weighted application blanks

Pros of Results Method

-strong strategic congruence -enlists employee in process -emphasizes action and results

Cons of BARS Method

-time-consuming to develop -requires observation to properly assign rating -can provide poor administrative data

How we differ has been shown to influence how we approach each of the following

-work -solving problems -conflict -interactions w/co-workers

How are stereotypes formed?

1. Categorization 2. Inferences 3. Expectations 4. Maintenance

Stereotype Formation and Maintenance

1. Categorization 2. Inferences 3. Expectations 4. Maintenance

4 key workplace attitudes

1. Organizational commitment 2. Employee engagement 3. Perceived organizational support 4. Job satisfaction