Leadership Exam 2 Study Guide

Contingency Theory Limitations

Behavior Meta-category over-emphasis - diverse behaviors are not equally relevant in all situations. Ambiguous descriptions - how do the independent and dependent variables affect the situational variable Inadequate causal explanations Inattention to behavior patterns - interactions between behavior patterns are not considered Inattention to joint effects of situational behaviors Do not distinguish between moderators versus mediators

Types of Cross-Cultural Studies Types of research questions:

Behavior, skills and traits Beliefs about effective behavior, skills and traits Differences in leadership patterns Relationships between leadership and subordinate outcomes

leadership in different types of teams

Cross-functional teams: usually includes representatives from each of the functional sub-units involved in a project. Self-managed work teams: the responsibility and authority usually vested in a manager's position is turned over to the team members Virtual teams: geographically separated and seldom if at all meet in person

Attributions of Charisma: Follower attributions of charisma depends on aspects of the situation

Follower anxiety Follower disenchantment

Comparison to Transformational and Charismatic Leadership

Ethical leadership theories have more emphasis on leader values than on leader behavior, and more emphasis on consequences for stakeholders than on enhancement of subordinate motivation and performance. For charismatic and transformational theories, these priorities are reversed.

Leader-Member Exchange

Exchange Relationship Formed based on: Personal compatibility Subordinate competence Results in either: High Exchange Low Exchange

Two Key Executive Responsibilities

External monitoring - needed to detect threats and opportunities for the organization (concerns of clients, availability of suppliers) aka- environmental scanning Competitive strategy formulation - how to compete effectively in the marketplace and remain profitable

Guidelines for Followers

Find out what you are expected to do. • Take the initiative to deal with problems. • Keep the boss informed about your decisions. • Verify the accuracy of information you give the boss. • Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you. • Support efforts to make necessary changes. • Show appreciation and provide recognition when appropriate. • Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by bosses. • Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss. • Provide upward coaching and counseling when appropriate. • Learn to use self-management strategies

Organizational Effects of Positive Charismatics

Follower growth and development Environmental adaptation Achievement-oriented culture High-performing system Clearly understood mission Mission embodies social values Empowerment Open communication Shared information Structures and systems support mission

Follower contribution to effective leadership

Follower identities (self and social identity) Integrate roles (bottom down and top up conflicts and expectations) hard to be a leader and a follower

Consequences of Ethical Leadership

Follower values Ethical behavior Follower self-awareness Feelings of spiritual fulfillment Employee trust Employee commitment In some cases, improve financial performance

Situational Determinants of Ethical Leadership

Organizational culture and reward system (high pressure, unrealistic goals) Community or national cultural values & beliefs Follower characteristics (self confidence) Toxic or abusive leaders

How Leaders Influence Organizational Performance

Leadership Behaviors Task-oriented improves efficiency and reliability Change-oriented improves adaptation Decision-making (Strategy, Structure, Programs, Systems) Trade-offs (ex.Home Depot) Coordinating Leadership Across Levels and Subunits

Transformation and Charismatic: Compare and Contrast

One of the most important issues for leadership scholars is the extent to which transformational leadership and charismatic leadership are similar and compatible. Some theorists treat the two types of leadership as essentially equivalent, whereas other theorists view them as distinct but overlapping processes.

Proactive Influence Tactics (202)

POIS - Profiles of Organizational Influence Strategies Rational Persuasion Apprising Inspirational Appeals Consultation Collaboration Ingratiation Personal Appeals Exchange Coalition Tactics Legitimating Tactics Pressure

Power

involves the capacity for one party (the agent) to influence another party (the target) influence can be over things or events or person or group is a dynamic variable that changes as conditions change

Authority

involves the rights, obligations, duties associated with a particular position in an organization or social system scope of authority = range of requests

Transactional leadership

motivates followers by appealing to their self‐interest and exchanging benefits.

Guidelines for Leading Decision Group Meetings

• Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting. • Share essential information with group members. • Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution. • Allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation. • Separate idea generation from idea evaluation. • Encourage and facilitate participation. • Encourage positive restatement and idea building. • Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation. • Encourage members to look for an integrative solution. • Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible. • Clarify responsibilities for implementation

leadership to behavior

task-oriented = instrumental leadership relations-oriented = supportive leadership

Functional Work teams

the members are likely to have jobs that are somewhat specialized but still part of the same basic function

Facilitating Conditions for Self-Managed Teams

• Clearly defined, shared objectives • Complex and meaningful task • Small size and stable membership • Members can determine work processes • Members have relevant skills • Member access to relevant information • Appropriate recognition and rewards • Strong support by top management • Competent external leader

Determinants of Team Performance

• Commitment to task objectives and strategies • Member skills and role clarity • Internal organization and coordination • External coordination • Resources and political support • Mutual trust, cohesiveness, and cooperation • Collective efficacy and potency (shared belief the team is capable) • Accurate, shared mental models • Collective learning • Member Diversity

Guidelines for leading teams

• Emphasize common interests and values. • Use ceremonies, rituals, and symbols to develop collective identification. • Encourage and facilitate social interaction. • Tell people about group activities and achievements. • Conduct process analysis sessions. • Increase incentives for mutual cooperation. • Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions. • Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the tea

Guidelines for External Monitoring

• Identify relevant information to gather. • Use multiple sources of relevant information. • Learn what clients and customers need and want. • Learn about the products and activities of competitors. • Relate environmental information to strategic plan

Guidelines for Using Legitimate Authority

• Make polite, clear requests. • Explain the reasons for a request. • Don't exceed your scope of authority. • Verify authority if necessary. • Follow proper channels. • Follow up to verify compliance. • Insist on compliance if appropriate.

Self-management

a set of strategies used to influence and improve an individual's own behavior. Behavioral strategies: self-goal setting, self-monitoring, manipulation of cues, self-reward (or criticism), and rehearsal of planned actions. The cognitive strategies include positive self-talk and mental imagery.

Theories: Why different relationships develop between leader and subordinate

Leader-member exchange Attribution model Upward impression management Follower-based

Ways to Gain and Use Referent Power

-Show acceptance and positive regard. • Be supportive and helpful. • Use sincere forms of ingratiation. • Keep promises and commitments. • Make self sacrifices to benefit others. • Lead by example (use role modeling). • Explain the personal importance of a request.

Research Evaluation

-The GLOBE project - (GLOBAL LEADERSHIP and ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR EFFECTIVENESS) grouped 60 countries into 10 clusters -Many unexamined research questions -Surveys ineffective - lost in translation

Defining Ethical Leadership

-Defined in different ways -Different criteria used -Judgments need to be made -Definitions include values, traits, and behaviors -Descriptions include behavior and motives -Descriptions include attempts to influence the ethical behavior of others -Judgments about ethical leadership vary somewhat across cultures -Definitions include the concept of personal integrity

Ways to use and maintain expert power

-Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important. • Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful. • Don't make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements. • Don't lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts. • Listen seriously to the person's concerns and suggestions. • Act confident and decisive in a crisis

Attribution theory of Charismatic Leadership

-Follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the leader's behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation Behaviors: Novel and Appealing Vision. Emotional Appeals to Values. Unconventional Behavior. Self-Sacrifices. Confidence and Optimism. Influence processes: personal identification, which involves a follower's desire to please and imitate the leader. Facilitating conditions - Contextual variables, situational variables (ie. follower fear/anxiety)

Attributions of Charisma: Follower attributions of charisma depends on leader behavior

-Novel and appealing vision -Emotional appeal to values -Unconventional behavior -Self-sacrifices -Confidence and optimism

Guidelines for Using Coercive Power to Maintain Discipline

1. Explain rules and requirements, and ensure that people understand the serious consequences of violations. 2. Respond to infractions promptly and consistently without showing any favoritism to particular individuals. 3. Investigate to get the facts before using reprimands or punishment, and avoid jumping to conclusions or making hasty accusations. 4. Except for the most serious infractions, provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to punishment. 5. Administer warnings and reprimands in private, and avoid making rash threats. 6. Stay calm and avoid the appearance of hostility or personal rejection. 7. Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and thereby avoid punishment. 8. Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem, and seek agreement on a concrete plan. . Maintain credibility by administering punishment if noncompliance continues after threats and warnings have been made. 10. Use punishments that are legitimate, fair, and commensurate with the seriousness of the infraction.

Guidelines for Transformational Leadership

Articulate a clear and appealing vision Explain how vision can be attained Act confident and optimistic Express confidence in followers Use symbolic actions to emphasize values Lead by example

Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic Leadership

A theory to explain charismatic leadership in terms of a set of test-able propositions involving observable processes rather than folklore and mystique. Traits & behaviors- Charismatic leaders are likely to have a strong need for power, high self‐confidence, and a strong conviction in their own beliefs and ideals. Influence processes: Personal Identification. Social identification. Internalization. Self and Collective Efficacy.(Belief You can do it) Emotional Contagion. Facilitating conditions -must be able to understand the needs and values of followers. -must be able to define task roles in ideological terms that will appeal to followers.

Transactional Behaviors REVISED THEORIES' BEHAVIORS

Active management by exception - behavior is defined in terms of looking for mistakes and enforcing rules to avoid mistakes. Laissez-faire- passive indifference about the task and subordinates

Combining tactics

An influence attempt is more likely to be successful if two or more different tactics are combined. soft tactics need to be combined to be effective: ex. especially useful to combine consultation and collaboration

Guidelines for Managing Crises

Anticipate problems and prepare for them Learn to recognize early warning signs for an impending problem Quickly identify the nature and scope of the problem Direct the response by the unit or team in a confident and decisive way Keep people informed about a major problem and what is being done to correct Use a crisis as an opportunity to make necessary changes

Implicit Leadership Theories

Are beliefs and assumptions about the characteristics of effective leaders. involve stereotypes and prototypes about the traits, skills, or behaviors that are relevant for a particular type of position, context or individual

Research on Effects of Strategic Leadership

CEO succession, studies show CEO changes have a long term effect on organization, however no real way to interpret results due to lack of factors considered Case studies - information collected may be biased

General Descriptions of Contingency Theories Types of Variables

Causal Effects - type of situational variable (a variable the leader cannot change in the short-term) Situation directly effects outcomes or mediators - substitute for leadership. Situation directly influences leader behavior - demands and constraints. Situation moderates effects of leader behavior - enhancer vs neutralizer.

Three influence outcomes

Commitment - target makes a great effort to carry out the task Compliance - target is willing to carry out the task but is apathetic Resistance - when the target is oppose to carrying out the task when compared to tolerant

Transactional Behaviors ORIGINAL THEORY BEHAVIORS

Contingence reward - behavior includes clarification of accomplishments necessary to obtain rewards, and the use of incentives to influence subordinate task motivation. Passive management by exception- includes use of contingent punishments and other corrective action in response to obvious deviations from acceptable performance standards.

Contingency Theory

Contingency theories describe how aspects of the leadership situation alter a leader's influence on an individual subordinate or a work group

Findings in Research on Gender Differences

Debate and scholarly disagreement Gender differences on leadership behavior Gender differences on leader effectiveness

Guidelines for Strategic Leadership

Determine long-term objectives Learn customers' wants and needs Learn about competitors Assess current strengths and weaknesses Identify core competencies Evaluate need for strategic change Identify promising strategies Evaluate strategy outcomes Involve other executives

Consequences of power

Effective Leaders: Have more expert and referent power Rely on personal power more than position power Have a moderate amount of position power

Charismatic and Transformational Leadership theories differ from earlier theories

Emotional and symbolic aspects of leadership Follower perceptions of leader qualities

Determinants of Organizational Performance

Environmental adaptation - responding effectively to external threats and opportunity Efficiency and reliability - minimize costs and avoid wasted resources &efforts Competitive Strategy - decisions about the types of products or services to offer, the basis for appealing to potential customers, how to influence potential customers or clients, financing decisions, how to grow the organization Human Resources - human capital & social capital Programs, systems, and structures - used to improve efficiency and process reliability (ie. outsourcing, market surveys) Culture - is a situational influence on leaders, & will influence follower performance

Situations Affecting Strategic Leadership

Environmental uncertainty -how internal and external stakeholders perceive the current performance of the organization. Declining performance Top executive constraints - How much influence top executives can have on the performance of their organization is determined in part by internal and external constraints on their decisions and actions (ie.power & discretion)

Methodological Problems

Equivalence of meaning for measures Confounding effects of demographic or situational variables Response bias Representative sample Level of analysis

Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies

Gather information about the performance problem. • Try to avoid attribution biases. • Provide corrective feedback promptly. • Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms. • Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior. • Stay calm and professional. • Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance. • Ask the person to suggest remedies. • Express confidence that the person can improve. • Express a sincere desire to help the person. • Reach agreement on specific action steps. • Summarize the discussion and verify agreement

Why Cross-cultural Research is Important

Globalization Need to influence people from other cultures Validate leadership theories in other cultures Broader range of variables and processes Validate taxonomies in other cultures Culture-dependent situational variables Methodological challenges

Conceptions of Ethical Leadership

Honest Altruistic Trustworthy Fair Personal Integrity - is an attribute that helps to explain leadership effectiveness.

Transformational Behaviors ORIGINAL THEORY BEHAVIORS

Idealized influence - is behavior that increases follower identification with the leader Intellectual stimulation - is behavior that influences followers to view problems from a new perspective and look for more creative solutions. Individualized consideration - includes providing support, encouragement, and coaching to followers.

Impression Management Tactics

Impression management - how others perceive you Exemplification - behavior intended to demonstrate dedication and loyalty to the mission, to the organization, or to followers. Ex. working late Ingratiation - behavior intended to influence the target person to like the agent and perceive the agent as someone who has desirable social qualities. ex. providing praise, laugh at jokes Self-Promotion - behavior intended to influence favorable impressions about your competence and value to the organization. ex. display diplomas, talk about achievements

Three types of influence tactics

Impression management tactics: tactic to encourage target to like the agent Political tactic: to influence organizational decisions or or gain benefits for a group Proactive tactic: have an immediate task objective

Sequencing tactics

Influence attempts often involve a series of separate influence episodes that occur over a period of days or weeks. Some tactics are used more in initial influence attempts and other tactics are used more in follow-up influence attempts.

Dilemmas in Assessing Ethical Leadership

Influencing expectations-How the leader influences follower perception of the risks and prospects for success Influencing values and beliefs-an attempt to change the underlying values and beliefs of individual followers. Multiple stakeholders and competing values -ex. The same actions that benefit followers in some ways may also harm followers in other ways or at a later time.

Transformational Behaviors REVISED THEORIES' BEHAVIORS

Inspirational motivation- includes communicating an appealing vision, and using symbols to focus subordinate effort Idealized influence behavior Idealized influence attributions

Three different types of influence processes

Instrumental compliance: person does something in exchange for a tangible reward or to avoid punishment Internalization: the target agrees to carry out a task because of aligned beliefs Personal identification: the target imitates the agent to be like the agent and gain their respect

Cultural Influences on Leader Behavior

Internalized values influence unconscious ways Cultural values and societal norms Cultural norms and societal laws Cultural conformity Organizational values versus cultural values Non-exposure to different types of leadership Change in values and traditions over time

Types of power sources

Legitimate power - formal authority over work activities Reward power - target believes that the agent has control over important resources and rewards Coercive power - authority over punishment (ie. military) Referent power - target wants to please the agent because of feelings of respect, loyalty, desire to gain approval of agent Expert power - task relevant knowledge Information power - access to information and the control over its distribution Ecological power (situational engineering) control over environment, technology

Guidelines for Using Reward Power

Offer the type of rewards that people desire. • Offer rewards that are fair and ethical. • Don't promise more than you can deliver. • Explain the criteria for giving rewards and keep it simple. • Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met. • Use rewards symbolically (not in a manipulative way).

Early Contingency Theories

Path-Goal Theory: how a leader's task and relations-oriented behavior influence subordinate satisfaction and performance in different situations. Situational Leadership Theory - specifies the appropriate type of leadership behavior for a subordinate in various situations. (subordinate maturity is key determinant) LPC (least preferred coworker) Contingency Model - describes how the situation moderates the effects on group performance of a leader trait called the LPC score. Leader Substitutes Theory - aspects of the situation that make task and relations-oriented behavior by the leader redundant or ineffective. Cognitive Resources Theory - performance of a leader's group is determined by interaction among two leader traits - intelligence and experience Multiple-Linkage Model - describes how managerial behavior and situational variables jointly influence the performance of individual subordinates and the leader's work unit. four types of variables in the model : managerial behaviors, mediating variables, criterion variables, and situational variables Normative Decision Model - model to identify the situations that determine whether a specific type of decision procedure will be effective.

Determinants of Follower Attributions about Leaders (by followers/subordinates)

Performance trend - Unit success vs unsuccessful Leaders actions - visible, direct action Uniqueness of changes - innovative new strategy, vs traditional methods Situational factors - external vs internal Leader intentions vs competence Follower mood and bias

Position versus personal power

Personal Power (derived) - Referent, Expert Position Power (legitimate authority) - Legitimate, reward, coercive, referent, information, ecological

Negative Charismatics

Personalized power orientation Instill devotion to themselves Use ideological appeals to gain power Seek to dominate and subjugate Centralize authority Use punishment and rewards to manipulate Restrict information Self-glorifying decisions

Transformational Theories Transforming Leadership

Political leadership Appeals to followers' moral values, raises consciousness and mobilizes energies Contrasts with transactional leadership which appeals to followers' self-interest and exchange

Executive Teams

Potential advantages- improved communication and coordination, increased knowledge by team (usually lacked by just one CEO), shared responsibility means tasks are less likely to slip through the cracks, increased member commitment Facilitating conditions- work best in complex, rapidly changing environments Leadership- Executive teams are more likely to be successful when the CEO has relevant values, traits, and skills and the team he selects has relevant values, traits, and skills. Example study-The study found that strategic decisions were both faster and better when the executive team conducted a simultaneous evaluation of several alternatives rather than using the common "satisficing" procedure of examining alternatives sequentially until a satisfactory one is found.

Cultural Value Dimensions

Power distance - involves the acceptance of an unequal distribution of power and status in organizations and institutions. Uncertainty avoidance - high avoidance of uncertainty, there is more fear of the unknown, and people desire more security, stability, and order. Individualism versus collectivism: Individualism is the extent to which the needs and autonomy of individuals are more important than the collective needs of groups, organizations, or society. Gender egalitarianism- the extent to which men and women receive equal treatment, and both masculine and feminine attributes are considered important and desirable. Performance orientation- extent to which high performance and individual achievement are valued (results are more emphasized than people) Humane orientation - a strong concern for the welfare of other people and the willingness to sacrifice one's own self‐interest to help others. Culture clusters - researchers grouped countries into clusters based on regional proximity and similarity in language, ethnic background,and religion

Charismatic Theories (Charisma)

Psychodynamic Processes Close and Distant Charisma Max Weber - Divinely inspired gift Social crisis Radical vision offering a solution

Organizational Effects of Negative Charismatics

Risky decisions can result in serious failures Make more determined enemies Excessive optimism blinds the leader to strategic flaws Close identification with vision undermines objective evaluation Judgment may not be questioned Reject evidence of an unrealistic vision Followers can be inhibited from suggesting improvements Alienate or polarize people

Guidelines for Promoting Ethical Practices

Set clear standards Model ethical behavior in your own actions Find ethical ways to resolve problems Oppose unethical practices in the organization Develop programs to promote ethical behavior Cultural values, laws, and ethical standards

Gender Issues in Leadership

Sex-based discrimination Glass ceiling explanations Feminine advantage theories Research findings on gender differences Research limitations on gender differences Identifying causes and reducing discrimination

Emerging Theories of Leadership in Organizations

Shared and distributed leadership - power sharing, and political activities are inevitable in organizations. Relational leadership- scholars examine the social processes and patterned relationships that explain how collective activity can accomplish shared objectives. Complexity theory- involves interacting units that are dynamic (changing) and adaptive, and the complex pattern of behaviors and structures that emerge are usually unique and difficult to predict

How power is gained or lost

Social exchange theory - in a group, the amount of power given to an elected or emergent leader by other members. Strategic contingencies theory - how some organizational subunits gain or lose power to influence important decisions such as determination of the organization's competitive strategy and the allocation of resources to subunits and activities Power of a subunit depends on three factors: (1) expertise in coping with important problems, (2) centrality of the subunit within the workflow, and (3) the extent to which the subunit's expertise is unique rather than substitutable. Institutionalization of power - process for using political tactics to increase influence or protect existing power sources

Positive Charismatics

Socialized power orientation Instill devotion to ideology Emphasize internalization Self-sacrifice Lead by example Delegate authority Shared information Participative decision-making Rewards used to reinforce

Individual Determinants of Ethical Leadership (345)

Stages of moral development (Kohlberg)- how people progress through six sequential stages of moral development as they grow from a child to an adult. Self-identify theory- person with a strong moral self‐identity is motivated to act in ways that are consistent with ethical values and beliefs Values involving the consequences of behavior and the observance of formal rules, policies, laws, or traditional practices Personality traits and needs

Managing Diversity

Steps can be divided into two categories Fostering appreciation and tolerance Providing equal opportunity

Mediating variables in the multiple-linkage model (pg.168-169)

Task commitment Ability and role clarity Organization of the work Cooperation and mutual trust Resources and support External coordination

Contingency Theory Benefits

Task requirements Situational constraints Interpersonal processes

Leading decision groups (266)

Task-oriented functions (ie. making a mtg agenda) 1. Process structuring 2. Stimulating communication 3. Clarifying communication 4. Summarizing 5. Consensus testing Group maintenance functions (ie. peacemaker) 1. Gatekeeping 2. Harmonizing 3. Supporting 4. Standard setting 5. Process analyzing Who should perform these leadership functions? Leader-centered view: formal leader should keep discussion focused on the task, discourage expression of feelings, retain control over the final decision, and protect his or her authority in the group. Group-centered view: the role of the leader is to serve as a consultant, advisor, teacher, and facilitator, rather than as a director or manager of the group.

Theories of Ethical Leadership

Transformational - as a process in which "leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation." Servant - service to followers is the primary responsibility. Is about helping others to accomplish shared objectives by facilitating individual development, empowerment, and collective work Authentic-emphasize the importance of consistency in a leader's words, actions, and values. Include positive leader values, leader self‐awareness, and a trusting relationship with followers. Spiritual-describes how leaders can enhance the intrinsic motivation of followers by creating conditions that increase their sense of spiritual meaning in the work.

Transformational Leadership (inspirational leadership)

Transforming leadership appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform institutions.

Cognitive Processes of Attribution

Two-stage model Attribution - Determine the cause of poor performance (is it internal to the subordinate or an external problem) Response - manager tries to select and appropriate response to the problem Other attribution determinants Position power- (more power more likely to attribute the problem to external factors) Type of exchange- (high or low LMX)

Guidelines for Adaptive Leadership (to the situation)

Understand your leadership position and try to make it more favorable. Increase Flexibility by learning how to use a wide range of relevant behaviors Planning (more planning for more complex tasks) Consult with people with more relevant knowledge Provide direction to people with interdependent roles Monitor a critical task or a unreliable person more closely Be more supportive of someone with a highly stressful task

Influence tactics are useful when a request is:

Unusual Controversial Difficult to do Or when the agent has little authority

Research Findings on Contingency Theories

Weak and inconsistent evidence Only consider individual characteristics or traits, not how they interact with each other. Best research support for the Normative Decision Model

Reasons for Weak Research Findings on Contingency Theories

Weak research methods Conceptual Weaknesses Theories have not been adequately tested

Four most effective individual tactics "core tactics"

are often successful for influencing target commitment to carry out a request or support a proposal Rational persuasion - involve logical arguments and factual evidence that a proposal or request is desirable because it is important for the organization or team and is feasible to do. Consultation - the target person is invited to help plan a task or improve a proposed change in order to gain more commitment for it Collaboration - involves an offer to help the target person carry out a request for you, and it can help reduce the difficulty or cost of carrying out a request. Inspirational appeals - an attempt to develop enthusiasm and commitment by appealing to the target person's emotions and values.