leadership

Contingencies of Influence Tactics

"Soft" tactics generally more acceptable than "hard" tactics Appropriate influence tactic depends on: Organizational position Influencer's power base Cultural values and expectations

Laissez-faire leadership

(i.e., hands-off) is the avoidance of leadership altogether.

Gender

76 studies on gender and leader effectiveness Conclusions: Overall, men and women are equally effective leaders in all types of industries (except the military), but... ...Men are seen as more effective leaders in "masculine" roles (directing and controlling people is most important) ...Women are seen as more effective leaders in "feminine" roles (cooperating and getting along with people is most important)

Coercive

Ability to apply punishment Exists upward as well as downward Peer pressure is a form of coercive power

Reward

Ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions Operates upward as well as downward

legitimate power

Agreement that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others Based on job descriptions and mutual agreement from those expected to abide by this authority Legitimate power range (zone of indifference) is higher in high power distance cultures

Ambiversion

An ambivert is moderately comfortable with groups and social interaction, but also can enjoy time alone, away from a crowd.

Social exchange and reciprocity

Assume that you are a very productive young scholar, you frequently receive emails from doctoral students from others universities asking advices, do you reply to them? One day you received an email with a paper attached (56 pages) from a student you don't know asking for comments, it will take about 4 hours provide good comments. Will you help? What is your style? Taker: Need to have more gains than losses (get as much as possible) Matcher: Try to keep a even balance between you and your coworkers (Quid pro quo) Giver: Always help without expecting anything in return Which style will be more successful?

How to increase your power and influence?

Be aware of the sources of the power Legitimate Reward Coercive Expert Referent And network power: potential power originated from the web of relationships

Hersey/Blanchard-Life Cycle Theory of Leadership

Core idea: No "BEST" style of leadership Optimal combination of initiating structure and consideration depends on the readiness of the employees in the work unit. Follower Maturity (readiness): Able to take on responsibility - based on their education and experience Willing to take on responsibility - based on their motivation and self-confidence

An example of leadership training

Fielderand Chemers' (1984) Leader-Match training program Step 1: Evaluate Leadership Style using the LPC scale Step 2: Evaluate Leadership Situation using self-report questionnaires in the Leader Match book Step 3:Match Leadership style with the Situation Burke and Day (1986) found that Fiedler's Leader Match Program was effective in improving on the job behavior as measured by peer, supervisor, and trainee ratings of performance.

Situational Theories

General logic: No particular leader is best in all situations. Leaders should adapt or be matched to the situation. We focus on three specific theories Fiedler's contingency theory Hersey/Blanchard's situational leadership theory Fiedler's theory assumes that leaders can't change behaviors so they need to be placed in or matched to situations. Hersey & Blanchard's assume that leaders are capable of adapting and adjusting their leadership style to fit demands of different situations.

Reciprocity: Give and Take

Givers can be the least successful or the most successful in life How do you become a successful giver Spot the takers in your midst of social capital Don't be fooled by agreeable takers Specialize in "five minute favors": things that bring high value to other people's lives but at a relatively low cost "I'm going to microloan my time and my skills to help others without sacrificing myself" Do not restrict your interactions to just givers. Matchers are the people who keep score and want to settle favors by paying it forward

Power and centrality

How central a person is within a social network Centrality is a function of: How many others are affected by you How quickly others are affected by you Take many forms: Degree centrality: how many people you know Betweeness centrality: how many people who don't know each other that you bridge Closeness centrality: how FAST your information can reach the farthest member in your network Eigenvector centrality: how many CENTRAL people you know

How can you emerge as a leader in a leaderless group

Implicit leadership theory ILT suggests that group members have implicit expectations and assumptions about the personal characteristics, traits, and qualities that are inherent in a leader. Likely to emerge as a leader when characteristics match group member's implicit perceptions of leadership Fulfill others' expectations

Value of weak ties

In 1973, Mark Granovetter's article " The Strength of Weak Ties" showed that most people got their current jobs through acquaintances (i.e. weak ties) rather than close friends. Weak ties are our bridges to the outside world.

Expert

Individual's or work unit's capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value Employees gaining expert power over companies in knowledge economy

Influence Tactics

Ingratiation is the use of favors, complements, or friendly behavior to make the target feel better about the influencer. - "sucking up" You are a really nice person. Personal appeals are when the requestor asks for something based on personal friendship or loyalty. I'm asking you to do this because you are my best friend An exchange tactic is used when the requestor offers a reward or resource to the target in return for performing a request. If you do X, I will give you reward or money. Apprising occurs when the requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally. If you decide now, then you can leave the class early. Don't you have other business to run to after this class?

Leader emergence over time

Leader emergence is based on initial impression or assessment What if the emerged leader does not meet others' expectations? Bendersky, C. and Shah, N.. (2013). The downfall of extraverts and rise of neurotics: The dynamic process of status allocation in task groups. Extraversion is related to status losses and disappointing expectations for group contributions Neuroticism is related to status gains due to surpassing expectations for group contributions Personality may inform status expectations at the beginning, but the actual contributions matter to later leadership effectiveness.

Telling

Maturity (1) When followers are unable and unwilling to take on responsibility for a task S1: Telling (HIGH STRUCTURE, LOW CONSIDERATION) - very directive - leader telling followers what to do. Minimal concern about being "nice." Provides exactly the what, how, when, and where to do the task

Selling

Maturity (2) When followers are still unable to take responsibility but are willing to work at it. S2: Selling (HIGH STRUCTURE, HIGH CONSIDERATION) - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.

Participating

Maturity (3) When followers are able to take responsibility but seem unmotivated to do it. S3: Participating (LOW STRUCTURE, HIGH CONSIDERATION)- this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.

Delegating

Maturity (4) followers are able and willing to take responsibility S4: Delegating - the leaders is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.

leader emergence

Most studies have concluded that traits are more predictive of leader emergence (i.e., who becomes a leader in the first place) than they are of leader effectiveness (i.e., how well people actually do in a leadership role).

Referent

Occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise respect the person Associated with charismatic leadership

Fiedler's Contingency Theory

One central message In order to maximize work group performance, leaders must be matched to the right leadership situation. Three assumptions Leaders are effective when the work group they lead performs well. Leaders are generally unable to change their leadership styles, and they will be more effective when their styles are matched to the proper situation. The favorableness of a situation permits the leader to influence the behavior of group members. Two key concepts : Least Preferred Coworker and Situational Favorableness

Types of Power

Organizational Power Legitimate power ("formal authority") Reward power Coercive power Personal Power Expert power Referent power (charisma)

The Meaning of Power

Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. Potential, not practice People have power they don't use -- may not know they possess Power requires one person's perception of dependence on another person

Influence Tactics

Pressure is the use of coercive power through threats and demands. If you don't stand up, I will hate you forever. Coalitions occur when the influencer enlists other people to help influence the target. You know what, Joya agreed to give you 10 points if you leave the chair.

Influence Tactics

Rational persuasion is the use of logical arguments and hard facts to show the target that the request is a worthwhile one. Use of logics and evidence: if you do X, our sales will go up by 10%. An inspirational appeal is a tactic designed to appeal to the target's values and ideals, thereby creating an emotional or attitudinal reaction. Find out what's valued by the target. Consultation occurs when the target is allowed to participate in deciding how to carry out or implement a request. I'm asking you to [leave the seat]. You can decide yourself how to carry out this action. Collaboration is used when the influencer attempts to make it easier for the target to complete the request What can I do to help you/make it easier for you to [leave the seat]?

Recalling a personal best leadership experience

Take a few moments to write down some notes about your "personal best" leadership experience. You will be sharing your experiences with others in a small group, exploring the behaviors and actions that make a difference.

Trait Theories

The "great person" theory The search for universal characteristics of leaders. You've either got it or you don't; you're a "born leader" Leaders differ than non-leaders in: Drive - high achievement, motivation, energetic Desire to lead - want to be in charge and think about ways to influence or convince others Honesty/integrity - truthful with others and do what they say they will do Self-confidence - believe in their own abilities Emotional stability - even temper Cognitive abilities - smart but not genius, able to identify patterns Knowledge of business (based on experience)

Situational Favorableness

The degree to which a particular situation either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of group members. In highly favorable situations, leaders find that their actions influence followers. But in highly unfavorable situations, leaders have little or no success influencing the people they are trying to lead. Three factors to define situational favorableness Leader-member relations - how well followers respect, trust, and like their leaders Task structure - degree to which the requirements of a subordinate's tasks are clearly specified Position power - degree to which leaders are able to hire, fire, reward, and punish workers

Weaknesses of Trait Approach

The theory focuses solely on the leader and does not factor in the needs of followers. Trait theory identifies those with the potential for leadership, but having any of the identified traits is not a guarantee of success. Not all traits identified as leadership markers help in all situations. For example, height may be an indicator of leadership success in the military or other industry which depends on physical strength, but may not carry as much influence in business. The amount of a certain trait is also controversial. For example, the most effective business leaders have above average intelligence, but are not usually geniuses.

The effects of transformational leadership

Transformational leadership affects the job performance of the employees who report to the leader. Employees with transformational leaders tend to have higher levels of task performance and engage in higher levels of citizenship behaviors. Employees have higher levels of motivation and trust their leader more. Employees with transformational leaders tend to be more committed to their organization.

Behavioral Style Theories

WWII studies of the patterns of leader behaviors (leadership styles) rather than leader traits. What leaders do, as opposed to who leaders are Today generally referred to as: Initiating Structure "Job Centered Leadership" "Concern for Production" Consideration "Employee Centered Leadership" "Concern for People"

Power

can be defined as the ability to influence the behavior of others and resist unwanted influence in return. Just because a person has the ability to influence others does not mean he or she will actually choose to do so.

Leader-member exchange (LMX)

conceptualizes leadership as a process that is centered on the interactions between a leader and subordinates Some theories focus on leaders: trait approach, skills approach and style approach Other theories focus on the follower and the context: situational leadership, contingency theory, and path-goal theory.

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

describes how leader-member relationships develop over time on a dyadic basis. Role taking phase - a manager describes role expectations to an employee and the employee attempts to fulfill those expectations with his or her job behaviors. Role making phase - the employee's own expectations for the dyad get mixed in with those of the leader.

Intellectual stimulation

involves behaving in ways that challenge followers to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions and reframing old situations in new ways.

Idealized influence

involves behaving in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers, causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader (Charisma).

Inspirational motivation

involves behaving in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future.

Individualized consideration

involves behaving in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching, development, and mentoring.

Transformational leadership

involves inspiring followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives.

Leader effectiveness

is the degree to which the leader's actions result in the achievement of the unit's goals, the continued commitment of the unit's employees, and the development of mutual trust, respect, and obligation in leader-member dyads.

Influence

is the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in others. Lateral (influencing peers) Upward (influencing supervisors) Downward (influencing subordinates)

Leadership

is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement.

Transactional leadership

occurs when the leader rewards or disciplines the follower depending on the adequacy of the follower's performance. passive management-by-exception: leader waits around for mistakes and errors, then takes corrective action as necessary. active management-by-exception: leader arranges to monitor mistakes and errors actively and again takes corrective action when required. contingent reward: leader attains follower agreement on what needs to be done using promised or actual rewards in exchange for adequate performance.

Consideration

reflects the extent to which leaders create job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings. Leaders who are high on consideration create a climate of good rapport and strong, two-way communication and exhibit a deep concern for the welfare of employees. OSU considered initiating structure and consideration independent concepts (one doesn't inform you of the other).

Initiating structure

reflects the extent to which the leader defines and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal attainment. Leaders who are high on initiating structure play a more active role in directing group activities and prioritize planning, scheduling, and trying out new ideas.

Substitutes for Leadership

suggests that certain characteristics of the situation can constrain the influence of the leader, making it more difficult for the leader to influence employee performance. Substitutes reduce the importance of the leader while simultaneously providing a direct benefit to employee performance. Neutralizers only reduce the importance of the leader—they themselves have no beneficial impact on performance.