learning

What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior (e.g., buckling your seat belt stops the annoying beeping sound in your car and increases the likelihood that you will wear your seatbelt). Punishment is designed to reduce a behavior (e.g., you scold your child for running into the street in order to decrease the unsafe behavior.)

Negative punishment refers to a situation where ________.

a behavior decreased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

Based on the data above, were children (boys and girls) more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen an aggressive model or a non-aggressive model?

an aggressive model

Based on the data above, were children (boys and girls) more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen an aggressive model or a non-aggressive model?

an aggressive model

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

Which is an example of classical conditioning?

being afraid of thunder and lightning because the last two times you were in a thunderstorm, there were also tornadoes.

Based on the data above, did boys or girls on the average show more physical aggression toward the Bobo doll?

boys

Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Ben has a job with a landscape service. He works about 35 hours each week. He is always paid on Friday afternoon, and his salary is always the same.

fixed interval

Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Sue makes simple fabric dolls for a local craft store. The store only takes the dolls in sets of 25. For every 25 dolls she delivers, the store pays her $10.

fixed ratio

Jimmy rides home from karate practice with his friend and his friend's mom each Tuesday night. One night, his friend's mom can't come, and he needs to get a ride from someone else. He's never driven the route before, but he's able to explain exactly where to turn to get home. This is an example of

latent learning

Learning that does not reveal itself until it is needed is called

latent learning

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being?

infant sucking on a nipple

Sea turtles moving toward the ocean immediately after birth, and joeys moving to the mother's pouch immediately after birth are examples of ________.

instincts

In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they ________.

kicked and threw the doll

Jeffrey always enjoyed cooking simple meals for himself. When he was preparing a meal, he would frequently read new recipes and he liked to wander around the local Whole Foods store. When his friend Marsha asked that he help her with food for a party she was having, Jeffrey amazed everyone, including himself, when he prepared a feast that looked and tasted like it was done by a professional caterer. Jeffrey's newfound skill is an example of ________.

latent learning

Julian watches his grandfather repair watches. As Julian matures he imitates what his grandfather does, and then his grandfather shows him more complicated techniques. Eventually, Julian is as proficient at repairing watches as his grandfather. This exemplifies ________.

learning

Mary Claire watches her father bake bread every Sunday afternoon. Eventually, she starts to join him in the kitchen and he shows her the ropes of how it's done. After years of doing this together, Mary Claire decides she wants to open a bakery. This exemplifies

learning

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

Based on the data above, were boys more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?

male model

Based on the data above, were boys more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?

male model

Based on the data above, were girls more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?

male model

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called a ________.

model

Which of the following is not an example of a primary reinforcer?

money

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

Susan is undergoing chemotherapy, which makes her feel nauseous. Now she feels nauseous the moment she walks into the doctor's office. What is the unconditioned response in this situation?

nausea

________ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior.

negative punishment

A rat is placed in an environment where the floor gives the rat small electric shocks. The only way to get rid of the shocks is to press a lever in the corner of the box. The rat quickly learns to press the lever. This is an example of

negative reinforcement

In operant conditioning, ________ is when something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

negative reinforcement

Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves an organism forming an association between an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

neutral stimulus

When Rosalie falls asleep at a park next to an elementary school, the ringing bell wakes her up. She immediately jumps to her feet and starts to pack up her bag because she has been conditioned to think the ringing bell signifies the end of class and the need to go somewhere else. When Rosalie was little, before ever attending school, the sound of a bell was a

neutral stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

Money is an example of which type of reinforcer?

secondary

Stickers on a sticker chart are an example of which type of reinforcer?

secondary

According to the principles of social learning theory, Claire is likely to demonstrate aggressive behavior if she

sees a character on t.v. get rewarded for being violent towards another character.

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

Jackie wants her dog to bring her the mail each day after it's dropped in through the mail slot. Instead of trying teach her dog, Dodger, all at once, she begins by giving him treats each time he goes to the mail slot. This is an example of

shaping

Jarren wants his dog to play dead when he says "bang, bang!" so he begins by giving him a treat each time that he crouches down after giving the command. Eventually he'll get him to roll over and then to lay on his back with his legs outstretched. This is an example of

shaping

Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is ________.

shaping

Rewarding successive approximations towards a target behavior is known as

shaping

Richard is teaching his son, Cody, to throw darts. At first, he gives Cody a piece of candy each time the dart hits the dartboard. As time progresses, Richard starts only rewarding Cody when the dart hits one of the inner rings of the dartboard. Finally, Richard only rewards Cody when he hits the bullseye. This example best illustrates the concept of ________.

shaping

Dave has been working with a therapist to give up smoking. He has learned to stop having cravings when he sees someone about to light up a cigarette and thinks he is free. Then he goes to a party, sees a guy about to light up, and experiences strong cravings. What is going on?

spontaneous recovery

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ________.

stimulus generalization

If the experimenter says one of the following statements, which do you think is most likely to make the child feel frustrated?

these are the very best toys, but we don't let just anybody play with them. We have decided to save these toys for other children

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Don does remodeling for the strange old guy who lives in the big house. He has been working there for eight months, and always puts in 25 hours a week. He is never sure when he is going to get paid. Sometimes the old guy pays him twice in a single week and other times he doesn't give him anything for three weeks. On the average, he gets paid about every 10 days.

variable interval

You are trying to enter a prize drawing at the radio station but the lines are busy. You continue to call every 1-5 minutes hoping to get on the air. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

variable interval

If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to water, what are the UCS, CS, and CR?

The food being toasted is the UCS; the sound of the toaster popping up is the CS; salivating to the sound of the toaster is the CR.

________ reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.

primary

Shelter, sex, and touch are examples of

primary reinforcers

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

The group with food on every trial is making about ________ wrong turns on the average on Trial #6.

16

All three groups are making about ________ wrong turns on the average on Trial #1.

30

What is a Skinner box and what is its purpose?

A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water.

What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?

A reflex is a behavior that humans are born knowing how to do, such as sucking or blushing; these behaviors happen automatically in response to stimuli in the environment. Learned behaviors are things that humans are not born knowing how to do, such as swimming and surfing. Learned behaviors are not automatic; they occur as a result of practice or repeated experience in a situation.

Who proposed observational learning?

Albert Bandura

________ is well known for his research on animals and pigeons. He even created an operant conditioning chamber designed to reward animals for specific behaviors.

B.F. Skinner

What is the main idea of operant conditioning?

Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments.

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are they alike? How do they differ?

Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves an organism forming an association between an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

Cara is 17 years old. Cara's mother and father both drink alcohol every night. They tell Cara that drinking is bad and she shouldn't do it. Cara goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think Cara will do? Why?

Cara is more likely to drink at the party because she has observed her parents drinking regularly. Children tend to follow what a parent does rather than what they say.

Explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are considered opposites.

In stimulus generalization, an organism responds to new stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, a dog barks when the doorbell rings. He then barks when the oven timer dings because it sounds very similar to the doorbell. On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns a response to a specific stimulus, but does not respond the same way to new stimuli that are similar. In this case, the dog would bark when he hears the doorbell, but he would not bark when he hears the oven timer ding because they sound different; the dog is able to distinguish between the two sounds.

________ broke the constraints of ________, which emphasized that learning was the direct consequence of conditioning to stimuli.

Latent learning; behaviorism

The basic idea behind observational learning is that

Learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say.

Research has shown that in general students prefer reaching out where?

Online through email or messages

What is the effect of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling?

Prosocial modeling can prompt others to engage in helpful and healthy behaviors, while antisocial modeling can prompt others to engage in violent, aggressive, and unhealthy behaviors.

Darkness will naturally cause your pupils to dilate, since they are opening up to let it more light from the surroundings. Light causes the pupil to contract. Knowing this, how could you design a classical conditioning experiment forcing the pupils to dilate?

Ring a bell directly before turning the lights off, twenty times in a row. Then ring the bell.

"Eyeblink conditioning" can be used to demonstrate classical conditioning safely with a human volunteer. A puff of air aimed at your eye will naturally produce a blinking response. Using this reflex, what could we do to create a complete classical conditioning demonstration?

Ring a bell just before the puff of air, until the person blinks to bell alone.

What is shaping and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to roll over?

Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. If you want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down and rolls onto his back. Finally, you would reward him only when he completes the entire sequence: lying down, rolling onto his back, and then continuing to roll over to his other side.

How do students perform that reach out for help compared with those that do not reach out for help?

Students perform better when they reach out for help

How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

This occurs through the process of acquisition. A human or an animal learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During the acquisition phase, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response. The neutral stimulus is becoming the conditioned stimulus. At the end of the acquisition phase, learning has occurred and the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

On Trial #1, the rats in all three conditions were ________ in the number of errors they made.

about the same

In classical conditioning, organisms learn to

associate events that repeatedly happen together.

When a person or animal makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together, they are exemplifying ________ learning.

associative learning

In the modeling process, you learn by watching someone else. Sophie learns by watching her older brother get in trouble for staying out too late that she should also not stay out late. Sophie learned this by following the steps of the modeling process, which are

attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Which is the correct order of steps in the modeling process?

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

Which of the following is an example of a variable interval reinforcement schedule?

checking your Facebook account at random times throughout the day

In ________ conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus unconditionally elicits a reaction. For example, a bit of black pepper blown into the eye produces a blinking response.

classical

For each of the following, determine whether it is an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning. Emily's mouth starts to water whenever she gets ready to eat fresh baked pizza. Recently she noticed that she now salivates when she drives past her favorite pizza shop on the way to school even though she cannot see or smell the pizza from inside the car.

classical conditioning

For each of the following, determine whether it is an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning. Frank goes out with some friends to a new restaurant near campus. He gets fish-and-chips, but he also drinks a few too many mixed drinks and gets sick. The next time he goes to the restaurant, he avoids the fish-and-chips because the very thought of them makes him feel nauseous.

classical conditioning

In ________ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior.

classical conditioning

When Justin's dog hears the sound of a car door slam outside, she excitedly runs to the door and barks. This is an example of

classical conditioning

Two forms of associative learning are ________ and ________.

classical conditioning; operant conditioning

In Pavlov's work with dogs, the "psychic secretions" were ________.

conditioned responses

Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Erma sells hotdogs for one dollar each in the stands at the local professional baseball stadium. For every hotdog she sells, she puts 25 cents in her pocket and 75 cents in her boss's change purse.

continuous

________ reinforcement is giving a reinforcer every time that a behavior is displayed.

continuous

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

John got terribly sick after eating a burger at a local fast-food chain. He cannot even drive past that restaurant without feeling nauseous. Oddly enough, he can eat at and pass several other fast food burger joints and not feel ill. What is most likely happening here?

distinction

Molly attempts to condition her puppy to greet her when she enters the house. She repeatedly pairs her entry to the house with a treat for the puppy. The puppy eventually acquires this ability, but then Molly realizes how irritating it is for the puppy to run up to her every time she enters the house. Molly stopped giving the puppy treats, and eventually the puppy no longer jumps on her when she walks in the door. The puppy no longer greeting her when she enters the house is an example of ________.

extinction

When a previously learned behavior disappears because the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, we call it ________.

extinction

Based on the data above, were girls more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?

female model

After Trial #11, the "No Food Until Trial 11" group performed more like the ________ group.

food on every trial

Which group seems to have reached the dotted reference line most quickly?

food on every trial

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

A CS and UCS are associated so the CS now produces a CR without presentation of the UCS. If a new stimulus that is similar to the CS also produces the CR, we have an example of ________.

generalization

A light and a shock are associated so the light now produces a fear response without presentation of the shock. If a new light that is similar to, but not identical to the original light produces the fear response, we have an example of ________.

generalization

Pavlov conditions a dog to salivate when he rings a bell. Now he changes the bell to one with a much deeper tone and the dog salivates, even though the bell is clearly different from the original one. Responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original CS is ________.

generalization

When Anna's old roommate would go to the kitchen first thing in the morning, she would always make coffee. Anna would stay in bed a few extra minutes and grab a cup of coffee as she left for class. Now Anna hears her new roommate go to the kitchen, so she stays in bed a few extra minutes. As she leaves for class, she is surprised that there is no coffee. Anna's mistaken assumption that her roommate would make coffee is based on ________.

generalization

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

Before Trial #11, the "No Food Until Trial 11" group performed more like the ________ group.

no food on any trial

The dependent variable in this study was ________.

number of errors made while running through the maze

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that ________.

occurs as a result of experience

In which class setting has research shown that students report feeling less threatened in reaching out for help from peers or their teacher?

online environment

Doing something and then being influenced by what happens as a consequence of the thing you did is the basic idea behind ________.

operant conditioning

For each of the following, determine whether it is an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning. Last week, little Jack got a bag of cookies from the cabinet and ate them all. When his mother found out, she didn't let him watch television that evening as punishment. The next day, Jack thinks about having cookies, but decides that it is not a great idea.

operant conditioning

For each of the following, determine whether it is an example of classical conditioning or operant conditioning. Mittens the cat just happened to brush against the refrigerator when Jana, her owner, was in the kitchen. Jana said, "Oh, you want some milk!" and gave her a little bowl. Mittens started hanging out near the refrigerator more often, which meant she brushed against it more often. Jana thought it was cute, so she gave her milk every time she brushed the refrigerator. Soon, mittens learned that brushing against the refrigerator was a sure way to get some milk.

operant conditioning

Gillian's kids struggle to get out the door in the morning for school, so she creates a sticker chart where they can put on a sticker each time they are ready to go before 7 a.m. Once they fill they chart, they'll get a new bunk bed. This is an example of ________.

operant conditioning

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

In Tolman's study, the independent variable was ________.

the presence of food at the end of the maze

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior

Which of the following is an example of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule?

taking your dog to the park every afternoon at 4:00 p.m.

Sierra and her family are on vacation at the beach. They eat lasagna for dinner and then head out to the waves. Sierra tries boogie boarding and ends up swallowing a mouthful of salt water, which makes her sick to her stomach. The next time someone offers her lasagna, the thought of it makes Sierra feel sick. This is an example of a/an ________.

taste aversion

Which one of the following is not true of latent learning?

the behaviors are present innately, without experience

Extinction occurs when ________.

the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Based on the data above, did boys or girls on the average show more verbal aggression toward the Bobo doll?

the difference is not clear

In the study with Little Albert, he was conditioned to fear a rabbit because it was paired with a frightening loud sound. In this example, what was the unconditioned stimulus?

the loud sound

Playing the slots at a casino works on a ________ reinforcement schedule.

variable ratio

Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Myron is a waiter in a college restaurant. Sometimes he gets a tip and sometimes the students leave nothing. Whether the night is busy (Friday) or dead (Tuesday), on the average he gets a real tip from about 50% of his customers, but some nights everyone is generous and other nights everyone is stingy.

variable ratio

Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule?

variable ratio

Sven eats popcorn every time he goes to the movies. He goes to a new theatre with no concessions and finds that his mouth is watering for popcorn the entire time. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?

watching a movie

Before Bandura proposed his Bobo doll experiment, most learning specialists believed that learning only occurred ________.

when an individual did something and discovered the consequences directly

habituation

when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change