Learning & Development

Peter Senge's The Fifth Discipline discusses five disciplines that interface and support one another in order to create an environment where learning can occur

- Systems thinking: framework that makes patterns clearer and helps one see how things interrelate and how to change them. - Mental models: deeply ingrained assumptions that influence how we understand and take action - Personal mastery: high level of proficiency in a subject or skill area. - Team learning: developing the capacity of a team to create the results its members desire. - Shared vision: is a look into the future and is shared by all who need to possess it.

Action learning requires that leaders and managers immediately implement what was learned. When compelled to apply new skills immediately, leaders and potential leaders:

- Take the learning more seriously. - Pay closer attention. - Actually try the new methods suggested. - Test what is really understood. - Retain information more effectively.

selection stakeholders need to complete an organizational analysis that reflects the following factors:

- The fundamental or generic nature of all executive work - Changing phases in the growth or progress of the hiring organization - Current contextual challenges facing the organization - The strategic direction of the organization intended by current top executives and the board of directors

Explicit vs Tacit knowledge

Explicit knowledge can be more easily shared than tacit knowledge. For example, explicit knowledge might be shared through a database or taught through a learning intervention. Because tacit knowledge is personal and experience-based, it is more challenging to quantify.

Zenger and Folkman identify five fatal flaws that lead to failure as a leader:

Inability to learn from mistakes Lack of core interpersonal skills Lack of openness to new or different ideas Lack of accountability Lack of initiative

***A hospital director wants to identify the best candidate for head nurse among currently employed nurses. Which type of assessment would be most effective in evaluating candidates?

Manager assessment Manager assessments would best identify future potential. The other choices may provide helpful information but would not fully evaluate a nurse's current performance against the future job.

Learning and Development in Global Organizations

Mentoring and coaching are important activities in the global enterprise Topics specific to global employee learning and development include: -Cross-cultural awareness. - International assignment preparation. - Global team building and managing virtual teams. - Issues related to laws, ethics, and organizational values. (Examples include anticorruption and antibullying.)

***In an e-learning environment, what type of learning is being used when participants gather for discussion online at a specific time?

Synchronous learning: when participants interact in real time; asynchronous learning is when participants access the learning materials at different times. Distance learning is when instruction is delivered to locations away from a classroom with no specific time element.

***Many employees in the manufacturing department will be retiring in the next six months. The department supervisor asks the HR manager to identify ways to capture the employees' knowledge. In order to address this request, what should the HR manager identify first?

The knowledge that will be lost when the employees retire

Center for Creative Leadership designed a model of learning called the 70-20-10 rule.

The rule proposes that to develop managers it is important to engage them in three clusters of experience using a 70-20-10 ratio: challenging assignments (70%), developmental relationships (20%), and coursework and training (10%).

Technology-based systems

These can include programs or databases that employees can access. Technology-based systems are great for retaining explicit knowledge but not as effective for tacit knowledge. ex. A collaborative Wiki could be used to allow employees to add and edit information.

*** Which is the primary purpose of creating and communicating training program objectives?

To support measurement of the acquisition of learning

Factors that may be important during the trainer selection process include:

Training expertise. Subject matter expertise. Consulting skills. Credibility with the local audience. Qualifications, education, and certification. Cultural familiarity. Communication and language expertise. It may be difficult to find all of the required characteristics in one individual. Pairing facilitators is an effective strategy that may allow for larger groups and simultaneously reduce the stress on the primary instructor.

Instructor-Led Training

Training is delivered by an instructor to an audience. may incorporate several types of learning activities, including presentations and lectures, case studies, readings, demonstrations, group discussions, infographics, and simulations. **Demonstration is best used when a trainee needs to see the correct way to operate equipment or concrete steps for completing a task.

HR professionals play a critical role in development of the organization's workforce

by ensuring that learning and development functions align with the organization's strategic goals. - accomplished by participating in the strategic planning process and incorporating input from stakeholders - may be involved in initiating, facilitating, and interpreting workforce analytics used to guide decisions on workforce development needs. Should regularly scan the internal and external environment and do needs assessments to identify critical learning opportunities.

Additional differences between coaching and mentoring include:

coaching and mentoring are generally delivered by individuals with different qualifications. - Roles. A coach has a set agenda to reinforce or change skills and behaviors. Mentoring is a power-free, two-way, mutually beneficial relationship where mentors act more as facilitators and teachers, allowing mentees to discover their own direction. - Focus. Coaching is short-term and task-based (sometimes timebound) and focused on specific development areas/issues. Mentoring is typically longer-term and takes a broader view of the person. - Agendas. Coaches help individuals to identify their own values, align goals to those values, and then self-analyze in order to improve performance and behavior. Mentors use their expertise in the field to guide others, from their own experience, to be successful.

Developmental activities

have a long-term focus on preparing for future responsibilities while increasing the capacities of employees to perform their current jobs. These activities are broader in scope than training activities. Ex. The sales manager is identified as a potential leader in the division and is provided with additional learning opportunities to develop leadership capabilities.

Softer systems

include meetings or other activities that take place to share knowledge and help people connect with one another. - Softer systems may also include the use of knowledge maps or knowledge cafés. Ex. communities of practice (CoPs) where groups of individuals with shared interests come together in person or virtually to tell stories, share and discuss problems and opportunities, discuss best practices, and so forth

Career development

the process by which employees progress through a series of stages in their careers, each of which is characterized by relatively unique issues, themes, and tasks. organizations can design and implement strategies that are simultaneously aligned with the organization's business objectives and the personal interests, goals, and aspirations of the individual

Organizational learning

types of learning activities or processes that may occur at any one of several levels within an organization—individual, group, or organization: - Individual learning - Group learning - Organizational learning begins through the shared insights and knowledge of individuals and groups and then builds on past organizational memory such as policies, strategies, and models.

Knowledge maps

visually represent the inventory of knowledge and where it is spread throughout the organization. They can be used to identify how knowledge moves through the organization and so can identify bottlenecks, risks, and opportunities for the organization.

CCL's research identified the following types of experiences that contributed most to leadership development:

- Starting something from scratch - Fixing something that is broken - Assignments outside of one's home country - Switching from line to staff or staff to line - Making big leaps in scope (complexity) or scale (size) - Handling various types of projects, such as product launches, acquisitions, or reorganizations one of the worst things one can do is to become very good at one thing. This leads to a too-narrow focus and perspective.

The 70-20-10 rule

proposes that to develop leaders it is important to engage them in challenging assignments (70%), developmental relationships (20%), and coursework and training (10%). Leadership development strategies can be formal or informal.

On-the-job training (OJT)

provided to employees by managers and supervisors at the actual work site; it may also involve peer-to-peer training. The skill is demonstrated, the learner is allowed to practice the skill, the trainer delivers immediate feedback on the learner's performance, and then the learner is retested.

Leader development

refers to an organization's training and professional development programs targeted to assist management- and executive-level employees in developing the skills, abilities, and flexibility required to deal with a variety of situations. initiatives must be linked in explicit and coherent ways to best manage the leadership talent of the organization and must be tied to the strategic plan (goals) of the organization.

Learning style

refers to the way individuals take in and process new information. The concept is based on the idea that people learn differently and that tailoring the delivery of the information to address those differences will enhance learning and retention.

Assessment centers

similar to SJTs in that they can provide to candidates a wide range of leadership situations and problem-solving exercises. These can include in-basket tests, financial or business data analysis, leaderless group discussions, interview simulations, role plays, and psychological inventories. The batteries of exercises are observed by multiple raters who provide judgments on each of the targeted performance dimensions. Then, assessors come together to integrate the ratings and provide an overall assessment score.

Leadership

the ability of an individual to influence a group or another individual toward the achievement of goals and results. it is not synonymous with and should not be confused with status, power, or official authority.

ADDIE model

A well-known and standard instructional design model that is conducive to any type of learning A = Analysis (of needs): data is collected to identify gaps between actual and desired organizational performance D = Design: information discovered during the needs analysis will be used to develop broad goals and objectives, broad plans for the treatment of the content, and the strategy for implementation. D = Development: materials are created, purchased, or modified to meet the stated objectives. Choices are made among the many types of learning activities, methods of training delivery, and technological tools that can be used. I = Implementation: the program is delivered to the target audience. Several types of activities, including pilot programs, revisions to content, announcements and launch events are done during implementation. E = Evaluation: consists of comparing the program results to the established objectives to determine whether the original needs were met.

"Push" training

Content was "pushed" to employees based on the training department's schedule, and success was measured by how many employees attended the class. Still generally used for required training such as compliance-related subjects.

The following are factors with potential implications for overall program success and local acceptance:

- "Born" versus "made" perceptions. Cultures that perceive that leadership is an innate attribute are unlikely to recognize the value of leadership development programs. As a result, efforts to recruit individuals to participate in these programs may have only limited success. - Local acceptance and support. programs in these locations may be poorly communicated and poorly supported. - Organizational culture. should give special consideration to the positioning, communication, and long-term support of leadership development efforts in cultures that may not see the value of these programs. - Leadership models. Leadership values and models are highly culture-specific. Human resource professionals implementing leadership development programs must be vigilant to avoid imposing cultural leadership beliefs and values on others who may not share those beliefs. - Localization requirements. When creating and implementing leadership development programs, it is also essential that human resource professionals present the organization's leadership competencies and values in the way they are demonstrated and reflected in the local culture.

Success of the strategies and systems ultimately depends upon several factors, such as:

- A culture and structure that champions knowledge sharing and learning. - Proper planning, design, and evaluation. - Effective knowledge-sharing practices. - Adequate financing and sound financial management. - Sustained leadership support.

Checklist of Adult Learning Principles

- Adults want a focus on "real world" issues. - Emphasis on how the learning can be applied is desired. - Adult learners will come with goals and expectations. - Allow debate and challenge of ideas, but keep disagreements unheated. - Promote a learning environment that is collaborative. Allow participants to receive feedback from the instructor and peers. - Take the knowledge and experience of the person into account. Learning for adults can be enhanced by asking questions and having discussions.

Employee Self-Assessment Tools

- Apprenticeships: combine on-the-job experience with classroom instruction. - Job rotation (cross-training): refers to employee movement between different jobs. - Job enlargement (job expansion): employee is given additional, different tasks within the same job. gives the employee a variety of responsibilities *** job design strategy that increases the variety of responsibilities but requires the same skill level - Job enrichment: increases the depth of a job by adding related responsibilities such as planning, organizing, tracking, and completing reports. - Involvement with special projects, committees, and task forces - Internal Mobility: Promotion, demotion, transfers, international assignments, dual career ladder (***A dual career ladder allows technical employees to earn as much as they would in a management position.) - Mentoring (formal and informal): developmentally oriented relationship between two individuals

To establish a culture that fosters career development, leaders should:

- Clearly link career development to the organization's mission and business objectives. - Clearly communicate business goals so that career management plans are aligned with business systems and needs. - Place value on and reward managers and supervisors who help employees with career planning. - Participate in career development workshops and meetings. - Identify measures of success (metrics) to track performance.

Action learning is built on a foundation of core organizational values, including:

- Continuous learning as part of the "real work" of organization members. - Continuous improvement in behaviors and processes. - The central importance of reflection in action. - Feedback and open and honest communication. - The need to learn how to learn.

At a minimum, an IDP should include the following information:

- Employee profile—name, position title, name of the employee's supervisor, and other relevant position information - Career goals and objectives—identification of the position(s) and roles to be pursued and the time frames; identification of short- and long-term goals with estimated and actual completion dates - Development objectives—statements linking organizational and/or business unit mission, goals, and objectives and the employee's career goals and objectives - Training and development interventions—activities the employee will pursue to build knowledge, skills, and/or behaviors with estimated and actual completion dates - Outcomes—how development-building efforts will be measured or assessed - Signatures and dates—sign-offs by the supervisor and the employee

obstacles that prevent leadership from being developed to its potential:

- Slowly developing crises (as opposed to explosive crises that seem to call forth leadership talents) - Suppressive effects of large and complex organizations and communities - Educational systems and business rewards that value individual performance over teamwork - Negative publicity often associated with high visibility - Lack of a global mindset - Insufficient organizational focus on leadership development

Other examples of experiential learning (outside of OJT) strategies include the following

- Job rotation. an organization might offer opportunities to move through a variety of positions within the department or team. This strategy helps employees stay fresh and engaged, develops their skill sets, and also allows them to help others within their department or team. - Simulations. Sometimes it is not possible to put an employee directly into an actual job role. However, simulations can replicate certain aspects of a job and provide an employee with the opportunity to practice skills or knowledge. The simulation might be based on a potential future promotion or transfer or be a more general skills development program (for example, interviewing, conflict resolution, customer service interactions).

Obstacles to adult learning

- Low tolerance for change. HR professionals can impress upon employees that change makes their jobs more challenging as well as more secure and prepares them to accept a variety of responsibilities that will increase their value as employees. - Lack of trust. If employees do not trust that learning is worthwhile or have had negative experiences in the past, they will not commit to make it worthwhile. To overcome this obstacle, it is helpful to involve these individuals in the design of their plan. The connection to the corporate mission, strategies, and tactical plans must be clear. - Peer group pressure. If employees perceive that a learning/development program is inconsequential, those perceptions may transfer to others in the department. HR professionals have to find the root of the negative perceptions. Once the resistance is understood, HR professionals can communicate how participation will help employees - Bad experience with previous learning programs. Many employees have attended boring or irrelevant learning programs. Emphasize the "What's in it for me?" factor of the learning initiative. - Lack of organizational commitment to learning. Situational barriers can negatively impact employee engagement and learning. For example, an employee's immediate manager needs to support participation in learning intervention and learning transfer so that the employee can apply what is learned when he or she is back on the job. Foster learning relationships through coaching, mentoring, on-the-job training, and apprenticeships, as appropriate.

Many orgs do not use the 70-20-10 rule, do to several factors:

- Managers and their bosses do not have the knowledge they need to select and sequence work assignments and career moves. Additionally, they lack the motivation to take ownership for developmental relationships for themselves or their teams. - Organizations are unable to match the learning needs of high-potential managers to the experiences most likely to provide that learning. - Past research has focused on the experiences of U.S.-based corporations, and organizations may find it inappropriate to generalize this knowledge outside the United States.

Effective leadership development methods and strategies include the following.

- More challenging assignments - Risk Management - Real-Life Problem Solving in "Controlled" Environment - Training - Action Learning Leadership: based on the concept of learning and building skills while working to solve real business issues.

The War for Talent by Michaels, Handfield-Jones, and Axelrod offers the following to support the need for leadership development:

- One-third of Fortune 500 CEOs last fewer than three years: Several studies demonstrate that leaders may have the knowledge and intellect to succeed but fail because they lack the necessary people skills. This impairs their ability to learn from mistakes and readily adapt to change. - Failure rates among all top executives range between 30% and 75%. - Over half of first-time senior managers stumble; some never recover. - Studies indicate that executive leadership quality accounts for as much as 45% of an organization's performance. - Only 3% of executives think their company develops people well.

Three Levels of Needs Analysis

- Organizational: Identifies the knowledge, skills, and abilities employees will need in the future. - Task: Compares job requirements to employee knowledge and skills to identify areas requiring improvement. - Individual: Focuses on individual employees and how they perform their jobs. Sometimes determined through performance reviews.

Common Types of Competency Assessments

- Self-assessment: Allows individuals to evaluate themselves against a competency list for the current job or future jobs of interest. - Manager assessment: Allows a manager to evaluate direct reports on competencies for the current job or future jobs of interest. - Competency-based interview: Screens candidates who qualify for a job by targeting specific competencies required for the position. - Skills gap analysis: Identifies gaps in employee skills and training interventions. - 360-degree assessment: Collects data in a full circle around an individual; compares self-ratings to ratings by others - 180-degree assessment: Collects data in a half circle around an individual; compares self-ratings to ratings by others but limited to internal personnel (for example, an immediate supervisor, peers, and/or subordinates). - Skill assessment center: Uses role plays, case studies, structured experiences, simulations, business games, and other activities to provide a holistic perspective of individual competencies aligned to a position. - Certifications: Involves supervisors or other subject matter experts and evaluators in verifying (certifying) an employee's competencies. If the employee is not successful, he or she receives positive but corrective feedback and prescribed follow-up actions. - Personality assessment: Uses data to evaluate leadership potential on the basis of personality, looking for traits such as integrity. Assessment must be careful to avoid bias.

several reasons why succession planning and leadership development are crucial concerns:

- The speed of change is increasing, and the type of change that organizations experience is likely to be radical and discontinuous. This argues for greater shared leadership in organizations. - Complexity in the challenges faced by organizations across most industry sectors is increasing exponentially. Such complexity typically exceeds the capacity of any single leader to make sense of and develop workable solutions. - Task migration occurs whereby traditionally higher-level leadership responsibilities are transferred to leaders at lower levels. This is partly a function of the trend toward flatter organizations, but it is also due to the greater speed and complexities of challenges. - The growth of senior leaders is contingent on the second level of leadership development below them.

Finkelstein, in Why Smart Executives Fail, cites seven habits of spectacularly unsuccessful executives:

- They see themselves and their companies as dominant. - They identify so completely with the company that no clear boundaries exist between personal and company interests. - They think they have all the answers. -They eliminate anyone who isn't 100% behind them. - They are obsessed with the company image. - They underestimate major obstacles. - They stubbornly rely on what has worked for them in the past.

three distinct learning styles

- Visual learners learn best through seeing. These learners need to see body language and facial expression to fully understand content. In a traditional classroom setting, they prefer sitting at the front in order to avoid visual obstructions. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays, including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, PowerPoint slides. Visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information. - Auditory learners learn best through hearing. Lectures, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others have to say are their preferred methods of learning. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a recording. - Kinesthetic learners, also known as tactile learners, learn best through a hands-on approach. They prefer to actively explore the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. Understanding learning styles and modifying your instruction to meet all of them helps to increase the retention rate of your adult learners.

When creating knowledge retention strategies, an organization needs to consider:

- What knowledge may be lost. - The consequences of losing that knowledge. - The actions that can be taken to retain that knowledge.

Questions that must be answered during the process of instructor selection include:

- Who should deliver the training? - Will headquarters instructors, local instructors, or independent contractors be used? - How will instructors be prepared for and introduced to their responsibilities? - What does the audience expect from the instructor? - What characteristics will give the instructor the greatest credibility with the audience? Factors that may be important during the selection process include:

Career development consists of two processes

- career planning: actions and activities individuals perform to give direction to their work lives - Career management: the process of preparing, implementing, and monitoring an employee's career path with a primary focus on the goals and needs of the organization.

IDPs are most effective when they:

-Align with organizational needs. -Reflect an objective, accurate assessment of the employee's current strengths and needs. -Feature SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-based) goals. -Focus on challenging development activities tied to individual needs. -Include opportunities for coaching and feedback between the employee and HR, the manager, or any other appropriate people. -Are embraced and owned by the employee.

Training program evaluations can:

-Determine whether a program achieved its objectives. -Identify best practices as well as the strengths and weaknesses of individual programs. -Help the organization assess the cost-benefit ratio of training. -Identify which participants benefited the most and least from the training effort. -Gather data to assist in designing and marketing future programs. -Determine whether the program content and learning methods were appropriate. -Establish a database of information to assist in future strategic decision making. Training program evaluation is essential to the evaluation of the transfer of learning.

Pilot testing allows for evaluation of:

-The level of content detail and the sequencing. -The effectiveness and cultural appropriateness of the selected learning activities. -The time allotted to key activities. -The usability and potential constraints of the physical space in which the program will be delivered. -Whether the content and the design result in meeting the intended objectives. can provide useful feedback and identify potential content or deployment problems before program launch.

Moore suggests an action mapping process consisting of the following steps:

1. Identify, with stakeholders, a specific problem based on current metrics or measurements. Using that identification, create a project goal. 2. Create a list of performance objectives consisting of specific behaviors that are observable, and prioritize them. 3. Determine how to help people practice the skills and behaviors that have been identified. They must feature specific, realistic challenges and the feedback given must show the consequences of the choices the learner makes. 4. Identify the key information needed for each learning activity to be completed successfully. Taken together with the list of performance objectives and practice activities, the result is a map that identifies key activities and information required to achieve the specific project goal. 5. Create an activity stream, consisting of the activities identified, to create engaging content. Avoid presenting knowledge and testing or doing activities at the conclusion of the training. Instead, focus on using the activities as a tool to share the information throughout to help drive understanding.

What does an effective pre- and post-test training assessment measure?

Changes in knowledge before and after training

four roles managers can perform in order to further their employees' career development:

Coach—listening to, clarifying, and assisting in identifying the employee's career concerns Appraiser—giving feedback and clarifying performance standards and job responsibilities Advisor—suggesting options, making recommendations, giving advice, and helping the employee set goals Referral agent—consulting with employees on action plans and linking them to available organizational resources

Effective practices for developing global business leaders include:

Longer-term international assignments. International cross-functional team participation. Internal management/executive development programs. Development of global management teams. Mentoring and coaching. International leader development centers. 360-degree feedback.

"pull" model, learning and development

a continuous process, easily accessible anywhere and anytime usually linked to acquiring skills, abilities, knowledge, and competencies needed to better perform one's job.

Blended learning

a planned approach that includes a combination of instructor-led training, self-directed study, and/or on-the-job training. Studies have shown that the right mix of learning strategies may be more effective than a single strategy. *** has lower delivery costs than strategies that rely exclusively on face-to-face training

knowledge café

a process that introduces individuals from across the organization so that they can share knowledge and experience about a topic that is of interest to them. Knowledge cafés can be informal and don't require any specific expertise to organize or run. - functions to enhance problem solving and awareness of capabilities throughout the organization and increase networking.

learning organization

a systems-level concept in which an organization is characterized by its ability to adapt to changes in its environment and respond quickly to lessons of experience by altering organizational behavior. a type of organization that has "learned" to react and adapt to its environment. Provides the environment for organizational learning. In a learning organization: - Learning is accomplished by the organizational system as a whole. - Systems thinking is practiced. - Employees network inside and outside the organization. - Change is embraced, risk is tolerated, and failures are viewed as opportunities to learn. - The organization adapts and changes as the environment changes.

Action mapping

a technique proposed by Cathy Moore in response to her observation that learning and development often tend to participate in information dumps, where a stakeholder has information that they wish to share and requests that training be built around that information. can result in training that doesn't actually address organizational needs and that fails to solve any performance problems.

successive approximation model (SAM),

a version of ADDIE that works to gain feedback and build models earlier in the process than ADDIE does. SAM has three phases: - preparation: gathering information about scope, requirements, and goals. - iterative design: "Savvy Start," where collaborative brainstorming is used to create the project foundation and reach consensus on the overall approach. prototype is developed and reviewed, feedback is gathered from stakeholders, and the prototype is adjusted as a result - iterative development: Once the prototype is finalized, it is implemented and evaluated in the iterative development phase. may result in a return to earlier design phases to continue to adjust and prototype solutions to problems identified Each step in the design and development phases is repeated and returned to as necessary, continually improving on the previous work.

Self-Directed Study

allows learners to progress at their own pace without the assistance of an instructor.

individual development plan (IDP)

details an employee's intentions and learning outcomes as well as the support necessary to meet the employee's tangible growth goals. should incorporate components of adult learning, organizational development, and corporate culture.

Andragogy/ assumptions

discipline that studies how adults learn based on the following assumptions about the differences between how adults and children learn: - Self-concept. adults are self-directed human beings. - Experience. accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning. - Readiness to learn. their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles. - Orientation to learning. their orientation toward learning shifts from subject-focused to problem-focused. - Motivation to learn. motivation to learn becomes increasingly internal. - "Unlearn to learn." Adult learning interventions need to help them accept fresh perspectives and embrace new ways to do things.

Training

ex. a process of providing knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) specific to a particular task or job. It provides skills that can be used immediately and is an excellent solution for solving short-term skill gaps. ex. A sales manager is trained on how to develop high-performance teams.

The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) concluded in their research that there are four major groups of experiences that were most beneficial:

key jobs, hardships, training, and important people. Challenging and multifunctional work assignments may teach self-confidence, toughness, persistence, knowledge of the business, skill in managing relationships, a sense of independence, and leadership. Bosses and mentors can demonstrate strong leadership (good and bad) by example.

Bloom's taxonomy

learning objectives proceed in a hierarchical manner. lowest level to highest: - Knowledge, or remembering facts. - Recognition of learning content when content is presented differently. - Application of learning to an example in order to - draw a conclusion or to identify a principle at work. - Using learning content to analyze the causes or possible outcomes in an example. - Making judgments about the value of materials and methods for given purposes. - Using learning content to create new solutions to a problem.