Lecture Exam 1

in basic terms, how does each of the clinical imaging techniques described in class produce images of the body?

X-rays send electromagnetic waves of very short length through the body, computed (axial) tomography takes successive x-rays around a person's full circumference, positron emission tomography (PET) forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) produces high-quality images of soft tissues, sonography (ultrasound imaging) body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body's tissues

what is endomysium?

a fine sheath of loose connective tissue wrapping each muscle cell

what is the endosteum?

a membrane lining the inner surface of the bony wall

what does pluripotent mean in regards to stem cells?

a stem cell that can become any cell type (embryonic stems cells are an example of this)

deep (internal)

away from the body surface; more internal

inferior (caudal)

away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below

lateral

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side

intermediate

between a more medial and a more lateral structure

what are the functions of Volkman's canals and canaliculi?

canals allow blood vessels to run between osteons and canaliculi allow neighboring osteocytes to communicate

list three features that are common to all types of connective tissue, except for blood?

cells separated by a large amount of extracellular matrix/ground substance matrix contains protein fibers migrating, star-shaped cells

how are osteons organized?

circles that include lamellae and blood vessels, run long ways down the bone

proximal

closer to the origin of the body part of the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

what are lamellae?

compact bone that surrounds blood vessels within the bone

what are the two main classifications of bone tissue?

compact bone: dense outer layer of bone spongy (cancellous) bone: internal network of bone trabeculae

how is a cilium organized?

core nine pairs of microtubules encircling one middle pair arranged in a doublet, dynein arms then are spread between doublets

what are the three different planes of section through the body?

coronal (frontal) plane (divides body into front and back halves), median (midsaggital) plane (divides body into left and right halves), transverse plane (divides body into upper and lower halves)

what are dense bodies in smooth muscle cells? what are their analogous structures in skeletal muscle cells?

dense bodies are anchoring sites for actin filaments the same way z-disks are in skeletal muscle

what is epimysium?

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle

what are the primary functions of the lysosomes/peroxisomes?

digest unwanted substances and break down long chains of fatty acids, amino acids and toxins

what are the different body cavities and which organs are in each?

dorsal body cavity: cranial (contains brain) and vertebral cavities (contains spinal cord) ventral body cavity: thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs) and abdominopelvic cavities (abdominal cavity contains liver, stomach, intestines, kidneys, and other organs while pelvic cavity contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum)

what are the four types of primary tissue and what are their basic functions?

epithelial: covers a body surface or lines a hallow organ or body cavity connective: supporting body structures, can be connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, or blood nervous: receives stimuli and sends signals to the brain and spinal cord muscle: to create movement, can be skeletal, cardiac, or smooth

distal

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

what cell type is responsible for producing the extracellular matrix and protein fibers of loose (areolar) connective tissue?

fibroblasts

what are fascicles with respect to skeletal muscle?

groups of muscle cells

how do the tissue dyes, hematoxylin and eosin, bind to the tissues? what does each dye preferentially stain?

hematoxylin is basic and blue (positively charged dye molecules bind to negative charges) eosin is acidic and pink (negatively charged dye molecules bind to positive charges in tissue)

what are the different types of cartilage and what are their locations?

hyaline cartilage: glassy fibers that support and reinforce to protect against repetitive stress, located in growing bones, costal cartilages and nose elastic cartilage: more elastic fibers, maintains shape and structure and allows for flexibility, located at external ear fibrocartilage: less firm than hyaline, thick collagen fibers, resists strong compression and tension shock

what makes up the inorganic component(s) of bone? what makes up theorganic component?

inorganic: mineral salts, primarily calcium phosphate organic: cells, fibers, and organic substances

what are transverse tubules (T tubules)?

invaginations of plasma membrane, conduct electrical signals from the surface to the SR

What are the primary functions of smooth ER?

lipid synthesis, detoxifying enzymes, calcium storage

what constituents make up the cytoskeleton?

microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), and intermediate filaments

what are the differences between microvilli and cilia?

microvilli are short stiff projections of plasma membrane that increase surface area while cilium are longer motile protrusions that move rhythmically

what are the steps involved in exocytosis?

moves substances out of the cell 1. substance is enclosed in a secretory vesicle 2. vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane 3. proteins from the vesicles bind with membrane proteins 4. lipid layers from both membranes bind, and the vesicle releases its contents to the outside of the cell

what are myofibrils?

myosin, actin, tropomyosin, and troponin make up the contractile group of myofibrils

what is the primary function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum? How is it arranged in skeletal muscle cells?

network of tubules surrounding each myofibril, stores calcium

what is the basal lamina?

non-cellular supporting sheet between the epithelium and the connective tissue deep to it

what are the steps in bone remodeling? What cell type is responsible for bone removal?

osteoclast moves along surface and breaks down bone tissue, osteoblasts make the new bone where osteoclast was

what are the components of the plasma membrane?

phospholipid bilayer interspersed with protein, carbohydrates, and cholesterol

what are the primary differences between phagocytosis and pinocytosis?

pinocytosis absorbs small particles while phagocytosis absorbs big molecules

what are the primary functions of the golgi apparatus?

post-translational processing of proteins and sorts products of rough ER and sends them to proper location

list three functions of loose (areolar) connective tissue

provides support and helps protect and cushion organs, muscles, etc.

simple vs compound exocrine glands

simple have a single duct while compound have branching ducts under the skin

describe the morphology of the different types of epithelium

simple: one layer of cells stratified: more than one layer of cells squamous: cells wider than they are tall (plate-like) cuboidal: as wide as they are tall, like cubes columnar: taller than they are wide, like columns

what are the three types of muscle tissue?

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

what is the size and shape of smooth muscle cells compared to skeletal muscle cells? do smooth muscle cells have sarcomeres?

spindle shaped with one central nucleus, no sarcomeres

what are bone trabeculae?

spongy, porous mixture of hard and soft bone, can be found at the end of long bones

what is perimysium?

surrounds each fascicle, dense irregular connective tissue

what are the primary functions of the rough ER?

synthesis of proteins to be secreted out of the cell

what is the appendicular region of the body?

the limbs including the shoulder girdle and pelvis

what is the axial region of the body?

the main axis of the body (head, neck and trunk)

what is the periosteum?

the membrane of blood vessels and nerves that wrap around bones

how is the plasma membrane organized according to the fluid-mosaic model of cell membranes?

the plasma membrane is a mosaic of components—primarily, phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins—that move freely and fluidly in the plane of the membrane

how is a skeletal muscle cell organized?

thick and thin filaments are arranged to form sarcomeres, many sarcomere bundles in overall muscle

what are the two main categories of contractile filaments? what types of proteins make up each of the two filament types and how are they organized to make the filaments?

thick and thin filaments make up the contractile filaments, thin filaments are made up of actin while the thick are made up of myosin, thick and thin filaments form large bundle of sarcomere

how are cardiac muscle cells organized? what are intercalated disks?

thick layer of striated muscle called myocardium, branched cells are separated by loose connective tissue, connected by intercalated discs (complex gap junctions connecting plasma membranes from end to end)

describe the different cell junctions that occur in epithelial tissue

tight junctions close off intercellular space, interlocking proteins in membranes of two cells desmosomes are two disc-like plaques connected across intercellular space by protein chains gap junctions are passageways between two adjacent cells

posterior (dorsal)

toward or at the back of the body; behind

superficial (external)

toward or at the body surface

anterior (ventral)

toward or at the front of the body; in front of

medial

toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of

superior (cranial)

toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

what are the primary differences between light and electron microscopy?

LM illuminates tissue with a beam of light (lower magnification), EM uses beams of electrons (higher magnification)

describe the steps in endochondral ossification that occur during bone development. how is this type of bone formation different from intramembranous ossification?

1. bones are modeled in hyaline cartilage 2. cartilage is replaced by bone 3. cartilages disintegrate, invaded by blood vessels 4. osteoblasts infiltrate tissue; produce osteoids in inframembranous the bone develops directly from mesenchymal cell clusters and doesnt replace anything (flat bones like the skull bones)

what is the hierarchy of structural organization in the body?

1. chemical level (elements and macromolecules) 2. cellular level (cells and their functional subunits) 3. tissue levels (groups of cells performing a common function) 4. organ level (discrete structure made up of more than one tissue) 5. organ system (organs working together for a common purpose) 6. organism (the result of simpler levels all working in unison)