lifespan and development test 2

The Mother's State

1. Age a. Ages 16-35 are "safest" childbearing years b. Younger mothers risk due to immature reproductive system and poor medical care c. Older women have trouble getting pregnant and are more likely to have fraternal twins d. Parenting skills increase from adolescence to mid-20s and then do not increase 2. Emotional condition a. Prolonged, severe maternal emotional stress may be damaging to fetus b. Damage may be due to stress hormones c. Mild to moderate stress may be beneficial to fetal development d. Maternal depression may negatively impact fetal development 3. Nutritional condition a. Recommend 25 to 35 pound weight gain (normal weight women) b. Malnutrition can lead to birth defects i. First trimester malnutrition impacts brain and spinal cord ii. Third trimester malnutrition impact is smaller neurons, brain, and child c. Prenatal malnutrition impact may lead to predisposition to adult diseases d. Adequate levels of folic acid important e. Prenatal nutrition is important but so is diet and care after birth

Breast or Bottle?

1. Breastfeeding more natural form of nutrition a. Reached an all-time low in United States in early 1970s b. Research since then has shown advantages of breastfeeding c. Now nearly 7 in 10 mothers attempt to nurse their newborns d. Many heath benefits of breastfeeding i. Fewer ear infections and respiratory tract problems in children ii. Lower risk of ovarian and breast cancer in moms iii. Milk contains substances that provide nutrition and protection from infection iv. Helps premature babies with weight gain and positively impacts their immune system e. Failure to breastfeed i. Self factors of mom (e.g., sore nipple) ii. Baby issues (e.g., not getting enough nutrition) iii. Younger moms, working moms, and Black moms less likely to breastfeed iv. Hispanic moms high rate of breastfeeding

E. The Father's State

1. Little research on father's contribution (beyond genetic) a. Risk of Down syndrome, fetal neural tube defects, schizophrenia higher in infants of older men

D. Health and Wellness

1. Many 70-and-older adults have at least one chronic impairment a. About half have arthritis or hypertension (high blood pressure) b. About one-third have heart disease 2. Exercise very important to staying healthy a. Low intensity exercise and weight lifting can increase strength b. Exercise can decrease stress and incidence of depression c. Exercise does not halt the inevitable aging process 3. Osteoporosis—disease resulting in loss of bone mass due to loss of minerals a. Nearly one-third of older adults with hip fracture die within one year i. Those who fall tend to restrict activity level ii. Restricting activity levels can lead to further loss of bone mass and muscle b. Female, small stature, smokers at risk for osteoporosis c. Calcium intake and exercise beneficial for reducing osteoporosis d. HRT can be used but there are risks 4. Osteoarthritis—aging of the joints due to use that damages the cartilage resulting in pain and restricted movement

C. Risk and Resilience

1. Werner and Smith longitudinal study of Hawaiian infants a. Children classified into risk groups b. Resilience—ability to get back on course of normal development i. Effects of prenatal and perinatal complications decrease over time ii. Quality of postnatal environment determines outcome of early risk 2. Protective factors—factors that help children overcome disadvantage a. Personal resources—intellectual, social, and communication traits that help one cope b. Supportive postnatal environment—social support from environment matters throughout life

D. Principles of Growth

1.Cephalocaudal principle—head to tail development a.Head growth first, then trunk, then legs b.Newborn head accounts for 25 percent of body; adult head accounts for 12 percent of body 2.Proximodistal principle—center outward to extremities a.Chest and internal organs before arms, then fingers b.Trunk fills out before arms 3.Orthogenetic principle—global and undifferentiated to increased differentiation and hierarchical integration a.Single cell to highly specialized cells (e.g., blood) b.Form functioning systems

D. Psychological Implications

1.Concern with body image a.Concern more prominent in females b.Negative cultural view of menstruation lead to negative image c.Boys more positive body images d.Males positive and negative reactions to sexual maturity e.Changes in relationships with parents i.Conflict due to increasing independence ii.Cultural beliefs impact parental relations (e.g., Mexican American boys closer to parents) iii.Relationships tend to become closer after puberty

Sexual Maturation

1.Due to adrenal gland activity and release of gonadal hormones 2.Gonadal hormones primarily responsible for secondary sex characteristics and sexual maturation

E.A Lifespan Developmental Model of Health

1.Health is a life-long process (influenced by personal choice) 2.Health is determined by genetic and environmental influences 3.Health (and its study) is multidimensional 4.Changes in health involve both gains and losses 5.Health occurs in a sociohistorical context and can be enhanced or constrained by social and historical factors

The Reproductive System

1.Hormone levels fluctuate in both males and females a.Males fluctuate more annually b.Females fluctuate more monthly i.Estrogen and progesterone levels peak at mid ovulation cycle ii.Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)—symptoms experienced just before menstrual flow including breast tenderness, bloating, headaches iii.Some question validity of PMS, may be impacted by expectation as much as hormones vi.Severe PMS may be due to changing hormone levels iv.Drugs like Prozac and vitamin D used to treat PMS symptoms v.Genetic and social factors influence premenstrual and menstrual distress

Physical Behavior

1.Locomotor development a.Developmental norms—typical age of mastery i.Depend on group studied ii.Hide good deal of variation b.Principles of growth i.Cephalocaudal principle, lift head before trunk ii.Proximodistal principle, trunk activities mastered before leg or arm activities iii.Gross motor skills—large muscle (e.g., kicking) iv.Fine motor skills—hand and feet (e.g., writing) v.Orthogenetic principle, early use of whole body and later use of specific body parts c.Crawling, walking, manipulating objects i.Creeping normally begins around seven months ii.Hands and knees crawling normally begins around 10 months iii.Significant increase in ability to explore world iv."Back to Sleep" campaign to reduce SIDS caused some parents to be concerned that their children if they did not crawl at the correct age, but crawling appears to have no great developmental significance

Health and Wellness

1.Many factors impact health (e.g., parent's education, socioeconomic status) 2.Socio-historical context also plays role in the health and wellbeing of a child 3.Nutrition important contributor to childhood health a.Fast foods are often high in carbohydrates and low in nutrition b.Parents can model healthy eating and provide children with healthy food 4.Childhood marked by injuries a.Car crashes are leading cause of childhood fatalities

child physical behavior

1.Master ability to move in a changing environment a.Increased ball-throwing performance b.Improvement in throwing related to ability to integrate body parts 2.Refinement of motor skills (initially awkward) a.Can run in a straight line b.Jump higher, run faster, throw farther c.Some gender differences (boy slightly better) 3.Improvements in eye/hand coordination often due to practice 4.Faster reaction times steady improvement across childhood

D. Health and Wellness

1.Most babies under 750 grams (1 lb, 10 ½ ounces) die within first year 2.Complications of premature birth second leading cause of death during first year 3.Congenital malformations—genetic or prenatal event defects present at birth a.Leading cause of death during first year b.Examples include heart defects, spina bifida 4.Use of vaccinations has lead to significant improvement in infants' health a.Up to 20 percent of those not receiving immunizations more likely to contract the illness b.In United States, immunization-use is highly related to socioeconomic status

Physical Behavior

1.Muscular strength and physical competence increases a.Boys outperform girls (differences driven by biological and social factors) i.Gender-role socialization can help explain sex-differences in physical performance ii.Girls encouraged to be less "Tomboyish" b.Gap between male and female physical skills narrowing c.Largest sex gap related to biological differences, like greater muscle mass in males

Slowing down

1.Older adults tend to perform motor actions more slowly a.Nervous system and motor behavior decline with age b.Difficulty with balance; many compensate for balance problem by walking slower c.Motor actions performed more slowly i.May be the result of brain changes ii.Biggest impact on fine motor tasks iii.Fitness may impact speed iv.Can compensate so performance on familiar task is not as negatively effected

Newborn Capabilities

1.Reflexes—unlearned, involuntary response to stimuli a.Survival reflexes—clear adaptive value (e.g., breathing, eye-blink, sucking) b.Primitive reflexes—unclear use i.Babinski reflex (toe fanning), stepping reflex ii.Typically disappear in early infancy iii.Useful for diagnosing neurological problems iv.Expression primitive, not related to later expression v.Primitive reflexes tend to disappear during early months of infancy vi.Controlled by subcortical part of brain vii.Disappearance of primitive indicator of normal nervous system development

Health and Wellness

1.Sedentary lifestyle of modern society undermining physical fitness of teens 2.Obesity—begin 20 percent or more above ideal weight, a threat to health a.Obesity increases risk of kidney disease, high blood pressure, arthritis b.Product of nature (heredity) and nurture (e.g., inactivity, parenting beliefs) c.Overweight adolescents run risk of health problems later in life 3.Unintentional injuries leading cause of death in teens a.Mostly vehicle accidents b.Homicides and suicide also common causes of death in teens c.Lifestyle choices can contribute to problems i.Alcohol, drug use, and smoking are bad ii.Teens under the influence are more likely to smoke, engage in risky sexual behavior, get into car accidents, fight, and do poorly in school

A. Successful Aging

1.Snowdon (2002) longitudinal study of nuns a.Underwent annual mental and physical testing b.Access to health records c.Level of education positively impacted longevity and health 2.Autobiographies written prior to study analyzed a.Healthier nun used more complex vocabulary in autobiography b.Nuns with autobiographies with positive emotions lived longer

II The Infant

A. Rapid Growth 1. Typical newborn 20" and 7 to 7 1/2 pounds 2. Early size related to prenatal experience a. Ounce per day and inch per month gain b. Growth is in spurts 3. Soft bones ossify (harden) and become interconnected

IV Identifying High-Risk Newborns

A.At-risk status may be due to genetic, prenatal hazards, or perinatal damage B. Apgar test—used to assess newborn status 1. Assesses factors of heart rate, color, muscle tone, respiration, and reflexes 2. Score of 0, 1, or 2 for each factor 3. Apgar score of 7 to 10 good, 6 to 5 ok, less than 4 not good a. Low score symptoms include not breathing or limp b. Low score infants immediately receive medical attention 4. Low birth weight babies a. About 8 percent of newborns are low birth weight—weigh less than 2,500 grams or 5 1/2 pounds at birth b. Some are full-term and some are preterm c. Survival and health of major concern i. Account for about 65 percent of all infant deaths ii.Account for 60 percent of money spent on pregnancy and delivery iii. Very low birth weight even higher medical costs d.Strongly linked to socioeconomic status (poor women have worse nutrition and medical care) e.Associated with multiple births i.Increase in multiple births in part due to greater use of ovulation-stimulating drugs ii. Higher-order multiple births (three or more children) have increased dramatically in past decades f. With neonatal care many low-weight babies survive i. Extremely low birth weight—less that 1,000 grams or 2 lbs., 3 oz. great risk for numerous problems (e.g., deaf, autistic, cerebral palsy) ii. Premature babies not produced enough surfactant—substance that prevents air sacs in lungs from sticking together and allows for breathing g. Several factors that can improve health and survival rates of preemies i. Mother's breast milk ii. Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care)—rhythmic sounds and body temperature may be helpful iii. Massage therapy may help relax baby and assist in weight gain h. Fate of low-birth-weight infants depends on biological condition and postnatal environment (e.g., parental responsiveness) i. Intervention programs like Infant Health and Development Program benefit low-birth-weight infants i. Emphasis on growth-enhancing home environment ii. Linked to increased IQ score in childhood iii. May not be as effective with infants weighting less than 2000 grams (4 pounds, 6 ounces) at birth j. Responsive parenting critical

The Adolescent

A.Puberty—biological change resulting in sexual maturity and capacity to produce children B.The Growth Spurt 1.Adolescent growth spurt a.Triggered by hormones b.Female peak growth for height around age 12, male peaks age 13.4 c.Female peak weight growth around age 12.5, male peak age 13.9 d.Girls gain extra fat primarily in hips, breast, and buttocks e.Boys develop broader shoulders

the adult

A.Typical Changes 1.Appearance and physical functioning a.Most changes after 40 i.Wrinkles, graying and thinning hair, and weight gain ii."Middle-age spread" controllable by exercise, but adults often do not have the time iii.Middle-aged adults only 20 percent in healthy weight range iv.Weight loss common after age 60 v.Loss often involves loss of muscle and bone vi.Real culprit not age, but lack of activity vii.Loss of heart and lung capacity viii.Loss of muscle strength b.Decrease in reserve capacity—ability of organs to respond to demand, lower maximal heart rate c.Older age decline related to decreased involvement in vigorous physical activities 2. Psychological implications a. Negative stereotypes can lead to "ageism"—prejudice against elderly i. Many old individuals do not see themselves as old (Hurd, 1999) ii. Believed that they were not "old" because they avoided nursing home care b. Most older individuals retain sense of wellbeing and function independently

6. Endocrine glands continue function throughout life span

a. Hormones help body metabolize (break down) food b. Declines associated with menopause

The germinal period

a. Lasts about two weeks b. Zygote divides to form blastocyst—hollow ball of 150 cells the size of head of pin

The embryonic period

a. Lasts from the third to eighth weekc. Blastocyst forms layers i. Amnion—watertight membrane surrounding chorion ii. Chorion—membrane on outside of amnion containing villi, which attach to uterine lining iii. Placenta—tissue fed by mother's blood vessels vi. Ectoderm (e.g., brain), mesoderm (e.g., bone, heart), and endoderm (lungs, bladder) layers form d. Brain development apparent after three to four weeksi. Neural plate forms neural tube (bottom is spinal cord) ii. Top of tube forms into forebrain, midbrain, hindbrainv. Neural tube defects occur 25-29 days after conception vi. Level of folic acid in mothers critical for development of embryo i. About seventh to eighth prenatal week, sex genes impact formation of testes or ovaries ii. Secretion of testosterone by male embryo stimulates male internal reproductive system and inhibits female system

Female menopause

a. Menopause—ending of menstrual period in midlife (i.e., no ovulation or menstruation) i.Typical age range is from 45 to 54 ii.Due to drop in hormone levels iii.Age of menopause somewhat related to when mom reached menopause iv.Physical effects include hot flashes—sudden sensation of warmth and sweating—and vaginal dryness v.Psychological effects (e.g., irritability and depression) vary greatly and most women do not experience significant psychological problems vi.Women who have experienced menopause tend to be more positive about it vii.Despite stereotype, menopause tends to be "no big deal" for most women viii.History of menstrual problems good predictor of menopause problems ix.Expectation of impact also predict reaction

fetal period

a. Ninth prenatal week to birth b. Significant brain development i. Proliferation of neurons (250,000 per minute) ii. Significant development between 10 and 20 weeks iii. Increase in number of glial cells that support neural cells iv. Neurons migrate into position v. Differentiation—neurons begin d. Second trimester (months 4-6) i. Refined activities (e.g., thumb sucking) ii. Sensory organ development e. Age of viability—around 23 weeks after conception, has possibility of surviving outside uterus f. Third trimester (months 6-9) i. Rapid growth in length and weight ii. Myelin—insulating cover on brain begins to develop (improving ability of neurons to transmit signals) iii. Infant states—organization of behavior in waking and sleeping patterns iv. DiPietro and colleges found increasing fetal heart response to stimuli, like vibrator placed on mom's abdomen

Environmental hazards

a. Radiation i. Mothers near Nagasaki and Hiroshima when nuclear bomb dropped tended to have still-born or seriously handicapped children ii. Leads to mutation iii. Take care with X-ray b. Pollutants i. Infants born to mothers near 9/11 World Trade Center site lighter, shorter, and slighter ii. Heavy metals (e.g., lead) can have prenatal impact iii. Chemistry of prenatal environment can have major impact on development

Diseases

a. Rubella—German measles i. Impact: blindness, deafness, heart defects, and retardation ii. Impact greatest during first trimester (nearly 15 percent of pregnant women with rubella miscarry) iii. 60-85 percent of babies in first two months have birth defects iv. 50 percent of babies in third month have birth defects v. 16 percent of those in fifth and sixth month have birth defects vi. Immunizations critical b. Syphilis i. Sexually transmitted ii. Impact includes blindness, deafness, heart defects, and retardation iii. Impact greatest late in pregnancy—cannot cross placental barrier until eighteenth week c. AIDS—acquired immune deficiency disorder i. Caused by HIV ii. Destroys immune system iii. Transmitted prenatally (through placenta), perinatally (exchange of blood during birth), postnatally (via breastfeeding) iv. Infants of mothers treated with AZT, zidovudine, or nevirapine have lower rate of developing AIDS v. Rate of mother-to-infant transmission lowering in U.S. but tremendous problem in other parts of the world

III The Child A. Steady Growth

a. Steady but slower (ages two through puberty)—2-3 inches and 5-6 pounds per year; cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles

drugs

a. Thalidomide i. Used in 1950s for relief of morning sickness ii. Major impact (e.g., flipper limbs, deformed ears, missing thumbs) if taken between 20 and 35 days iii. Banned but now being used to treat other disorders (e.g., cancer, AIDS), with warning to not be used by pregnant women

3. Postpartum depression

a."Baby blues"—feelings of anxiety, irritability, and depression common for a few days after birth but typically fades b.Postpartum depression—more serious post-birth feelings of anxiety, moodiness, and depression experienced by some women in months after birthing c.Postnatal depression rare but serious (tends to be found in women with history of depression or who few social supports) d.Most women recover from postnatal depression but it may continue to influence mother-child interactions e.Children of postnatally depressed mothers may exhibit behavioral problems (e.g., violence) during late childhood and adolescence f.Professional help may be needed to overcome depression

Male andropause

a.Andropause—male loss of reproductive capacity ("male menopause") i.Decreased levels of testosterone ii.Slower and less dramatic progression than menopause iii.Less active sperm (but still capable of having children) b.Erectile dysfunction often the result of medical conditions i.Male changes more gradual and variable ii.Frequency of sexual behavior in men declines with age

Sensing and learning

a.Sensory systems reasonably functional at birth b.Infants can learn from experience c.Capacity to move voluntarily and intentionally is limited d.They learn slowly

Brain development

a.Birth brain weight: 25 percent of adult; age two: 75 percent; age five: 90 percent b.Development of early brain influenced by unfolding genetic plan and individual experiences i.Nelson—brain circuitry must relies on experience to customize ii.Normal opportunities and experience leads to normal brain development c.Plasticity—neural responsiveness to environmental experience i.Developing brain highly vulnerable to damage ii.Greatest impact of stimulation in early development iii.Development is possible throughout life span iv.Critical (sensitive) period for rapid development in late prenatal and early infancy

Variations in timing

a.Boys and girls similar levels of "male" and "female" hormones during childhood b.At sexual maturation boys have larger quantities of male hormones (e.g., androgens) c.At sexual maturation girls have larger quantities of female hormones (e.g., estrogen) d.Secular trend—earlier maturation in industrial societies i.Better medical care and nutrition ii.Taller and heavier girls tend to mature earlier iii.Anorexia nervosa—eating disorder involving severe dieting, can result in delayed maturation e.Stress may delay sexual maturation

Climate impacts growth (colder-shorter and heavier)

a.Children's height increases most in warm months

Neuron-- basic cell unit of nervous system

a.Dendrites—branches that receive signals from other neurons b.Axon—long segment of neuron in which signal is transmitted c.Synapse—gap between neurons d.Neurotransmitter—brain chemicals released across synapse e.Myelin—fatty sheath on axon that insulates and speeds neural transmission f.Myelination—process in which neurons encased in myelin, results in speeding of neural transmissions g.Brain has as many as 100 billion neurons

Early versus late development

a.Early maturation more advantageous for boys than for girls i.Early maturing boys more socially competent, self-assured ii.Late maturing boys more anxious and less sure of themselves iii.Early maturing girls less popular (subject of ridicule) iv.Early maturing females tend to socialize with older peers v.Late maturation for girls not as disadvantageous as for boys

2. Disease, disuse, and abuse

a.Effects of aging confounded with effects of disease, disuse, or abuse i.Birren (1963) most older men show no sign of disease ii.Birren (1963) others with slight traces, but no clinically diagnosable diseases b.Aging in absence of disease little effect on physical and psychological functioning c.Disuse contributes to steep declines in physical functioning i.Body disuse will result in muscle atrophy ii.Brain needs mental exercise to display plasticity d.Abuse of body (high fat diet, smoking) contributes to aging

4.Ovaries—estrogen and progesterone producing endocrine gland

a.Estrogen and progesterone—key female hormones released in high quantities during adolescence b.These hormones key trigger of female growth spurt during adolescence c.Responsible for development of adult sex organs, breasts, and pubic hair

Complicated delivery

a.Forceps—salad tong-like instrument used to help extract baby i.Due to soft head, use of forceps may lead to cranial bleeding and brain damage b.Vacuum extraction—"suction-cup" device used to help extract baby i.Used if baby too large or fetus out of position c.Cesarean section (C-section) controversial but process is safe i.Account for 30 percent of U.S. births ii.Used to protect physician against malpractice suits iii.Women who have delivered via C-section tend to have subsequent children via C-section iv.Planned C-section better than unplanned v.Controversial case of mother being forced to use C-section by hospital (one case good outcome, other case stillborn baby)

2. Grasping and reaching

a.Innate grasping reflex weakens and is replaced by voluntary, coordinated behavior b.By middle of first year infants grasp using clumsy clamp-like grasp (ulnar grasp—palm and outer fingers) c.With time, the pincer grasp (thumb to forefinger) develops d.Increased integration and differentiated movement

Males and sex hormones

a.Male fetus will not develop testes (a type of endocrine gland) unless gene on Y Chromosome triggered b.Testes—endocrine glands that produce male hormones testosterone i."Eaging hormones" concern release of testosterone in males ii.Testosterone and other male hormones (androgens) released in high quantities during adolescence iii.Androgens responsible for adolescent growth spurt

Physical activity fosters good health

a.Physical fitness may enhance cognitive functioning and psychological functioning b.Participation in physical activities may positively influence self-esteem c.Contemporary lifestyles inadvertently promote inactivity i.Average child spends 5-6 hours per day watching television, playing video games, or working on the computer ii.Most kids are chauffeured everywhere iii.Watching five or more hours of television per day increases risk of being overweight by five times iv.Children see a lot of ads for candy, snacks, or cereal and only a few for fruits and vegetables v.Relationship between television viewing and obesity may be correlational vi.Decreasing amount of time in front of television does appear to lead to weight loss in children

3. Motor skills as dynamic action systems

a.Rhythmic stereotypes—repetitive movement common in early infancy b.Dynamic systems approach—use feedback to gain control of motor skills c.Development highly individualistic d.Walking requires sensory feedback i.Young toddlers can adjust walking in response to changing body shape ii.Walking is not simply genetically programmed, but requires both nature (maturation) and nurture (sensory and motor experience) iii.Toddlers can recognize walkway too steep to travel iv.Young walkers figure out how/when to use handrails e.Toddlers fall a lot but then figure out ways to avoid falling f.Walking not just genetically programmed; feedback from sensory systems is critical, as is knowledge of own motor skills g.Dynamic systems approach views motor development as interaction between action and thought

4. The aging brain

a.Senility (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) not normal part of aging b.Gradual and mild degeneration common (e.g., loss of neurons that control sensory and motor activities) c.Decreased levels of neurotransmitters d.Increased senile plaques (seen in abundance in people with Alzheimer's disease) e.Reduced blood flow to brain f.Brain change in response to activity continues throughout life span i.Greater integration of left and right hemispheres ii.Neurons form new synapses and extend dendrites iii.Some self-repair possible g.Cohen (Mature Mind: The Positive Power of the Aging Brain) argues that dualistic thinking, systematic thinking, and relativistic thinking only emerge during middle and older adulthood

C. Teratogens

b. Only 15 percent of newborns have minor problems, and perhaps 5 percent have more significant anomalies i. Effects are worst during critical period when organs are forming ii. Effects determined by dosage and duration of exposure iii. Susceptibility is influenced by genetic makeup of mother and fetus, and the quality of the prenatal environment iv. Prenatal and postnatal environments determine impact critical periods—times when organism is highly sensitive to damage (also called sensitive periods)

3. Catch-up growth

body's struggle to get back to genetically programmed size

Average U.S. female: 5' 4"; average U.S. male: 5' 9";

but great variability (tallest woman 7' 7", most women with Turner's syndrome 4' 8")

fathers experience

c. Couvades—physiological symptoms of pregnancy (e.g., weight gain, nausea, insomnia) that males experience along with their pregnant partner i. May be due to hormonal factors 2. Impact both positive and negative a. Many men find labor period to be more work than expected and feel scared or unprepared i. Stress levels highest during pregnancy ii. Negative emotions typically give way to positive emotions (e.g., joy, pride) following birth of child b. As many men as women experience symptoms of depression following the birth of a child c. Many first-time fathers experience sexual relations problems following birth

Celiac disease

cannot absorb nutrients from food, stunts growth

A. Neonatal environment

emphasis on newborn time of life 1.Cross-cultural variation in beliefs concerning newborns a.The Beng view newborn as not of this world until after umbilical cord falls off (achieve full inhabitance around age 4-5 years) b.The !Kung i.Carry infant; infants are touched a lot ii.Infants are indulged well into life; breast-fed until age 4 years c.Industrialized nations i.Lower infant mortality rates ii.Infants not touched as much, and often trained to feed on a schedule 2.Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment—newborn assessment scale a.Assess reflexes and responses to 26 situations b.Test used to teach parents how to be responsive to infants

b. Hormone replacement therapy or HRT

estrogen/progestin used to compensate for loss of hormones i.HRT may increase risk of heart attack, stroke, or breast cancer ii.Risks may outweigh benefits of use iii.For those with severe symptoms, short-term HRT may be used iv.Use of hormones is down but no good alternatives have been found

Thyroid gland

growth and development and impact on nervous systema. a.Deficiency of gland can lead to lower IQ in infants and slower growth b.Later thyroid deficiency results in slow growth but no brain damage

cocaine

i. Can cause spontaneous abortion, placenta detachment, or fetal strokes ii. Use can contribute to fetal malnutrition iii. Damage includes sensory skill deficits

alcohol

i. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)—cluster of symptoms (e.g., small size, distinct facial features) associated with alcohol consumption by pregnant women ii. Increased risk for hyperactivity, seizures, below-average IQ scores, and attention deficit iii. 90 percent of FAS infants have mental health issues later in life iv. 30 percent of pregnant women drink somewhat, 12 percent admit to risk-drinking, and about 4 percent abuse alcohol v. Fetal alcohol effect or alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder—terms for children with milder alcohol effects than full FAS vi. First trimester effect—facial abnormalities vii. Second and third trimester effect—lack of fetal growth, and brain damage viii. Binge drinking and continuous patterns both can have negative impact ix. Risky both late in pregnancy and soon after conception x. Impact depends on mother's physiology, other environmental issues (e.g., malnutrition, other drug use), embryo's genetic make-up

b. Prenatal development occurs in three stages

i. Germinal period ii. Period of embryo iii. Period of fetus

b. Birth practices differ by culture

i.Kenyan families celebrate, dad stops hunting, baby given ash and herbs to vomit amniotic fluid, mom given time to recover ii.Uttar Pradesh (in Northern India) childbirth seen as polluting and treated as shameful act (due to blood) iii.Pradesh use poorly trained and hateful "dai" to help deliver baby iv.baby's hair is shaved off v.!Kung San of Namibia {some?} birth alone as sign of strength

b. Impact of time of maturity tends to fade with time

i.May be some risk of long-term problems associated with early maturing girls who engage in risky behavior (e.g., sex) ii.Early maturing males may be more conforming c.Psychological differences between late and early maturation becoming smaller d.Timing-of-puberty effect mediated by adolescent's perceptions i.Peer and family reactions can impact perception ii.Parents often more concerned about emerging sexuality of daughters

Females

i.Menarche—first menstruation ii.Normally between ages 11 and 14 iii.Rate differs by ethnicity iv.Lining of uterus shed in preparation to support fertilized egg v.Average age of menarche decreased during first half of the 20th Century but has not change much recently vi.Sexual maturation impacted by ethnicity (e.g., African American and Mexican American earlier)

b. Males

i.Process begins with enlargement of testes and scrotum around age 11 ii.Semenarche—initial ejaculation iii.Production of sperm typically comes after semenarche at around age 13

d. Walking normally begins around one year

i.Requires mature nervous system, muscle development, and need to be less top-heavy ii.Newer baby-walkers less dangerous as they prevent infant from slipping out iii.Experience is critical (use of newer walkers with opaque trays may inhibit walking by restricting visual-motor experience) iv.Even after they know how to walk, babies may find crawling a more efficient way to move

b. Tobacco

ii. Inhibits prenatal growth, increases risk of miscarriage, retards growth of fetus, and may lead to central nervous system impairment iii. Passive smoke also harmful to newborns iv. Sudden infant death syndrome—(sleeping baby suddenly stops breathing and dies); risk increases when mother smokes while pregnant v. Maternal smoking linked to mild cognitive deficits that may last into childhood vi. Negative impact of smoking due to chemical in cigarettes and by-products of smoking (e.g., reduced flow of oxygen to fetus)

Pituitary gland — "Master" endocrine gland located at base of brain i. Directly controlled by hypothalamus ii. Triggers release of hormones from all other glands and produces growth hormone b. Growth hormones—directly regulate growth i. Children lacking growth hormones unlikely to exceed 4'

ii.If started before puberty use of synthetic grow hormones can result in near-expected adult height in children lacking normal amount of growth hormones iii.Growth hormones in children tend to induce early and short puberty

d. Lateralization

increasing dominance of one hemisphere i.In most people, left hemisphere adept at sequential step-by-step processing needed for analytical reasoning and language ii.In most people, right hemisphere adept at simultaneous processing (including spatial skills and visual-motor ability) iii.Oversimplified as left side the thinking brain and right side the emotional brain iv.Sides of brain connected by corpus callosum, which allows for communication between hemispheres v.If one hemisphere damaged, other may take over vi.Lateralization evident at birth and may have genetic basis (other evidence for lateralization comes from handedness studies) vii.Brain never completes development viii.Brain-growth spurts occur at times of cognitive advancement in childhood and adolescence ix.Myelination continues well into adulthood x.Children can be clever or gifted, but are seldom wise (lack insight or foresight) xi.Brain development may account for some risky adolescent behavior

5.Adrenal gland

secretes hormones that contribute to maturation of bones and muscles

A.Perinatal environment

social and medical environment surrounding birth Contractions of uterus and dilation of cervix a.Duration average of 6 to 7 hours b.Ends with dilation of cervix of 10 centimeters D.Possible Hazards Anoxia—oxygen shortage (also called asphyxia) a.Umbilical cord pinched or tangled b.Mucus in baby's throat c.Sedatives given to mother d.Can cause poor reflexes, seizures, breathing difficulties e. Severe anoxia can cause cerebral palsy—neurological disability inhibiting muscle movement f. Mild anoxia typically does not lead to permanent problems g. Fetus laying sideways in uterus may lead to cesarean section—surgical removal of baby

2. Behavioral states

—organized, individual patterns of daily activity a.Predictable sleep-wake cycles within six months after birth i.Newborns spend half of time in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep ii.By 6-months, about 25-30 percent in sleep in REM iii.REM (rapid eye movement) sleep may regulate (reduce) levels of stimulation b.States are highly individualized (i.e., a lot of individual variation)