Lifespan Ch 13 & 14
low SES and high stress can lead to
heart disease
what is Erikson's psychological conflict of early adulthood?
intimacy versus isolation; successful achievement = prepares individual for middle adulthood stage which focuses on generativity
life structure
key concept in Levinson's theory; underlying design of a person's life, consisting of relationships with individuals, groups, and institutions. family, close friendships, and occupation are central components
what adjustment problems associated with economic disadvantage do kids raised in single-mother homes
kids of never-married moms who lack dad's consistent warmth and involvment show less favorable cognitive development and engage in more antisocial behavior than kids in low SES first-marriage families.
isolation
loneliness and self-absorption; fear of losing identity: competitive, rejecting of differences, threatened by closeness
leaving home very early
long-term disadvantage bc associated with lack of parental financial and emotional support, job seeking rather than education, and earlier childbearing
T cells
originate in bone marrow and mature in thymus; attack antigens directly
epistemic cognition
reflections on how one arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas
personal agency
sense of self-efficacy, planfulness and purpose, determination to overcome obstacles, and responsibilities for outcomes; positively related to an information-gathering cognitive style and identity exploration followed by certainty of commitments
what is one cause of age-related DNA and cellular abnormalities?
the release of free radicals
collective rationality
where members of a group challenge one another to justify their reasoning and collaborate in working out the most effective strategy
Vaillant's adaptation to life in men
20s- intimacy concerns 30s- career consolidation 40s- generativity (leave something to next generation) 50s & 60s- keepers of meaning (figure out what's important to them in life) 70s- spirituality, reflection
egalitarian marriage
a form of marriage in which partners relate as equals, sharing power and authority. both try to balance the time and energy they devote to their occupations, their children, and their relationship; strongly associated with women doing less housework, but men's didn't increase; more common in same-sex marriages
identity development exploration in what two features?
breadth (weighing multiple possibilities and making commitments) and depth (evaluating existing commitments)
difficulties of race and job offers
choose white felon over minorities; having high quality resume still doesn't help; spend more time searching for work, search more broadly across types of jobs to increase their chances of getting an offer, experience less stable employment, and acquire less work experience than white ppl with equivalent qualifications;
what hastens telomere shortening?
chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular disease and cancer; variety of unhealthy behaviors (smoking, alcohol, inactivity); persistent emotional stress;
prevention of rape
community services exist to help women take refuge from abusive partners, but most are underfunded and can't reach everyone. practically no services for men
why do workers in 20s typically change jobs several times?
gap between expectations and reality; high aspirations must be revised downward bc fewer management and supervisory job opportunities; no access to effective mentor
two most frequent sexual difficulties of women
lack of interest in sex and inability to achieve orgasm
What do men look for in women?
physical attractiveness and domestic skills, younger
consequences of divorce
reactions subside within 2 years; disrupted social networks, decline in social support, increased anxiety and depression; crucial for men to find new partner bc adjust less well; women experience drop in income and loneliness but bounce back more easily
why have divorce rates declined over past two decades?
rising age at marriage which is linked to greater financial stability and marital satisfaction; increase in cohabitation (break up before marriage)
disadvantages of having kids
role overload; doubts about readiness for parenthood; worries about bringing up kids in a troubled world; financial strains
what are millennial's concerns with religious institutions?
they've become too judgmental, political, and focused on money and power
who is more religious?
women and ethnic minorities
adult friendships differences in men and women
women get together more often, therefore tend to be longer lasting among women. greater intimacy and give-and-take = evaluate their same-sex friendships more positively than men, whose friendships include competitiveness. women higher expectations of friends = more disapproving if friends don't meet their expectations
telomeres
A special type of DNA located at the ends of chromosomes - serving as a "cap" to protect the ends from destruction - that shortens with each cell duplication. Eventually, so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all and our cells become more susceptible to things
random events theory
DNA in body cells is gradually damaged through spontaneous or externally caused mutations (environment). as these accumulate, cell repair and replacement become less efficient, and abnormal cancerous cells are often produced. increase in DNA breaks and deletions and damage to other cellular material with age
cognitive-affective complexity
a form of thinking that increases from adolescence through middle adulthood, involving awareness of conflicting positive and negative feelings and integrating them into a complete whole that recognizes the uniqueness of individual experiences; promotes greater awareness of one's own and others' perspectives and motivations; involves accepting and making sense of both positive and negative feelings
emerging adulthood
a new transitional period of development, extending from the late teens to the mid- to late twenties, during which young people have left adolescence but have not yet assumed adult responsibilities. rather, they explore alternatives in education, work, and personal values and behavior more intensely than they did in adolescence
family life cycle
a series of phases characterizing the development of most families around the world. in early adulthood, people typically live on their own, marry, and bear and rear children. in middle age, parenting responsibilities diminish. late adulthood bring retirement, growing old, and (more often for women) death of one's spouse
worldview
a set of beliefs and values to live by; essential for attaining adult status
expertise
acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor; supported by specialization that begins with selecting a major/occupation, since it takes many years to master any complex domain
when are STIs highest
adolescence and early adulthood
tentative period
adolescents begin to evaluate vocational options in terms of their interests, abilities, and values
what three factors affect frequency of sexual activity?
age, whether people are cohabiting or married, and how long the couple has been together. (sex increases through 20s and 30s as ppl cohabit or marry, then it declines bc demands of daily life)
social clock
age-graded expectations for major life events, such as beginning a first job, getting married, birth of the first child, buying a home, and retiring; large milestones that typically happen for most people in life; greater deviation than in earlier generations
what are sexual difficulties linked to?
biological factors; low SES; psychological stress; common among unmarried ppl who have had many partners and have experienced sexual abuse as a child or sexual coercion in adulthood
What two factors are the basis for eastern love
companionship, practical matters (similarity of background, career promise, likelihood of being a good parent), and obligations to others; dependency viewed positively
difference in first and second births
dads take even more active role in parenting so mom can take care of second baby = pull back from traditional division of responsibilities that occurred after first birth
why has cardiovascular disease decreased considerably?
decline in cigarette smoking, improved diet and exercise among at-risk individuals, and better medical detection and treatment of high blood pressure and cholesterol
how does motor performance change during early adulthood?
declines in heart and lung functioning under conditions of exertion, combined with gradual muscle loss, lead to change in motor performance; athletic skills peak between 20-35 speed and strength peak in early 20s and drops mid 30s into 60s endurance peaks late 20s and early 30s
what happens with declines in the immune system functioning
decreased vigor of the immune response seems to be genetically programmed, but other aging processes (such as weakening of the endocrine system) can intensify it
passion
desire for sexual activity and romance; the physical and psychological arousal component
many women have what kind of career path
discontinuous bc kids
benefits of time-flexible options at work
employees missed fewer days, less often arrived late or left early, felt more committed to their employer, and worked harder. reported fewer stress-related health symptoms
what happens with gradual failure of the endocrine system
endocrine system produces and regulates hormones. because hormones affect many body functions, disruptions in the endocrine system can have widespread effects on health and survival. decrease in estrogen, testosterone, and growth hormone. diet and exercise can slow down failure
how has rapid cultural change contributed to appearance of emerging adulthood?
entry-level positions require more education than in the past, which = ppl seek higher education than before and delay financial independence and career commitment; wealthy nations with longer-lived populations have no pressing need for young people's labor, freeing those who are financially able for rich, extended exploration
emerging adulthood has what five features
feeling in between; identity exploration; self-focused; instability; possibilities
pros and cons of social clock
fosters confidence and social stability bc guarantees that young people will develop skills, engage in productive work, and gain in understanding of self and others; "crafting a life of one's own," however, whether self-chosen or the result of circumstances, is risky bc more prone to breakdown
what reasons to partners give for abusing each other?
getting their attention; gaining control; expressing anger
why do people who marry early divorce?
haven't developed a secure identity or sufficient independence to form a mature marital bond; early marriage associated with low education and income
what contributes to dropping out of college?
higher rates in colleges with less selective admission requirements; ethic minority students from low SES families; those who have trouble adapting to college; colleges do little to help;
triangular theory of love
identifies three components (passion, intimacy, and commitment) that shift in emphasis as romantic relationships develop
dual-cycle model
identity formation is a process of feedback loops between in-depth exploration and reconsideration until you feel certain of your choice
what factors contribute to the widespread, persistent gender pay gap?
in college women more often major in education and social service fields, men in higher paying scientific and technical fields (both influenced by gender stereotypes); women enter and exit labor market several times or reduce work hours as they give birth and rear children which greatly hinders advancement; leave job entirely to child rearing bc high-pressured, inflexible work environment that offers no leeway for work-family balance. when return to labor force, often reorient and enter female-dominated jobs in social services sector that are lower paid; low self-efficacy with respect to male-dominated fields limits women's career progress
how does the heart change throughout life
in healthy ppl, doesn't change during adulthood. only during stressful exercise does heart performance decline with age (due to decrease in maximum heart rate and greater rigidity of the heart muscle). consequently, heart has difficulty delivering enough oxygen to the body during high activity and bouncing back from strain
6 Holland personality types
investigative, social, realistic (building), artistic, conventional (accounting, banking), enterprising (sales, politics)
traditional marriage
involves clear division of roles: husband as head of household responsible for family economic well-being, wife as caregiver and homemaker
for what reasons do couples perceive marriage as important?
it confers public legitimacy to the relationship, demonstrates commitment, and offers financial and legal benefits
why does the US have the highest incidence of HIV positive adults among industrialized nations?
less education of HIV prevention; no access to health care (no universal health care)
why are women at greatest risk of STIs?
less likely to experience symptoms of the most common infections, which, left untreated, cause infertility and pregnancy complications
passionate love
love based on intense sexual attraction
companionate love
love based on warm, trusting affection and valuing of the other
what kind of people have shorter or no emerging adulthood?
low SES youths in Western nations who are burdened by early parenthood, don't finish high school, are academically unprepared for college, or don't have access to vocational training
B cells
manufactured in the bone marrow; secrete antibodies into the bloodstream that multiply, capture antigens, and permit the blood the blood system to destroy them
how to cultural forces contribute to rape
men are taught from early age to be dominant, competitive, and aggressive, and women to be submissive and cooperative; porn that portrays women desiring and enjoying the assault; societal acceptance of violance
dream differences for men and women
men: emphasized achievement in a career women: most career-oriented women had "split dreams" in which both marriage and career were prominent
issues with stepparents
move into role too quickly; ineffective discipline due to lack of warm attachment bond; criticize parent for being too lenient; when both adults have kids from prior marriages, more opportunities for conflict exist and relationship quality tends to be poorer;
free radicals
naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen within cells and, at toxic levels, cause DNA and cellular damage, increasing vulnerability to wide-ranging disorders of aging
realistic period
older adolescents and young adults narrow their vocational options, (exploration to crystallization) engaging in further exploration before focusing on a general vocational category and, slightly later, settling on a single occupation (crystallization)
atherosclerosis
one of the most serious diseases of the cardiovascular system. heavy deposits of plaque containing cholesterol and fats collect on the walls of the main arteries. if present, it usually begins early in life, progresses during middle adulthood, and culminates in serious illness
what factors might differentiate emerging adults who flourish from those who flounder?
personal attributes and social supports foster successful passage as indicated by college degree, job, good relationships, volunteering, life satisfaction; overprotective/helicopter parents don't allow you to be independent and grow and build skills
advantages of having kids
personal rewards; social returns (affirmation of one's adult status and kids as source of caregiving in later life); sense of future continuity
what factors influence vocational choice?
personality; family influences (vocational similarity); teachers; gender stereotypes; educational and job opportunities; current life circumstances;
what problems do US non-college-bound young people face in preparing for a vocation?
poorly prepared for skilled occupations; lack vocational placement, counseling services; work-study apprenticeships can help
changes in thinking in adulthood
postformal thought; epistemic cognition; dualistic thinking; relativistic thinking; commitment within relativistic thinking; pragmatic thought; cognitive-affective complexity; expertise
what helps prevent drop outs?
reaching out to students within the early weeks of college and throughout first year; programs that forge bonds between teachers and students and that generously fund student services; membership in clubs
the college experience fosters what diverse cognitive capacities
reasoning about problems with no clear solution; broader attitudes and values; firmer sense of identity
what factors contribute to decrease marital satisfaction
sharp drop in time spent talking to each other and expressing affection; joint leisure pursuits gave way to more household tasks and chores and, therefore, fewer enjoyable times together; when discussing areas of conflict, partners decline in accurate reading of each other's thoughts and feelings
how do the lungs change in early adulthood?
show few age-related changes in functioning at rest, but during physical exertion, respiratory volume decreases and breathing rate increases with age. maximum vital capacity (amount of air that can be forced in and out of the lungs) declines after age 25 bc it becomes more difficult for the lungs to expand to full volume. under normal conditions, we use less than half our vital capacity
factors related to marital satisfaction
similar backgrounds, age at marriage, timing of first pregnancy, relationship to extended family, marital patterns in extended family, financial and employment status, family responsibilities, personality characteristics and behavior; sharing household tasks
what are some factors of mate selection?
similarity; gender differences influenced by evolutionary and cultural factors; higher value placed on attributes that contribute to relationship satisfaction; timing of relationship; parents; friends
difference between stepmoms and stepdads in new marriage
stepmoms esp likely exp conflict bc those who haven't been married nor had kids have idealized image of family life shattered. also as stepkids go in and out, find life easier without uncooperative kids and feel guilty about "unmaternal" feelings; stepdads positive bonds with stepkids (esp sons) bc they're more experienced in building warm parent-child ties and feel less pressure than stepmoms to plunge into parenting; but stepdads without biological kids can also have unrealistic expectations or their wives may push them into the father role, sparking negativity from children
how does avoidant attachment affect future relationships
stress independence, mistrust of love partners, and anxiety about people getting too close; convinced that others dislike them and that romantic love is hard to find and rarely lasts; jealousy, emotional distance, lack of support in response to their partner's distress, and little enjoyment of physical contact pervaded their most important love relationship; adults deny attachment needs through casual sexual encounters
genetic programming theory that proposes existence of aging genes that control biological changes
strongest evidence for this view comes from research showing that human cells allowed to divide in the lab have a lifespan of 50 divisions. with each duplication, telomeres shorten. eventually so little remains that the cells no longer duplicate at all. telomere shortening acts as a brake against somatic mutation (cancer) which become more likely as cells duplicate. but an increase in the number of senescent cells (ones with short telomeres) also contributes to age-related disease, loss of function, and earlier mortality
relativistic thinking
the cognitive approach typical of older college students, who view all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought and, therefore, give up the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context; their thinking becomes more flexible and tolerant; realize one's own beliefs are often subjective because several frameworks may satisfy the criterion of internal logical consistency; aware that each person creates her own "truth"
commitment
the cognitive component, leads partners to decide that they are in love and to maintain that love; important feature of expressing it is constructive conflict resolution
intimacy
the emotional component, consisting of warm, tender communication and caring, self-disclosure, plus a desire for the partner to reciprocate
dual-earner marriages and childbirth
the larger the difference in partner's caregiving responsibilities, the greater the decline in marital satisfaction, esp for women; sharing caregiving predicts greater parental happiness and sensitivity to the baby; exception is low SES women who endorse traditional gender roles (when dads help, moms feel distress)
commitment within relativistic thinking
the mature individual's formulation of a perspective that synthesizes contradictions between opposing views, rather than choosing between them; willingly revise internal belief system when presented with relevant evidence; adults actively seek differing perspectives to deepen their knowledge and understanding and to clarify the basis for their own perspective
what factors influence the slowly increasing number of men who enter careers dominated by women?
these men tend to be more liberal in their social attitudes, less gender-typed, less focused on the social status of their work, and more interested in working with people; orient toward nontraditional careers with higher average incomes
what are the variations of SES and ethnicity that contribute to young people living on their own before marriage
those with bachelor degree and employed more likely; Af Am, Hisp, Nat Am, poverty and cultural tradition of extended family living lead to markedly lower rates of leaving home, even among young people in college or working; unmarried asians live with parents unless lived in US long time = move out before marriage
how does the immune system change during early adulthood?
thymus smaller after 20 years = sicker as you get older; under lots of stress, depression, little sleep = decrease ability of immune system
why are people delaying childbearing?
to complete education, establish their vocational lives and know they can support a child
how does resistant attachment affect future relationships
try to merge completely with another person. at the same time, they worry that their desire for intense intimacy would overwhelm others, who really did not love them and would not want to stay with them. their most important love relationship was riddled with jealousy, emotional highs and lows, and desperation about whether the partner would return their affection
what is the transition of age 30?
young people who had been busy with career and single now focus on finding life partner, while women who emphasized marriage and family often developed more individualistic goals; men "settled down" by focusing on certain relationships and aspirations; many women remain unsettled in 30s bc they add an occupational or relationship commitment
consequences of rape
PTSD; physical injuries; STIs; pregnancy
what two types of white blood cells play vital roles?
T cells and B cells
what are some arguments against emerging adulthood being a distinct stage of development?
at no time has adulthood in complex societies been attained at a distinct moment; the term fails to describe the experiences of most of the world's youths; research largely emphasizes its personal and societal benefits, but the extended exploration that defines this period might be a coping mechanism bc can't find jobs; delayed entry into adult roles due to national economic crisis instead of natural self-chosen period of unparalleled opportunities
fantasy period
children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them
what contributes to aging
cross-linkage theory of aging gradual failure of endocrine system declines in immune system functioning
other-sex friendships after marriage
decrease for men but continue to rise for women
rape perpetrator characteristics
don't have empathy or remorse; see friendly women as being flirty, see men as dominant and women as submissive; manipulative
telomerase
enzyme that prevents shortening and can even reverse the trend, lengthening telomeres and protect the aging cell
related factors to divorce
happens within first 7 years; increase again when kids in adolescence; ineffective problem solving, poor communication; financial instability (one person earns less or one person works more); major predictors: infidelity, money issues, alcohol, and drug use; background factors: age at marriage, prior divorce, family history (parents divorced); SES and education, gender roles, expectations; American individualism
what has contributed to the number of Af Am never-married, single-mother families
job loss, persisting unemployment, inability of black men to support a family
expertise in creativity
move from problem solving to problem finding to form new, culturally meaningful problems and ask significant questions that haven't been posed before
why do people postpone childbirth?
pursue occupational goals, gain life experience, strengthen relationship
what factors contribute to the increase in young adults living with their parents?
reduced employment opportunities after economic recession of 2007-09 and postponement of committed romantic relationships and marriage
resistantly attached young adults and living with parents
remain in parental home for an extended time, and after leaving report greater parental contact
intimacy
requires that young adults give up some of their independent self and redefine their identity to include both partners' values and interests; secure identity associated with fidelity
as number of sex partners increase, what decreases?
sexual satisfaction
treatment after rape
therapy; routine screening for victimization; validation of experience; safety planning, even when the abuser is no longer present, to prevent recontact and reassault
two types of explanations of biological aging at the level of DNA and body cells
those that emphasize the programmed effects of specific genes and those that emphasize the cumulative effects of random events that damage genetic and cellular material
what are the most common paths to meeting a romantic partner?
through friends, then the internet
what is psychological stress related to?
traumatic experiences, negative life events, adverse social conditions, or daily hassles
what qualities still continue to be important in adult friendships
trust, intimacy, and loyalty
by what age has nearly all heterosexuals had sex
25
pragmatic thought
a structural advance in thinking in adulthood, in which logic becomes a tool for solving real-world problems and contradictions are accepted as part of existence
how does reproductive capacity change in early adulthood?
after 35 the success of reproductive capacity decreases; in women, reduced number and quality of ova; in men, sperm volume and mobility decrease and abnormal sperm rise
what are the benefits of free radicals?
as long as it doesn't reach toxic levels, they're associated with longer life, likely because it serves as a "stress signal" that activates DNA repair systems within cells
religion and emerging adults
attendance at religious services declines as ppl question beliefs and search for personally meaningful alternatives; half of ppl remain stable in rel commitment (or lack thereof); more important for US than other developed countries; religious = better adjusted (except sexual minorities)
parenting education access
books, magazines, websites, social media; family members, networks of other women; fathers less often have social networks = turn to partner; courses exist to help
two most frequent sexual difficulties of men
climaxing too early and anxiety about performance
dualistic thinking
cognitive approach typical of younger college students, who divide information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they; these thinkers approach learning by accepting what they are given
postformal thought
cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operational stage
what explains the trend toward more relationships in the context of sexual commitment?
college years = increase in uncommitted sex
family life and work demands
couples expected family life to accommodate to work demands. they seldom adjusted work roles to meet family needs. scaled back at home or restructured family roles. some had little flexibility at work, other prioritized work
pros and cons of child rearing
expands emotional capacities, makes life more meaningful, enhances psychological well-being; tune into others' feelings and needs, more tolerant; dip in marital and life satisfaction when kids are adolescents
opposites attract true or false
false partners who are similar in personality and other attributes tend to be more satisfied with their relationship and more likely to stay together
what are the periods of vocational development?
fantasy period tentative period realistic period
what do women look for in a man
financial status, intelligence, ambition, and moral character, same age or slightly older
changes in cognitive development in early adulthood
further development of cerebral cortex, pruning of synapses = fine-tuning of prefrontal cognitive-control network, which achieves a better balance with the brain's emotional/social network as sensation seeking gradually diminishes; executive functioning improves; further experience-dependent brain growth with increase of knowledge and refinement of skills
what might work against free radicals?
genes for longevity
compassionate love
love based on concern for the other's well-being, expressed through caring efforts to alleviate the other's distress and promote the other's growth and flourishing
What two factors are the basis for western love
passion and respect; dependency regarded as immature
why do violence-remorse cycles occur?
personality and developmental history, family circumstances, and cultural factors
why are remarriages especially vulnerable to breakup
practical matters: financial security, help in rearing children, relief from loneliness, and social acceptance; more likely to differ in background and age; some people transfer negative patterns of interaction from first marriage into second; view divorce as acceptable solution when marital difficulties resurface; experience more stress from stepfamily situations
advantages of expertise
remember and reason more quickly and effectively; approach problems with underlying principles in mind; can use what they know to arrive at many solutions automatically; when problem is challenging, they can plan ahead, while novice proceeds more by trial and error
pluralistic orientation
today's emerging adults have a stronger one; disposition for living in a diverse society that promotes individual respect and equality of opportunity, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation
when do people remarry?
within four years of divorce, men faster than women
typical marriage age
27 for women and 29 for men
cross-linkage theory of aging
a theory of biological aging asserting that the formation of bonds, or links, between normally separate protein fibers causes the body's connective tissue to become less elastic over time, leading to many negative physical outcomes (loss of flexibility in the skin and other organs, clouding of the lens of the eye, clogging of arteries, and damage to the kidneys). can be reduced by external factors
