Lingvistika

⦁ COMPOUNDING

Compounding is creating a new word from two or more roots. We do not add affixes (prefixes or suffixes), we combine roots/bases to create a new word. Compounding has some characteristics. The first one is related to orthography, which is about how we write compounds in English. We can write them as one word, like ''bedroom''. We can write them with a hyphen, like ''tax-free'' or as separate words, like ''swimming pool''. The second characteristic is phonological and it is related to stress. Here, the rule with compounds is that primary stress is on the first element, so when we say ''blackbird'' we refer to the European bird (a specific kind of bird), but when we say ''black bird'' it has a different meaning, because it means any black bird. The third characteristic is related to semantics. Compounds have a specific meaning that can be related or not related to the meaning of elements in the compound. For example, in ''sunrise'' the sun and rise are related to the meaning of elements. The same thing happens with ''haircut''. But, if we say ''redneck'', it is not literally a neck, it actually denotes a person who is a physical worker. We have different ways of forming compounds: ⦁ Back formation (shortening) is called like that because it has the opposite direction of what we usually do. We usually add affixes, e.g. write - writer, but sometimes we use shortening and that is back formation. Instead of adding, we omit something. For example: to baby-sit (we first created babysitter, but then we omitted -er), lip-read (we first cretaed lip reading, but then we omitted -ing), house-hunt (we first created house hunting but then we omitted -ing). ⦁ Reduplication is when we simply repeat the same or similar element twice, like goody-goody (child refering to food, saying it is tasty), hocus-pocus (magic), dilly-dally (wasting time), mumbo-jumbo (mess, chaos). ⦁ Neoclassical is a way of forming compounds using old Greek and Latin words. They are probably created later, not in that ancient Greek or Latin period. They are usually names of sciences, like ''geography'' or ''biology''. Those are compounds because they are created of two words, like in ''biology'' bio means life and logy means science. ⦁ Endocentric and exocentric, first endocentric (endo - inside) means that meanings could be reduced to the meaning of one component (armchair - even if we omit ''arm'' it is still a chair, bedroom - if we omit ''bed'' it is still a room). Second exocentric (exo - outside) means that meaning cannot be reduced to the meaning of the components (redneck - it denotes a person who is a physical worker maybe, turncoat - it refers to a person who does not stick to his opinions/principals, redskin - it is related to the American-Indian population) Noun-noun: notebook, bedroom, boyfriend Adjective-noun: blueberry, fast food, high-quality Verb-noun: workroom, postman, playground Noun-verb: breastfeed, haircut, mouthwash Verb-verb: stir-fry, freeze-dry, make-believe Adjective-verb: highlight, dry-cleaning, double-book Verb-preposition: breakup, workout, takeout Preposition-verb: outrun, input, undercut Adjective-adjective: bittersweet, blue-green, fat-free Preposition-preposition: into, without, within

⦁ PHONETICS

LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS Language consists of units that go from smaller to larger, from sound to sentence and meaning. The levels of linguistic analysis are: ⦁ phonetics and phonology: ⦁ morphology ⦁ syntax ⦁ semantics ⦁ PHONETICS Phonetics is a ''language general''. It is the study of speech sounds, level of linguistic analysis which studies articulation, transmission (transfer) and reception of sounds. Speech sounds are referred to as speech units which can be written or pronounced. There is production (at speaker), transmission (air) and reception (at hearer). The basic unit in phonetics is sound, and square brackets are used to mark the sound. Production transmission reception speaker ------------- air ------------- hearer (brain, organs of speech) (brain, ear) . ⦁ Stages of division of phonetics are: ⦁ Articulatory phonetics is the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language. It describes and classifies speech sounds produced by certain organs of speech with the help of air-stream (while exhaling, in some languages also while inhaling). ⦁ Acoustic phonetics focuses on the physical properties of sounds. ⦁ Auditory phonetics is concerned with how listeners perceive these sounds. - Segments A speaker of English knows that there are three sounds in the word bus →/b ʌ s/ Yet, physically the word is just one continuous sound. You can segment that one sound (word) into parts and you recognize those parts when they occur elsewhere: e.g. as b does in bet or rob, as u does in up, as s does in sister. - Orthography and spelling Orthography is a general term for "spelling'' which also includes capitalization, wordbreaks, emphasis, punctuation...and spelling is only a part of orthography, that concerns the combination of letters. Ideally, we should devise a way for the same sound to be spelled with the same letter every time, and for any letter to stand for the same sound every time. - Problems: Examples: • ''Did he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas?'' • ''The silly amoeba stole the key to the machine.'' - The same sound is represented variously by: e, ie, ae, ee, eo, ei, ea, y, oe, ey, and i • On the other hand, consider: ''My father wanted many a village dame badly.'' - Here the letter a represents the various sounds in father, wanted, many, and so on. Problem 1 - SOUND AND LETTER A combination of letters may represent a single sound: • shoot, character, Thomas, physics Problem 2 - SILENT LETTERS Silent letters are letters that have no sound in certain words ⦁ honest, knight, debt, asthma, island Problem 3 - NO LETTER There may be no letter to represent sounds that occur. In many words, the letter u represents a [j] sound followed by a [u] sound. • cute (compare it with coot), fume (compare it with fool), use (compare it with umlaut) ⦁ The Vocal Tract: The vocal tract is the area from the nose and the nasal cavity down to the vocal cords deep in the throat. It includes the lips, tongue, throat, and even nose. The production of any sound involves the movement of air. Speech is produced by air from the lungs being processed or modified by all speech organs above the lungs: the glottis, pharynx, nose, tongue, lips. The individual sound is identified by the closure or narrowing of these organs. Linguists call the mouth the oral cavity to distinguish it from the nasal cavity. - Speech organs: ⦁ The lungs consist of alveoli (air sacks) and the source of energy for speech production is the steady stream of air that comes from the lungs as we exhale. ⦁ The diaphragm which is the muscular band that separates the chest from the abdomen. ⦁ The larynx is the upper part of the windpipe or the "voice box". The larynx contains the vocal cords (or the vocal folds). These are the two horizontal bands of ligament and muscle. They vibrate during the articulation of vowels and of voiced consonants. The space between the vocal folds is called the glottis. Also, juncture is a short closure of larynx and it refers to boundaries and pauses in speech between words, for example: (ice cream / I scream), (that stuff / that's tough), (an aim / a name). ⦁ Adam's apple is a protuberance at the front. ⦁ The pharynx is the tubular part of the throat above the larynx. ⦁ The trachea, colloquially called the windpipe. It connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air. ⦁ The epiglottis is a flap in the throat that keeps food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. ⦁ The esophagus or the food pipe connects the vocal tract and the stomach. ⦁ The alveolar ridge is a small protuberance just behind the upper front teeth that can easily be felt with the tongue. ⦁ The hard palate is a thin horizontal bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the mouth. (it doesn't move) ⦁ The soft palate (also known as the velum, palatal velum, or muscular palate) is the soft tissue constituting the back of the roof of the mouth. The soft palate is distinguished from the hard palate at the front of the mouth in that it does not contain bone. (it does move) ⦁ The uvula is a conic projection from the posterior edge of the middle of the soft palate. ⦁ Finally we have the teeth, tongue and the lips, all of which are capable of rapid movement and shape changing. The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth that is at the same time the most important speech articulator. UPPER ARTICULATORS: upper lip, upper teeth, upper surface of the mouth and the pharyngeal wall. LOWER ARTICULATORS: lower lip, lower teeth, tongue. ⦁ Phonetic alphabet / phonetic transcription In 1888 members of the International Phonetic Association developed a phonetic alphabet to symbolize the sounds of all languages. They used both ordinary letters and invented symbols. We usually use Latin letters, but also Greek. The basic unit of phonetics is sound, and we use square brackets for them. Diacritic signs are symbols that tell a reader how to pronounce a letter. Those signs can be above or below the letters. The word ''café'', for example, includes a diacritical mark that tells us to pronounce that last e as "ay''. We use phonetic alphabet to represent vowels in syllables that are not emphasized in speaking and whose duration is very short, such as general, about, reader, etc. Some easy-intro examples: ⦁ thought [θɔ:t] ⦁ rough [rʌf] ⦁ bough [bəʊ] ⦁ through [θru:] ⦁ would [wʊd]

⦁ IDIOMS AND COLLOCATIONS

Meaning of words is transferred to larger units like phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning of larger units depends on the combination of meanings of smaller units. Sometimes it is not enough just to add or sum up the meanings of smaller units and that is how we get to idioms, a new quality in meaning. Idioms are informal expressions in which the total meaning is not equal to the simple sum of the meanings of the words making the idioms. Idioms are fixed combinations of words, with a new, specific meaning. We cannot add or remove words from idioms. Some examples of idioms are: sleep like a log - spava kao klada (this is exception because it is translated literally) a piece of cake - prosto k'o pasulj (something easy to do) render somebody speechless - ubiti u pojam (to leave someone with nothing to say) behind closed doors - ispod žita (without somebody's knowledge) red tape - birokrata (something illegal OR it can refer to a complicated administration, birocracy) court danger - nositi glavu u torbi (when someone is in danger) buy a pig in a poke - kupiti mačku u džaku (an offer or deal that is foolishly accepted without being examined first) get a rough ride - provesti se kao bos po trnju (to have a tough time) go up in smoke - pasti u vodu (when your plans come to nothing) Idioms are significant for translation, but they are not translated literally. Different languages have different idioms for the same or similar ideas. For example ''prica za malu decu'' can be said in English like: ''a likely story'' (which is in ironic tone), ''an old wives' tale'', or ''a cock-and-bull story'' (meaning difficult to believe). Sometimes there are atypical combinations of words, like: ''eat one's hat'' (used to say that you are sure something will not happen), or ''eat one's heart out'' (to feel grief, worry, jealousy, regret or another negative emotion). Idioms are set expressions, so nothing can be added, omitted or changed in the word order. For example, we say ''kick the bucket (die)'', but we cannot say ''the bucket he kicked''. We say ''hold one's horses (to calm down)'', but we cannot say ''hold one's horses tightly'' and so on. There are various possible structures of idioms. Idioms can be formed of a verb + direct object = get the thick end of the stick, they can also be formed of a verb + prepositional phrase = be over the moon, or they can be formed like: as...as (as cool as cucumber = unbothered, rational). Collocations are usual combinations of words typically occuring together and with a predictable meaning. They are not idiomatic, because they have a literal meaning. Unlike idioms, collocations are less tightly linked. For example, ''mother tongue'' can also be said as ''native language'', but we cannot say ''mother language''. Also, we cannot say ''a blond cat'', we can only say ''a blond girl''. The same goes with ''an expensive mistake'', which is incorrect. We can only say ''a costly mistake = kobna greška''. Collocations are also significant for translation. For example, we would translate ''a bad mistake'' as ''krupna greška'', but not as ''loša greška'' or ''gruba greška''. Word order in collocations is very important for the meaning. If we change it, the meaning also changes. For example, if we say ''red brick'' we refer to a brick which is red. But if we say ''brick red'' we refer to a shade of red or a person who is red in his face, i.e. blushed.

MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

Middle English began to develop some time after the Norman Conquest circa 1100 and it lasted approximately to 1500. This period is framed at its beginning by the after-effects of the Norman Conquest of 1066, and at its end by the arrival of printing in Britain which was in 1476. We have to mention the Battle of Hastings which took place on October 14, 1066. It is considered to be the decisive battle resulting in the Norman conquest of England. There are some movies and tv series in popular culture about these events, such as: ⦁ 1066: The Battle for Middle Earth (tv series, 2009) ⦁ The Dutchess (tv movie, 2008) ⦁ William the Conqueror (TV movie, 2015) After the Norman Conquest, in grammar, English came to rely less on inflectional endings and more on word order to convey grammatical information, so we can say it became less "synthetic" and more "analytic". Those changes were gradual and slow, but the ultimate effects were huge. The grammar of English circa 1500 was radically different from that of Old English and the grammatical gender was lost early in Middle English. ⦁ The vocabulary in this period English became much more heterogeneous showing many borrowings from French, Latin, and also Scandinavian languages. Those large-scale borrowings of new words had serious consequences for the meanings and stylistic register of those words which survived from Old English. Lexical doublets also appeared, e.g. (Anglo-Saxon) cow - beef (Norman French), calf - veal, swine - pork, sheep - mutton, deer - venison. After the Norman Conquest, Norman French was introduced and used in public proceedings, in schools, court, Parliament. BUT, Old English did not disappear. Because of its well established, written literature and a strong oral tradition, it was reintroduced in the Parliament in mid-14th century and widely used until early 15th century. ⦁ The features of Middle English, Unlike Old English, there is a gradual decay of the inflectional system (because of the influence of French). As for the stress, The Proto Indo-European had a free shifting stress system in accentuation, but in Germanic languages most words had stress fixed to the root so it was difficult to hear last syllables. We have some words of Greek origin used in English with different stress on different syllables: photograph, photography, photographic. ⦁ Middle English texts They were mostly in Latin and French, but from 13th century we also have literature in English, and some of them are: ⦁ The Bible (translation from the 14th century) ⦁ Piers Plowman by William Langland ⦁ epic poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (14th century) ⦁ in poetry we have poems called the 3 p's (Pearl, Patience, Purity) ⦁ Chaucer's works ⦁ And also letters of the Paston family (15th century). ⦁ Middle English spelling There was a significant change because of the Norman Scribes and their influence. Some examples of the changes in spelling: QU instead of cw in cwen (OE) - queen GH instead of h in niht - night, enouh - enough CH instead of c in cirice - church, cild - child SH instead of sc in scip - ship, sceap - sheep DG instead of cg in brycge - bridge, ecg - edge OU instead of u in hus - house Also: 1. Long vowels were marked as two vowels (se (OE) - see, boc (OE) - book) 2. Short vowels were marked with consonant doubling in cases where there might be confusion (like in sit - sitting) 3. Final -e was written but gradually disappeared As for the pronunciation, there is a restructuring of the OE vowel system and there is the "h dropping" which means that the letter H that stands before a consonant at the beginning of many OE words was LOST, like in hring - ring. The fundamental change was the Great Vowel Shift which is concerned with the change of long vowels into other vowels or diphthongs. It began at the end of the Middle English period and continued in Modern English period until the 16th century. ⦁ The Great Vowel Shift The Great Vowel Shift was a massive sound change affecting the long vowels that took place over a 400-year span, from approximately 1400+ to 1800. Long vowels are vowels which are pronounced for a longer period of time, that is, twice as long as short vowels. Length is a question of duration. The Great Vowel Shift involved a regular movement of the places of articulation The front vowels each moved up to a next higher position, except for /i:/ which formed a diphthong. Likewise the back vowels moved up, except for /u:/ which formed another diphthong. The Great Vowel Shift has had some implications for, among other things, orthography, spelling, the teaching of reading, the understanding of any English-language text written before or during the Shift. Some examples of the Great Vowel Shift: Bite -> /bite/ /bait/ Boot -> /bo:t/ /bu:t/ ⦁ The differences between pronunciation and spelling: The spelling is old, the same, but the pronunciation is new: ME MdE o: hoom home e: deed deed u: hous house i: lyf life a: name name ⦁ Middle English grammar ⦁ a gradual loss of inflections and a more fixed word order than in Old English ⦁ the use of the preposition "to" (to me) ⦁ the postmodifying genitive (back of the house) which was rarely used in Old English ⦁ the infinitive "to" instead of "an", so it became write instead of writan ⦁ Also, "do" was an operator to form the questions and negative forms. ⦁ The lexicon of Middle English There was French influence. French words replaced OE words, for example (people - leod), but sometimes the both words survived, for example (cordial - hearty, mansion - house). ⦁ Norman French period Norman French was dominant, with northern dialect, but by the 12th century Paris became the centre of influence, so the dialect was replaced with Parisian dialect. For example: Norman French - warrant; warden; gaol / Parisian French - guarrantee; guardian; jail Here are some words from this period: authority, court, peace, government, parliament, crime, fruit. Sometimes we have words from all three languages (OE - F - Latin: kingly - royal - regal; rise - mount - ascend. But we have even Portuguese (marmelade) Arabic (algebra, zenith) and words from other languages. ⦁ Middle English dialects We have several dialects in the Middle English period, and they are: Kentish, Southern (OR West Saxon), Northern (Northumbrian) and Mercian which was split into eastern and western

⦁ MORPHOLOGY. WORD, MORPHEME

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and of the rules by which words are formed. This word itself consists of two morphemes: morphe (GREEK) - which means ''form'' and the suffix -logy (logia), which means ''branch of knowledge'' or ''science''. To sum it up, the meaning of morphology is ''the branch of knowledge concerning (word) forms''. Morphology also refers to our internal grammatical knowledge concerning the words of our language. Like most linguistic knowledge we are not consciously aware of it. Morpheme is the smallest unit in morphology. It is the unit with its own meaning and its own grammatical structure. Morpheme is also a minimal unit in which there is an arbitrary union of sound and a meaning. In other words, there is lexical meaning and grammatical function. Morphemes cannot be further subdivided into smaller units with meaning, for example: book. Morphemes are marked with braces {}. According to structural placement, morphemes can be free or bound. Free morphemes generally consist of separate English word forms such as nouns, verbs and adjectives, and they can stand alone, e.g. girl, happy, system, act, plane. Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot occur on their own as an independent word. They are generally prefixes and suffixes like re- , -ist, -ed, -s in, for example, the words reprint, typist, talked, boys. They are attached to other forms which are described as stems or basic word forms. Morphemes can also be lexical and grammatical, for example: book is lexical and the s in books is grammatical. Word cannot be smaller than one morpheme otherwise there is no proper meaning. One morpheme can also consist of one phoneme or more phonemes. A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes: one morpheme: boy, desire, meditate. two morphemes: boyish, desireable, meditation three morphemes: boyishness, desirability four morphemes: gentlemanliness, undesirability more than four: ungentlemanliness, antidisestablishmentarianism Also, morphemes are established by comparison of words, as we can see in advantage - disadvantage, ability - disability (opposite meaning). There are some examples in Serbian: raz - in razvezati, razveseliti, razraditi. ''Raznolik'' separate this word into razno + lik (NOT raz+nolik, because nolik has no meaning). ''Razuman'' consists of razum+an (NOT raz+uman) A concrete realization of a morpheme is called a morph. A contextually conditioned variant of a morpheme is called an allomorph. For example: plural or 3rd person singular present tense in words works, sings, churches is pronounced differently. In works it is pronounced as {s}, in sings as {z} and in churches as {iz}. As for the past tense in words worked, started, talked, {ed} is pronounced differently. In worked it is pronounced as {d}, in started as {id}, and in talked as {t}. Word is difficult to define, but the closest definition is that a word is an free arbitrary unit of language with its own meaning, that has internal stability and positional mobility. Internal stability means that morphemes within a word structure are strictly ordered and cannot be rearranged. For example, we can say untouchable, but we cannot say touchableun. Positional mobility means a word may change its position in a clause, sentence or in a text. For example, we can say both ''Amy will come tomorrow'' and ''Tomorrow, Amy will come''. When we say ''take place'', is it one or two words? It has two units and one meaning, ''take place'' as ''occur''. Or when we say ''piglet'' it has one unit, two concepts (pig+young). One word may have different forms (cases, persons, tenses etc). Lexeme refers to all different grammatical forms of a word, with one basic meaning, for example ''books'', book's, books'.

MORPHOPHONOLOGY (MORPHOLOGY + PHONOLOGY)

Morphophonology deals with sound changes occurred by adding affixes or by the influence of neighbouring units. It deals with qualitative changes. For example: for consonants we have assimilation of voice (by place or manner): in + legal = illegal in + regular = irregular iz + pričati = ispričati (voice) predak - pretka for vowels: nation - national Elision is the omission of phonemes in rapid speech, for example: Postman, last man (we omit ''t'' in rapid speech)

⦁ PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech are determined by meaning and function. Parts of speech can be firstly divided into: ⦁ inflected / non inflected ⦁ open class / closed class: Open class are those who can create new words and those parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, while closed class are those who cannot create new words and those parts of speech are: pronouns, numbers, prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations, particles, articles. We have further subdivision (ACCORDING TO MEANING) ⦁ NOUNS Nouns denote names of persons, animals, things... They can be proper (Belgrade, Danube, Serbia), common (tree, house, school), mass (sugar, milk, salt), collective (flowers, keys, coins) and abstract (love, hate, freedom). ⦁ PRONOUNS Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases, they refer to persons, animals, things...They can be personal (I, you, he/she/it), possessive (mine, his, hers), relative (who, which, whom), reflexive (myself, yourself, himself). ⦁ ADJECTIVES Adjectives denote characteristics of nouns. They can have attributive function - in front of a noun (nice book, old house, red shirt) or predicative function - part of a predicate (this book is interesting, the girl is beautiful, the shoes are black). ⦁ VERBS Verbs denote activity, state or function as predicate. They can be stative (like, love, need), dynamic (run, drink, learn), regular (accept/accepted/accepted, call/called/called, close/closed/closed), irregular (awake/awoke/awoken, begin/began/begun, choose/chose/chosen), transitive (transitive verb exerts its action on a direct object - e.g. Mark passed John his book), intransitive (intransitive verbs do not require a direct object to express a complete thought - e.g. They jumped), lexical (main verbs), auxiliary (they are helping the main verbs and can show additional information such as tense). ⦁ NUMBERS Numbers show the amount of something or order of something. They can be cardinal (one, two, three) and ordinal (first, second, third). ⦁ ADVERBS Adverbs modify the predicate, adjectives or other adverbs. They are the so-called ''intensifiers''. There are adverbs of place (above, below, down), time (yesterday, today, tomorrow), manner (quickly, beautifully, carefully) and so on. ⦁ PREPOSITIONS Prepositions stand in front of nouns. They indicate temporal or spatial relations, direction, possession etc. ⦁ CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are linking words, linking phrases or clauses. (e.g. and, but, however) ⦁ EXCLAMATIONS Exclamations indicate emotions or attitudes. (e.g. amazing! awful! unbelievable!) ⦁ ARTICLES / DETERMINERS Articles / determiners stand in front of nouns and determine them. They are not inflected in English. (a, an, the) ⦁ PARTICLES Particles have a grammatical function, but not a lexical meaning, for example ''not'' or in Serbian ''ne'' or ''li''. Overlappings Based on a single word it is hard to determine to which category it belongs to, so we need a context/sentence. For example: walk, round. (round can be an adjective, preposition, verb, noun...)

⦁ TYPES OF CLAUSES

We have several divisions of clauses and this is just the first one. The very basic division of clauses is: ⦁ The first division is a basic, traditional division of clauses into declarative, interrogative (with inversion), imperative, exclamatory. Declarative clauses produce information and facts. Interrogative ask questions, with inversion. Imperative introduce orders, commands, or perhaps different kinds of statement with which we want to influence somebody's behavior. Finally, exclamatory clauses usually express subject's emotional attitude. ⦁ The second division is into positive and negative clauses, where positive simply present facts, with a predication that something exists or that something is true, and negative having the particle ''not'' or a negative adverbial like ''never'', so they say that the predication is negative, that it does not exist. ⦁ Elliptic clauses where an element is missing but understood from the context, e.g. ''Rain!'', ''Fire!'' Sentence is the largest independent unit of syntactic description, not a part of a larger construction in syntax (because larger units are discourses and text). By independent it means that it can stand alone. Sentences have their intonation (refers to the tone) and punctuation (full stops, commas, exclamation and question marks etc). Sentence is an abstract unit, and its concrete realization is called utterance (iskaz). Utterance is related to a specific time, place or situation. Sentences can consist of one or more clauses, therefore, it can be simple (one clause/predication) or complex (more than one clause/predication). If we have a complex sentence, which means two or more clauses, these clauses can be related in two ways, so we have: ⦁ Coordination means that if we have two or more clauses, they are syntactically equal and independent (which means that they can stand alone). In coordination, clauses have equal status and each of them is a separate syntactic unit. We can use linking elements like: and, or, but as coordinators. For example, if we say ''It was cold and the weather was rather bad'', the first clause is ''it was rather cold'' and the second one is ''the weather was rather bad'', and we have the coordinator ''and''. We can also simply say ''It was rather cold.'' (full stop), ''The weather was rather bad.'' (full stop) - this is what ''syntactically equal'' means - they can stand alone. Another thing is that coordinators can link words and phrases, units of the same kind, not only clauses. But the rule is that the units we want to relate have to be of the same kind, like noun + noun, adjective + adjective, and so on. Also, the units should have the same syntactic function. For example, we cannot coordinate ''rain + wet'', because it does not make sense, since ''rain'' is a noun or possibly a verb, and ''wet'' is an adjective. Another example would be ''A desk and nice were brought in.'' Here, '' a desk'' is a noun phrase and ''nice'' is an adjective, so that makes no sense. Next, we have the so called complex coordination. In this case, we can unit 2 units + 2 units. For example, in a sentence ''Kate painted the kitchen blue and the bathroom white'', we coordinated direct object (the kitchen), object complement (blue) and another direct object (the bathroom) and object complement (white). ⦁ Subordination implies a superordinate clause (independent or the main one) and a subordinate clause/clauses (dependent). We have one main clause and we can have more dependent ones. For example, ''When I realized that he had lied, it was too late.'' Here, ''when I realized that he had lied'' is a dependent clause and ''it was too late'' is the independent/main clause. In subordination we can use words like ''though'', ''although'', ''before'', ''while'' and so on. We have another division of clauses. ⦁ The first division is into nominal and modifying clauses. We call the first type ''nominal'' because they function as the noun, so they can function as a subject or object. For example, ''Whether we need it is a different matter''. Here, ''whether we need it'' is a subject, but it is nominal because it functions as the subject and it is a clause because it has a predication ''need''. It can also be substituted by a pronoun ''it''. That was the example of a nominal clause which functions as a subject. Now, here is an example of a nominal clause functioning as an object: ''I don't know whether we need it.'' In this case ''whether we need it'' is an object, and we know it is a clause because we have a predication ''need''. This one can also be substituted by, e.g. ''that''. We call the second type ''modifying'' because they modify nouns or verbs/predicates. Here we have subtypes: ⦁ relative clauses, which modify nouns, but we can divide them into restrictive/nonrestrictive and defining/nondefining. For example, ''All the books which are on the table belong to his father.'' This sentence is restrictive and defining because it is important for the understanding of the sentence, it refers to books on the table, not any books. But in the sentence ''Peter, whom you see, is her uncle.'', ''whom you see'' is a nonrestrictive and nondefining clause, because it is not important for the understanding of the sentence, and we can omit it. ⦁ adverbial clauses, which modify verbs and predicates. For example ''Lin read while Kevin was watching TV.'' We know that ''while Kevin was watching TV'' is a clause, because it has a predication ''was watching''. Also, it modifies reading (verb), not the subject. ⦁ The second division relates to appositive clauses. Appositive clauses produce new information about something already mentioned. For example, ''His main argument, that scientific laws have no exceptions, was considered absurd.'' The appositive clause is ''that scientific laws have no exceptions'' (and we translate it as ''da...''), is the additional information that can be omitted, but then we would perhaps need a clarification. Appositive clauses do not have the same subordinator like a relative clause. ⦁ The third division is into finite (lični), nonfinite (bezlične) and verbless clauses. Finite and nonfinite show tenses, persons, numbers. For example, ''She saw them while they were running.'' In the first clause ''she saw them'', it is a finite clause because we can see the tense. ''While they were running'' is also a finite clause because we can also see the tense and also the plural. Nonfinite verbs do not show tenses, nonfinite clauses consist of present participle, past participle, to-infinitive. For example ''He wants to know the title of that book.'' We have two clauses here. The first one is ''He wants'', and it is finite because we can see the tense. The second one is ''to know the title of that book'', and it is nonfinite because it is to-infinitive so we do not see the tense. This nonfinite clause functions as an object, so it can be considered a nominal clause as well. Another example of a nonfinite clause is ''Waiting for the bus, she met an old friend.'' Here ''waiting for the bus'' is a nonfinite clause, because begins with a present participle and it does not show tense. It is also an adverbial clause, modifying the verb/predicate. The second clause ''she met an old friend'' is finite, because we see the tense. We have another example, ''The discussion completed, the chairman ended the meeting.'' The first clause is nonfinite, because ''completed'' is past participle and it does not show tense. ⦁ Verbless clauses do not have a verb at all, for example, ''When out of school, children ran home.'' This clause has no verb.

⦁ IC ANALYSIS IN MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Immediate constituent analysis, or the so called ''IC analysis'' is in morphology a procedure to divide words into morphemes. We have immediate and ultimate (krajnji) constituents. Immediate are somewhere in between, but they can still be divided into morphemes. Ultimate, on the other hand, are those which cannot be further divided into morphemes. For example, we have a word, the procedures of division are immediate but the result is ultimate. When we do the IC analysis, we have to follow some basic rules: ⦁ The first rule is that a morphological unit is always divided into two constituents ⦁ Inflectional suffixes are separated first ⦁ If possible, one of the two constituents should be a free form (free meaning that it can stand alone) ⦁ Meaning of constituents should be related to the meaning of the entire word For example, if we take a word ''ungentlemanly'', we can see that it does not have an inflectional suffix, so we do not need to think about the inflectional suffixes here. But, we have a prefix ''un-''. We do not separate the word ''ungentlemanly'' into ''ungentleman'' + ''ly'', because the word ungentleman does not exist. After we separated it into un + gentlemanly, we divide gentlemanly into gentleman + ly (which represents the immediate constituents. After that, we separate the word gentleman into gentle + man, and those are the ultimate constituents. So it is: Un - gentlemanly Gentleman - ly Gentle - man If we, for example, take the word ''enlargements'', here we have the inflectional suffix, which is ''s'', so we divide that first. Then we separate it into ''enlarge + ment'', NOT ''en + largement'' because the word ''largement'' does not exist. Finally, we separate ''enlarge'' into en + large, and those would be the ultimate constituents. So it is: Enlargement - s Enlarge - ment En - large One more example is the word ''daydreaming''. We separate the inflectional suffixes first, which is in this case the ''ing''. After that, we separate ''daydream'' into day + dream, and those are the ultimate constituents. So it is: Daydream - ing Day - dream Irregularities in morphology deal with the irregular inflectional forms. Regular past tense would be work + ed = worked, and here it is clear that we have two morphemes: work + ed. However, even if it is irregular, as in ''sang'', we can still analyze it as two morphemes: sang = sing + ed. So we have two morphemes here as well, but the ''ed'' is realized in an irregular way. This is called the irregular past. Next example is ''oxen'', which also consists of two morphemes - ox + s, but the ''s'' is realized in an irregular way, and this is called the irregular plural. In the word ''less'', we also have two morphemes - little + er, and we call this an irregular comparison. Finally, in the word ''sheep'' as a plural, it is actually sheep + s, but ''s'' is realized as a zero plural, which means that singular and plural have the same form. To sum up, even if we do not see the inflectional suffixes in irregular forms, they are still there. We have the IC analysis in syntax as well. In morphology, we divided words into morphemes. But, in syntax, we divide sentences into constituents. So, in syntax, if we have a clause, the rule is that we always divide subject and predicate first. For example, ''That girl opened the door'', we divide it first into a noun phrase (subject) and predicate phrase. Then the noun phrase is subdivided into determiner and noun. Predicate phrase is subdivided into verb phrase and noun phrase. Verb phrase is ''opened'' and noun phrase is ''the door''. The noun phrase consists of a determiner and noun. We can say that the IC analysis for syntactic structures has tree diagrams (račvasti dijagrami). So it goes like this: S (sentence) NP (subject) PredP (predicate phrase) Det N VP NP That girl V Det N opened the door If we have an adverbial in a sentence, for example, ''His sister visited her friend last week'', within a predicate we first omit the adverbial, and then we analyze the rest. IC analysis can also solve some ambiguities, so we can disambiguate something, e.g. ''blue shirts and trousers'' can be ambiguous because we are not sure if only the shirt is blue or both shirts and trousers. By using this IC analysis and tree diagrams, we can show that there are two cases: ⦁ We separate blue first and then leave shirts and trousers, and in that case, blue refers to both shirts and trousers ⦁ If we separate blue shirts first and then leave ''and trousers'', in this case blue refers only to shirts

⦁ SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

Syntactic functions are simply the roles which units have in a clause. These functions refer to subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, adverbials, subject/object complements. ⦁ Subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, noun phrase or a clause, usually precedes the verb in a declarative clause and it has the agreement with the predicate in persons and number. It can present also the topic of a clause. ⦁ Predicate indicates something new about the topic. Verb is the central element in the predication. We can divide verbs into three types: ⦁ linking verbs (sometimes called copulas) - copulas are not transitive, not intransitive, they are specific because they require a subject complement. In English, the most frequent copulas are BE, BECOME, SEEM + verbs of perception (feel, taste, look). ⦁ transitive verbs (VT) - imply that it has a complement, which can be direct object, sometimes even indirect object. In English, when we talk about direct object, it can be a NP or a clause following the verb in declarative clauses. If indirect object is there, it is placed before direct object, OR it could be a PP after direct object. For example: ''Pamela gave Mary that book'' - Mary is the indirect object placed before the direct object ''that book''. In this case ''Mary'' precedes the direct object. But if it is a PP like: ''Pamela gave that book to Mary'', then it comes after the direct object. ⦁ intransitive verbs (VI) - do not have a complement, it does not need anything in addition to the subject. We do not need an object, we only have the subject and the verb, e.g. ''The boys ran.'' Some verbs in English can be used both as copulas and as transitive/intransitive verbs. The most frequent copulas are be, become, seem, but we may also have verbs like turn or grow. For example, ''The milk turned sour''. Here, the verb is a copula because it is followed by a subject complement. But if we say ''He turned the tap'', here, the verbs is transitive because it is followed by a direct object. The same happens with ''He grew old.'' and ''They grew vegetables.'' ⦁ Object complement - it is placed immediately after the direct object, e.g. ''They elected him president'', ''him'' is the direct object and ''president'' is the object complement. In Serbian ''Ona je učinila svoju ćerku srećnom'', ''ćerku'' is the direct object and ''srećnom'' is the object complement. ⦁ Direct object vs Subject complement: ⦁ The first difference between them is that subject and subject complement have the same reference, while subject and direct object do not (they do not refer to the same person, item, thing). For example, ''These flowers are nice'', ''nice'' is the subject complement, ''are'' is the linking verb followed by the subject complement and ''nice'' refers to the subject ''flowers''. So this is what the ''same reference'' means. However, if we say ''Paul bought these flowers'', ''Paul'' is the subject, ''bought'' is the transitive verb and ''these flowers'' is the direct object. As we can see, subject and direct object do not have the same reference. ⦁ The next difference is that in most cases, direct object can be passivized, while subject compliment cannot (but we have some exceptions). For example, if we say ''Linda became a teacher'', we cannot really passivize it by saying ''A teacher has become by Linda''. If there is no possibility to passivize it, then we prove that it is not a direct object. If we say ''Linda bought a new dress'', we can passivize it and say ''A new dress was bought by Linda.'' ⦁ The third difference is that, if a language shows agreement in gender and number, subject and subject complement agree in gender and number. As for the number, for example ''Ken became an actor'' is fine, but we cannot say ''Ken became actors''. If a subject is singular, then the subject complement must be singular as well. As for the gender, we can say ''She is his sister'', but not ''she is his brother'', because ''she'' is feminine, and so has to be the subject complement. However, we have some exceptions in agreement. We say ''Their main product is potatoes''. This is grammatical, because ''potatoes'' implies general notion of the product. ⦁ Adverbial is a syntactic function modifying the verb, adjectives or adverbs. We have adverbials of place, time, manner, condition, cause etc. For example ''She visited them last year''. ''Last year'' is the adverbial of time. Or for example, ''They failed because they did not study enough.'' Structurally speaking, this is a clause, but as a syntactic function this is an adverbial of cause. Another example would be ''If they arrive soon, we'll go for a walk''. This is an adverbial of condition.

MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD

The Modern English Period is usually divided into: ⦁ Early Modern English (circa 1500 - circa 1700) ⦁ Modern English (circa 1700 - it still lasts) Standard Modern English developed from the London area from the mid-14 th century. ⦁ The early modern English period (1500 - 1700) This period follows the Middle English period towards the end of the fifteenth century and coincides closely with the Tudor dynasty and the Stuart dynasty. It was mainly marked with Shakespeare and King James Bible. As for the vocabulary, the vocabulary of English expanded greatly during the Early Modern Period, and writers were well aware of this and argued about it. Some were in favour of loanwords to express new concepts, especially from Latin. Some advocated the use of existing English words, while others advocated the revival of obsolete words and the adoption of regional dialects. In this period we have: ⦁ a lack of uniformity in spelling: booke - boke / hadde - had, ⦁ sometimes they were writing the same words differently: fellow-fallow-fallowe ⦁ the attempt of standardization of spelling ⦁ the letter called ''thorn'' was lost, since ''you'' became the general form for both singular and plural form. ⦁ The Great Vowel Shift continued ⦁ Early Modern English grammar ⦁ A double negation: ''I cannot go no further'' ⦁ DO in questions and negations, but not obligatory, for example ''Says she so?'' (Shakespeare) ⦁ thou/thee, thine, thy, thyself VS. you (ye) Old English thu/thou in singular and ye in plural During Middle English, ye/you was used as a polite singular alongside thou (possibly influenced by French tu/vous) During the Early Modern English you became the general form. ⦁ Modern English Period (1700 - ) In Modern English Period we have the standardization of spelling and the publication of dictionaries (Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language from 1755 with 40.000 words). ⦁ Prescriptive and descriptive grammar Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules - but in different ways. Prescriptive grammar refers to the correct grammatical use, how we should use language and speak. It shows rules which should be followed, and there is a debate whether grammars and dictionaries should reflect or evaluate usage, and they should, but just to a certain degree. For example, there is a rule about two negatives, where they destroy one another and become equal to an affirmative. Also, ''whom'' instead of ''who'' in ''who do you speak to?''. On the other hand, descriptive grammar describes how a language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community. Its aim is to observe speech as it is, not how it should be. The rules are more general and more "alive". Specialists in descriptive grammar (linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. (That is a real language use) As for the prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors or teachers), they lay out rules about what they believe to be the "correct" or "incorrect" use of language. (That is a pre-defined language use). Examples (prescriptive vs. descriptive) ⦁ (p) WHOM vs. (d) WHO ⦁ (p) MAY I go? vs. (d) CAN I go? ⦁ (p) It is I vs. (d) It's ME ⦁ (p) I don't need anything vs. (d) I don't need nothing ⦁ (Don't end a sentence with a preposition) So, in prescriptive grammar it should be ''with whom did you sit?'', while in descriptive we can say ''who did you sit with?'' ⦁ Noah Webster Noah Webster (1758-1843) was an American lexicographer, who published ''A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language'' in 1806. He also published a larger dictionary ''An American Dictionary of the English Language in 1828. He advocated simplification and spelling reforms. Examples: ⦁ The omission of all superfluous letters and the omission of silent letters (bred instead of bread, fether instead of feather) ⦁ -Or instead of -our (favor - favour) ⦁ -er (theater) ⦁ -se instead of -ce (defense) ⦁ single l before a suffix (traveling) ⦁ dropping of final -e (definit, examin)

⦁ PERIPHRASIS, TAUTOLOGY, EQUIVALENCE, AMBIGUITY, CONTRADICTION

We have semantic relations between clauses , like equivalence and periphrasis (the same or almost the same meaning). Equivalence is, for example, if we say ''The child found the puppy'' and ''The puppy was found by the child''. We expressed the same meaning in the same words, the first one was in active voice and the second in passive. However, if we say ''He can go'' and ''He is allowed to go'', this is an example of periphrasis, where we express the same meaning in different words. Another example of periphrasis would be ''She must go'' and ''She is obligated to go'' (again, the same meaning is expressed in different words). Clauses and sentences can also be ambiguous. Ambiguity is a word, phrase or statement which contains more than one meaning. For example, ''the chicken is ready to eat''. This sentence can be interpreted in two ways: either the chicken itself is ready to eat or chicken as meat is ready to be eaten. We have this in Serbian as well, for example ''Njemu je lako verovati''. Either he trusts other people easily or other people trust him easily. Ambiguities allow the creation of puns. A pun is a play on words. For example, ''I wondered why the baseball was getting bigger. Then it hit me''. In clauses and sentences, linguistic meanings are combined with extralinguistic meanings. Extralinguistic meanings represent our knowledge about physical world and its phenomena. On the basis of extralinguistic nowledge, we estimate the truth-value of a clause or sentence. For example, the sentence ''The present king of France is tall'', we know this is not true, although the sentence is grammatically correct. Or for example ''The square is round''. In this way, we can also conclude whether the sentence is contradictory. Contradiction includes contradictory meanings of words. For example, ''His brother is the only child'' or ''The boy is female''. Tautology is the repetition of information already contained or implied. For example, ''This bachelor is not married.'' The word bachelor itself means that a person is not married. Clauses and sentences that are semantically irregular cannot be interpreted semantically, as semantics deals with meaning. For example, ''Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.'' Meaning is closely related to grammar (morphology, syntax) and language use. They mutually influence one another and they should be analyzed together as a system. Here are some more examples of mistranslations and ambiguities: ''I saw them walking by the bank.'' ''Dog for sale: eats anything, specially fond of children.'' (advertisement) ''A guitar for sale. No strings attached.'' (advertisement) ''We do not tear your clothing with machinery. We do it by hand.'' (hotel in Africa) ''Our wines leave you nothing to hope for.'' ''We take your bags and send them in all directions.'' (airline company) Here are some additional idioms: ''to put it in a nutshell'' - explain precisely ''he is so long-winded'' - he talks too much ''i can't make head or tail of what he's saying'' - i don't understand Here is a joke (pun): ''Present, Past and Future enter into a bar. It was tense.''

⦁ ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS

Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the transfer of sounds from the organs of speech of speaker to the hearer's ear and those are the sound waves. Air stream disturbs molecules of air near the mouth and vibrations are created. We have three basic characteristics: ⦁ Amplitude (the maximal distance from the point of rest, it is the peak of the wave) ⦁ Cycle of a sound wave ⦁ Frequency (the number of cycles in one second) Auditory phonetics focuses on the reception of sound waves through the outer, middle and inner ear, the passage through the nervous system and how the brain processes these impulses.

⦁ FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF WORDS

And we have another subdivision of classes (ACCORING TO FUNCTION): ⦁ Nominals (they function as subject/object) - nouns and pronouns ⦁ Adjectivals (they describe nouns) - articles/determiners, adjectives ⦁ Verbals (function as a verb/predicate) ⦁ Adverbials (they modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs)

⦁ COMMUNICATIVE SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE

Communicative sentence perspective studies the structure of clauses and sentences within communication and transfer of information. We are not interested in the subject, predicate or the adverbial here, but in: ⦁ theme or topic, which is the information already known to the speaker/hearer. ⦁ rheme or comment, which is something new about the topic. For example, ''Paul bought a house in the country''. Here, ''Paul'' is the theme or topic, because he is the person known to the speaker or hearer, and the rest of the sentence is the rheme or comment, as it is a new information about topic. We can have two types of arrangement of information within a clause or a sentence: ⦁ communicatively unmarked clauses/sentences and this is the typical word order For example, ''Helen ate the cookie''. This is the unmarked, typical word order and the sentence is active. ⦁ communicatively marked clauses/sentences and this is not the typical word order, because here, the word order emphasizes something else. For example, ''The cookie was eaten by Helen''. This is the marked sentence, because it is passivized. In this case we want to emphasize the cookie. In Serbian we have examples like: Petar je kupio knjigu. (this one is unmarked, as we start the sentence with the agent) Knjigu je kupio Petar. (this one is marked, because we changed the word order to emphasize the book)

⦁ GRAMMAR

Grammar is the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax, morphology, and sometimes also phonology and semantics. So we say it can have narrow sense (morphology + syntax) and wider/broad sense (+ phonology + semantics). David Crystal says that grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression. The word grammar is usually referred to: ⦁ System of rules for the combination of units ⦁ Linguistic discipline about the combination of units ⦁ Book describing rules ⦁ There are two ''versions'' of grammar The formal study of grammar is an important part of education for children from a young age through advanced learning. However, the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most linguists use the term, as these rules are often prescriptive rather than descriptive. ⦁ Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as speakers are told it should be used. Prescription deals with what is standard (norm). Standardized languages are useful for inter-regional communication. Writers or communicators who wish to use words clearly, powerfully, or effectively often use prescriptive rules, believing that these may make their communications more widely understood and/or unambiguous. ⦁ Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it's actually used by speakers and writers. It describes how a language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community. Its aim is to observe speech as it is, not how it should be. The rules are more general and more "alive". Along with a mental dictionary this grammar represents linguistic competence - the knowledge of words and grammar. Linguistic performance refers to using that knowledge in actual speech and comprehension. Both kinds of grammar (prescriptive and descriptive) are concerned with rules, but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar (linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (that is the real language use). On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors, teachers etc.) lay out rules about what they believe to be the "correct" or "incorrect" use of language (that is the pre-defined language use). For example, not: Who did you sit with? but: With whom did you sit? Some more examples: (p) WHOM vs. WHO (d) (p) MAY I go? vs. CAN I go? (d) (p) It is I vs. It's ME (d) (p) I don't need anything vs. I don't need nothing. (d) Several types of grammar ⦁ Pedagogical Grammar deals with grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. The term is commonly used to denote: ⦁ pedagogical process ⦁ pedagogical content ⦁ combinations of process and content ⦁ Traditional grammar is the collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) * Traditional pedagogical grammar - recommendations how people should talk ⦁ Transformational (generative) grammar is a theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. ⦁ Universal grammar is a grammar that can be applied to every grammar. It gives us window into the faculty of language. For example, every grammar has tense, gender... Universal grammar is considered to be innate. Sentences Sentences are formed according to the rules which are finite in number and finite in length, so they can be stored in out finite brains. Creativity is universal property of human language, it is a possibility of forming new sentences never heard or spoken before. To know a language means to know the sounds and meaning of many if not all words of the language and rules for their combination. Grammatical sentence conforms to the rules, while ungrammatical sentence deviates from rules in some way. Grammatical relations We have two basic types of grammatical relations: ⦁ Syntagmatic (syntagm = phrase) refers to the combination of concrete elements that are present in sentence. (horizontal axis of combination) ⦁ Paradigmatic (paradigm = a set of related forms/items) refers to the relations between units present and those not present, but possible. (vertical axis of selection) Stylistics and Sociolinguistics Stylistics refers to variety of styles interpreted on language. Sociolinguistics is a descriptive study of the effects of society, cultural norms and context on language.

⦁ SEMANTIC DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

Meanings of words are not simple, but complex. They may consist of several semantic components, like in ''tigress''. Tigress is a kind of animal + female. Meanings can be decomposed into semantic distinctive features, for example: +/- human, +/- animal, +/-adult, +/-female. So if we take, for example, words MAN and GIRL, their semantic distinctive features would be: MAN GIRL + human + human + adult - adult + male - male This analysis is called the componential analysis, which is the analysis of words through structured sets of semantic distinctive features. Apart from nouns, verbs can also be decomposed. For example GIVE means to make somebody have and DARKEN means to cause to become dark. There are some other distinctive features which include +/- motion (verbs like: fall, walk, bring) and +/- sense (verbs like: see, hear, feel).

⦁ PHONOLOGY, PHONEME.

Phonology is the study of how speech sounds form language patterns. It is concerned with the function of sounds in a language system. Phonology tells us what sounds are in our language and which ones are foreign. It tells us what combinations of sounds comprise a possible word in your language and whether it as an actual word like black, or a non-word (in English) like blick. Also, it tells you what combination of sounds is not a possible word in your language like ''mbick''. Phonology also explains why certain phonetic features are important to identifying a word, for example voicing in English, as in pat versus bat. PHONEME is the basic linguistic unit of phonology. It is the basic form of a sound as sensed mentally rather than spoken or heard. Phonemes are also the smallest linguistic units without their own meaning. For example, word ''puff'' /pʌf/ has three phonemes /p/, /ʌ/, and /f/. We use slashes for phonemes. The function of a phoneme is how they fit in a language system and how they mark the differences between larger units in which they occur, that is, words. The number of phonemes in languages is usually between 20 and 40, in English language 44 (without triphthongs). These are English consonant phonemes: /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, Ө, ð, s, z, ƪ, Ʒ, ţ, dƷ, h, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/. PHONE is a concrete realization of a phoneme. Phones, the actual sound part that you can hear, are marked with brackets [] and the phonemes, the mental representation of the sound, are marked with slashes / /. ALLOPHONE is a variation of a phoneme. Each phoneme is manifested by one or more sounds, called allophones. Examples of allophones: /f/ fine (labiodental fricative) - emphasis (bilabial) - two different pronunciations /l/ leave (alveolar) - bottle (velarized, ''dark'') /p/ spit (without aspiration) - pit [pʰ] (with aspiration) Allophones in Serbian language: nov, banka To sum it up, phonology is "language specific". It studies the function of sounds in a language system. Its basic unit is the phoneme, with phone as the concrete realization of a phoneme and allophone as the contextually conditioned variant of a phoneme. Method of minimal pairs A minimal pair is a pair of words with different meanings that are phonologically identical except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in each word. For example, cab [kæb] and cad [kæd] are a minimal pair that differ only in their final segments, whereas cat [kæt] and mat [mæt] are a minimal pair that differ only in their initial segments. (u srpskom jeziku ne postoje minimal pairs) More examples: Complementary distribution Two sounds (phonemes) are in complementary distribution if they never occur in the same context. A good example is provided by the allophones of the /L/ phoneme in English: ''Clear L'', which occurs before vowels, e.g. lap, lord, liquid. ''Dark L'', which occurs elsewhere (i.e. before consonants or before a pause): e.g. call, trial, milk. Free variation If two sounds that are different from each other can occur in the same phonological context and one of those sounds may be substituted for the other, they are said to be in free variation. Also, unlike complementary distribution, free variation is not determined by context. For example: The phoneme /t/ in butter can be realized as a glottal stop [d], by speakers of some non-standard British accents, but the same speakers may realize the phoneme as [t] when they aim at a more standard pronunciation (these are also allophones). Vocalic phonemes (vowels) in free variation include: /i:/ and /e/ as the initial sound in the words economics and evolution /i:/ and /ai/ as the initial sound in either. Again /əgen/ and /əgein/ Distinctive features Any of a set of phonetic properties such as voicing, place of articulation or manner of articulation, serving to characterize and distinguish between the specific sounds or phonemes in a language. A positive value, [+], denotes the presence of a feature, while a negative value [−], indicates its absence. For example, /p/ has to be defined as an unvoiced bilabial stop (plosive) to account for all the oppositions found with the other consonants in English. Hence we can say that: ⦁ Voiceless ⦁ Bilabial ⦁ Stop are the distinctive features of /p/. Roman Jakobson developed 12 distinctive features to describe contrasts between phonemes, e.g. ⦁ +/- consonantal ⦁ +/- voiced ⦁ +/- nasal ⦁ +/-lateral etc. For example: /p/ vs /b/ +consonantal +consonantal - voiced +voiced + plosive + plosive Syllables Syllable is a set of phonemes clustered around one vowel or sonant (r,n). When we count syllables we actually count the vowels. Syllables are combined into words and those words can be: ⦁ Monosyllabic (words with one syllable and it has to be stressed) ⦁ Bisyllabic (words with 2 syllables and one is stressed) ⦁ Polysyllabic (words with more than two syllables) Some monosyllabic words are usually not stressed and those words are called clitics. Clitics are further subdivided into enclitics (related to following words) and proclitics (related to previous words). In English language accentuation (stress) refers to intensity and it can be: ⦁ Primary (in front of the word) ⦁ Secondary (below the word) ⦁ Tertiary (above the word) e.g. education /᷂edju'keisn/ also in phrases: 'motor ˡcar ᷂designer Sonants can also form syllables, as in ''vrtlog'' - vrt-log. Syllables can be open and closed. Open syllables end in vowel (e.g. ''see'') and closed syllables end in consonant (e.g. ''this''). As for the structure of syllables, we have vowels and consonants (v stands for vowels and c for consonants): vc (AT), cvc (dog), ccvc (bribe) - but here, the ''e'' in ''bribe'' is silent, so that is why it is not ccvcv. Phonotactics Phonotactics deals with the rules for combination of phonemes within a syllable. For example, in English / ŋ/ in writing will never appear at the beginning of words. In Serbian, /dʒ/ cannot appear at the end of words, except in ''bedž'', ''koledž''. Also, as for the possible combinations of consonants, in Serbian SKR (SKROZ) is easier for pronunciation than RKS.

⦁ SYNTAX, SYNTACTIC UNITS

There are several levels of linguistic analysis, and syntax is one of them. In syntax we start from the words, but we are not interested in the structure of words, but in how words are combined into larger units. So, syntax is the part of grammar that represents a speaker's knowledge of sentences and their structures. The rules of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences. Those larger units in syntax are phrases, clauses and sentences. The very name ''syntax'' came from Greek ''syntaxis'' which actually means linking/arranging. The largest unit is a sentence, however, in language, there are larger units than sentence, and those are discourse and text (discourse is oral communication, text is written communication), but they are studied in discourse analysis and text linguistics. That is why we say that the largest unit in syntax is a sentence. Phrase is a group of two or more grammatically related words which do not include the relation of predication. Sentence is the largest independent unit of syntactic description. Clause is a simple sentence, because it has only one predication. Certain rules of syntax also specify grammatical relations of sentence, such as subject, predicate, object, complement, etc. and these are called syntactic functions or sentence elements and they are crucial to understand the meaning of a sentence. For example: Your dog chased my cat / My cat chased your dog. Here, the grammatical relations are reversed, so sentences have different meanings. Syntactic rules also explain how the grouping of words relates to sentence meaning, such as when a sentence or a phrase is ambiguous. In addition, syntactic rules permit speakers to use, produce and understand a limitless number of sentences never heard or produced before, and that is the creative aspect of our knowledge. We know that the structure of sentence contributes to its meaning. However, grammaticality and meaningfulness are not the same thing. For example, if we say ''Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.'' or ''A verb crumpled the milk.'' The grammaticality is perfect but the sentences are meaningless. There are also sentences that we understand even though they are not well-formed, according to the rules of syntax. If we say ''The boy quickly in the house the ball found.'', we can interpret it, even though we know that the word order is incorrect. There are also grammatical sentences with nonsense words. To sum up, grammaticality does not depend on the truth of the sentence nor on whether real objects are being discussed. We can discuss unicorns or pregnant fathers in a sentence, but it won't influence the grammaticality. Syntactic constituents are the natural groupings or parts of a sentence (subject, predicate, object, complement, adverbial). We have various linguistic tests that reveal the constituents of a sentence, and the three most frequent are the ''stand alone'' test, substitution test and ''move as a unit'' test. ⦁ The ''stand alone'' test - If a group of words can grammatically stand alone, for example, as an answer to a question, they form a constituent. For example, if someone asks us ''What did you find?'', and we answer ''a puppy'', we prove that ''a puppy'' is a constituent. ⦁ Substitution test - pronominals can substitute for nouns and nominals or also the whole phrase. For example, instead of ''I found a puppy'' we could say ''I found him''. Also, we use substitution in situations where we want to avoid the repetition of the entire predicate, for example, instead of saying ''John found a puppy and Bill found a puppy too'', we could say ''John found a puppy and Bill did too'', so here we used the auxiliary ''do'' to take place of the entire predicate. ⦁ ''Move as a unit'' test - if a group of words can be moved together in a sentence, they form a constituent. For example, instead of saying ''The child found a puppy'' we could say ''It was a puppy that the child found'', or we can passivize it and put the object in the initial position, like ''A puppy was found by the child.'' All 3 tests: The puppy played in the garden. ''in the garden'' ⦁ Where did the puppy play? - In the garden (the stand alone test) ⦁ The puppy played there. (substitution) ⦁ In the garden is where the puppy played. (movement) By doing this, we proved that ''in the garden'' is a constituent. We also have syntactic categories. Syntactic categories are a family of expressions that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. Syntactic categories are part of a speaker's knowledge of syntax. Syntactic categories include both phrasal categories (NP, VP, AdjP, PP, AdvP, DetP), as well as lexical categories (N, V, P, Adj, Adv, definite and indefinite article). Each lexical category has a corresponding phrasal category.

⦁ ACRONYMS

Acronyms are new words formed from the first letters of several words. There are three types of acronyms. The first type is spelling letter by letter, like UN (United Nations), FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), BBC (The British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP (Very Important Person), MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), P.T.O. (please turn over). R.S.V.P. (please answer, confirm if you are going to come or not), R.E.M (rapid eye movement). The second type is pronouncing acronyms as words, like NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), BASIC (beginners' all-purpose symbolic instruction code), WASP (white Anglo-Saxon protestant). The third type is using small letters, pronounced like words, like radar which was created from radio detecting and ranging, or laser

⦁ ANTONYMY

Antonyms are words with the opposite meaning, but those words need to have a common feature. So when we refer to height, we say short - tall, NOT nice - tall, as they do not have a common feature, they do not refer to the same thing. We have more examples of antonyms, like: narrow - wide, buy - sell and so on. There are lots of prefixes to form antonyms, and some of them are: un (able - unable) mis (behave - misbehave), dis (honest - dishonest). There are three kinds of antonyms: ⦁ Gradable (gradacioni) antonyms are usually pairs of adjectives with opposite qualities. For example: big - small, good - bad, young - old. Sometimes it is possible to grade a quality, so instead of saying hot - cold, we could also add something in between, like: hot - warm - tepid - chilly - cold. Also, the negation of one member does not imply the other member, for example, if we say that someone is not happy, it does not mean that he is sad. Or if we say that someone is not tall, it does not mean that he is short. There are also unmarked and marked members in these pairs. Unmarked are those that are more general, used in questions like ''How tall is she/he?'', but marked are those used in questions like ''How short is she/he?'', because questions like these are not very usual. ⦁ Complementary (dopunski) antonyms are usually adjectives without gradation. For example, alive - dead, married - single. But also, if we negate one member, that equals the other member. For example, not alive - dead, not awake - asleep, not present - absent, and so on. ⦁ Relational (relacioni) antonyms have specific opposite relations. In this type of antonyms, there is a relationship in which the two opposites must both exist. For example, if someone is selling, there must be someone buying. The same goes with verbs like give - receive. We have prepositions below - above, and nouns like: husband - wife, or teacher - pupil and so on.

⦁ EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS

Experimental phonetics uses some instruments and procedures to study the sounds and those are: ⦁ Spectrography (the frequency and intensity of speech units) ⦁ Palatography (the place where the tongue touches the palate in articulation od sounds) ⦁ Labiography (the movement of lips, articulation)

⦁ BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH - differences

British English and American English have differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and words. ⦁ Pronunciation e.g. in words: fast, brother, we don't pronounce them the same in British and American English Different words with the same meaning: ⦁ Grammar BrE and AmE have different tendencies when it comes to grammar, but not real differences. e.g. ⦁ Present Perfect instead of Past Simple (present perfect is more frequent in British English) ⦁ I've lost my keys/ I lost my key. ⦁ Shall instead of will in future 1st person (in BrE ''shall'' is used) ⦁ I shall come/ I will come. ⦁ should to be used subjunctive (in BrE ''should'' is used) ⦁ I demanded that he should apologise / that he apologize. ⦁ collective plural/singular - singular (in British English there is an option between these two, but the American would say the team is playing well) ⦁ The team is/are playing well.

⦁ CLIPPING, BLENDING

Clipping (shortening) is omitting parts of longer words. It is usually informal or colloquial speech. For example, we shortened ''telephone'' to ''phone'', ''omnibus'' to ''bus'', ''examination'' to ''exam'', ''advertisement'' to ''ad''. To sum up, we can omit the first part of the word (omnibus), the last part (examination) or both can be omitted (refrigerator). Blending (slivanje) is a process of combining or linking parts of different words, not the entire words. Typical examples are ''motel'' (motor + hotel), but we omitted the first part of the first word and the second part of the second word. Then, in ''smog'' (smoke + fog) we omitted the ending of smoke and the f in fog. ''Telecast'' (television + broadcast), cyborg (cybernetic + organism), cybrary (cybernetic + library), cybrarian (cybernetic + librarian), webzine (web + magazine), webinar (web + seminar), modem (modulator + demodulator), screenagers (screen + teenagers = teenagers who spend a lot of time on telephones), wictionary (wikipedia + dictionary), rurban (rural + urban), welderly (well + elderly), himbo (he + bimbo = stupid male person), Brexit (Britain + exit), hairport (hair + airport = barbers shop at the airport), eataly (eat + Italy).

⦁ GENDER

Gender is a way to classify nouns and pronouns. There is male/masculine, female/feminine, neuter. Some languages have only 2 genders, for example French (m/f). Gender can be natural and grammatical. Natural gender corresponds to biological gender and we have that in English. Grammatical gender, on the other hand, has no such correspondence and we have that in Serbian, for example knjiga is f. gender and orman is m. gender. In English language, male and female denote persons, professions, family relations, neuter denotes things, objects, ideas, while animals can be both neuter and male or female. ⦁ Persons: we can determine persons by: ⦁ Specification with using words like ''male'' or ''female'' ⦁ Using different words, like king - queen, brother - sister ⦁ Adding suffix -ess for female, like actor - actress, waiter - waitress ⦁ Animals: we can determine them by: ⦁ Using different words, like bull - cow, stallion - mare ⦁ Adding suffix -ess for female, like lion - lioness, tiger - tigress ⦁ Neutralizing which means that if we have a pet we can specify, like he-wolf - she-wolf, he-goat - she-goat

⦁ CONVERSION, PERSONAL NAMES

Conversion is a process where we change the part of speech without morphological changes, we do not change the form of the word. We can do this in English, but not in Serbian. In English, for example, ''walk'' can be both noun and verb, but in Serbian we do not have that. Some examples of conversion are ''bottle'', which is a noun, and ''to bottle'' (meaning to put something in a bottle), ''desire'' which is also a noun, and ''to desire'', which is a verb, ''doubt'' - ''to doubt'', ''dry'' - ''to dry''. Words from personal names have to do with family names of specific persons that can sometimes become a noun or a verb. We have quite a lot of these in physics and chemistry, where we use someone's name as a unit (newton, tesla). We have some other examples. Charles Boycott's family name is today used as word denoting protest: boycott or to boycott. He was a land agent in Ireland in 19th century, who refused to reduce rents. The same happened with William Lynch, who organized extralegal tribunals in 18th/19th century, so today we have words like lynch or lynch law, which means kill someone for an alleged offence without a legal trial. Also, macadam road comes from John Macadam's family name, who was a Scottish engineer in 18th/19th century and it refers to a specific kind of road. Finally, nicotine came from Jean Nicot who was a French diplomat in 16th century, who introduced tobacco into France. Invention of completely new words is the last process of word formation (derivation) and it is simply creating a non-existing word, like kodak or google.

⦁ WORD FORMATION. DERIVATION.

Derivational morphology (word formation) studies formation of completely new words. Derivational morphemes generally change the part of speech or the basic meaning of a word. For example, adding the -ment to a verb forms a noun, like: judgment. Then, -re when added to the verb means repetition, like: reactivate, which means ''activate again''. Derivational morphemes are not prominent outside the word. They typically occur between the stem and any inflectional affixes. Thus in word ''governments'', -ment, a derivational suffix, precedes -s, which is an inflectional suffix. In English, derivational morphemes may appear either as prefixes or suffixes (prefix: pre-arrange, suffix: arrange-ment). Word formation means creating new words and not just different forms of one word. The process of creating new words can be done in different ways: ⦁ Derivation is adding derivational affixes to create new words. In this case affixes refer to prefixes and suffixes, because English does not have infixes. The most productive prefixes are: in - indirect, inactive, incorrect (we also have il- (illegal), ir- (irregular), im- (impolite) but they are the allomorphs and we use them because they are easier to pronounce, for example inlegal is difficult to pronounce so we say illegal). dis (negative) - disadvantage, disagreement, dishonest un (negative) - unhappy, unreal, unafraid mis (negative) - misunderstand, misread, mispell out (more than) - outspoken, outrun, outlive over (more than) - overwork, overcook, overjoyed under (less) - underline, undercook, underage pre (before) - preview, precede, prevent post (after) - postpone, postscript, postwar re - reactivate, rewrite, replay The most productive suffixes are: -er - writer, actor, professor -let - piglet, booklet, bracelet -hood - adulthood, neighborhood, brotherhood -ship - relationship, friendship, fellowship -dom - kingdom, boredom, freedom -ful - meaningful, beautiful, joyful -ist - therapist, violinist, scientist -ism (abstract nouns) - feminism, rationalism, realism -ation - discrimination, education, application -ment - agreement, development, arrangement -al - international, functional, special -ness - happiness, lioness, darkness -ity - reality, community, activity -ify - modify, qualify, justify -ize/-ise - organize, realize, minimize -en - widen, broken, golden -able - loveable, comfortable, suitable -ish (partially) - yellowish, selfish, reddish -ly - lovely, quickly, happily We also have a thing called derivational paradigm, which is a set of new words created from new roots, e.g. if we add +al, +al+ist, +al+ity, +hood to NATION, we will get national, nationalist, nationality, nationhood.

⦁ CHANGES OF MEANING

Historical semantics deals with the changes of meaning in time during language development. Meaning is not stable, it changes with time. There are four processes of the changing of meaning: ⦁ Narrowing/specialization of meaning - if it is narrowing, it means that we start from a general meaning, and then the word acquires a more specific, a more narrow meaning. For example, ''meat'' in Old English meant ''food'', any kind of food. But, in Modern English, it means a specific kind of food. So this is narrowing or specialization (from general to specific). ⦁ Widening/extension is the opposite of the first one. Here, we start from a specific meaning, and then the word acquires a general meaning. For example, ''bird'' in Old English initially meant ''small bird'', not just any bird. However, in Modern English, ''bird'' has a general meaning of any bird. So this is widening or extension (from specific to general). ⦁ In the process of deterioration, the meaning goes from positive to negative. For example, during Middle Ages ''knave'' was a male servant, which is not negative. But deterioration acquires a negative meaning. So, in Modern English, ''knave'' means a bad person (nitkov). ⦁ The last one is elevation, which is the opposite of deterioration. In elevation, we start from a relatively negative meaning, but later it gets a better and more positive meaning. For example, ''knight'' was in Middle Ages a male adult, who had to fight. But, in Modern English ''knight'' can also have a meaning of a title. So, in the process of elevation, words go from a relatively bad meaning to a better meaning. Meaning also changes when we borrow words. For example, in Serbian, we borrowed words from different languages, like Latin, German or Italian. But those words do not mean exactly the same. In Serbian we say ''magistar'' for an academic degree, but originally, in Latin, it means ''teacher''. We also borrowed a German word ''majstor'', which in Serbian means ''a craft''. And we have words from Italian language, like ''maestro'', which means ''a conductor'' in Serbian. We also have words from English, like ''miting'', but in Serbian this means ''rally'', a meeting that is outside and where people discuss if they are for or against something or somebody. So, we borrowed it from English, but the meaning is not the same. Another example is ''dres''. ''Dres'' means ''jersey'' in Serbian. We also have onomatopoeic words, or ''iconic words'', which are imitating the sounds of nature. Onomatopoeic words do not change meaning through time because they imitate sounds (moo, meow)

⦁ HOMONYMY, POLYSEMY

Homonyms are words with the same pronunciation, often with the same spelling, but different meaning. For example, the word ''bank'' can denote an institution or a part of the river. Or, for example, ''bear'' can be an animal or it can mean ''to give birth''. ''Mad'' can mean ''crazy'' or ''angry'' and so on. Homonymy is divided into homographs and homophones. Homographs are words with the same pronunciation and spelling, but different meaning (bank, bear, mad). Homophones, on the other hand, are words with same pronunciation, but different spelling and meaning (''two'' as a number, but ''too'' as ''also'' or ''as well''). Or flower - flour (flower is a bloom, flour is powder/ingredient for cooking). Also, for example, blue - blew. Polysemy (višeznačnost) is the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or a phrase. So, polysemy is when we have more meanings that are related or derived from a common basic meaning. For example, ''neck'' can be a part of the body, which is the basic meaning. But it can also mean ''bottleneck'' - neck of the bottle.

⦁ HYPONYMY

Hyponymy shows the relationship between a generic term and a specific instance of it. These words are grouped into hierarchical classes with superordinate members (hyperonyms) and subordinate members (hyponyms). Hyperonyms have a general meaning and they include hyponyms. For example, ''flower'' is a hyperonym, while ''rose'', ''tulip'' or ''carnation'' are hyponyms. Hyperonyms can be a specific word and sometimes hyponyms are used as a hyperonym, for example, if we want to use one word for ovca, ovan and jagnje, we would say OVCA, which is a hyponym used as a hyperonym. However, the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field is called a lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull, as ''horse'' covers stallion and mare. This is very important for units in dictionaries, in order to explain a term better.

⦁ VERB'S ARGUMENTS AND THEIR SEMANTIC ROLES

In some approaches, we call syntactic functions the arguments of a verb. The verb is the central part of the predication, and it has some arguments, like the subject or the direct object or the adverbial. According to the number of arguments, grammarians divide verbs into: ⦁ Monovalent verbs - these verbs are intransitive and they require only one argument, and that is the subject. That is why we call them monovalent - ''mono'' means ''one''. For example ''Peter runs.'' ⦁ Bivalent verbs - these verbs are transitive and they require two arguments, and those are subject and object. That is why we call them bivalent - ''bi'' means ''two''. For example ''Peter bought the flowers.'' ⦁ Trivalent verbs - these verbs are also transitive and they require three arguments, and those are subject, object indirect and object direct. That is why we call them trivalent - ''tri'' means ''three''. For example ''Peter gave Mary a book''. Trivalent verbs in linguistics are the same as ditransitive verbs in grammar. The only difference is that in trivalent verbs we count the subject as well, not only indirect and direct object as in ditransitive. Verb's arguments are related to sematic roles. The typical semantic role of subject is agent. For example when we say ''Vince bought a new car'', Vince is the agent (doer), he is animate, human and is willingly doing something. But, there are other possibilities. The semantic role of a subject can also be instrument, external cause, temporal or locative. ⦁ The computer solved the problem - instrument (the computer is not an agent and we call it instrument because it is not animate. It cannot do anything by itself, so somebody else uses the instrument) ⦁ The electric shock killed them - external cause (we call it an external cause or a natural phenomenon, because we do not have an agent included ⦁ Tomorrow is Wednesday - temporal (we call it temporal because it denotes time) ⦁ Madrid is a large town - locative (we call it locative because it denotes place) The typical semantic role of the direct object is the patient. For example ''Harry bought the flowers''. ''The flowers'' is the direct object and it is called the patient because it is affected by something the subject does. The typical semantic role of the indirect object is the recipient or addressee. For example ''Peter gave Mary a book''. ''Mary'' is the indirect object and she is the recipient, because she receives something from the subject.

⦁ SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

In syntax we have the hierarchy of syntactic units. Syntactic units are combined from smaller units to larger ones. We use phonemes to create syllables and words. Then we use words to make phrases. Then we combine words and phrases to form clauses, and finally, we combine words, phrases and clauses to form a complex sentence (with at least two clauses with a subject-predicate relation). Within syntactic units there are 2 basic types of structures: ⦁ Constituent structure simply specifies which units are included in a given structure. So, if we have a structure ''that old car'', we simply specify the constituents, so we say that it is a noun phrase consisting of a determiner, adjective and a noun. ⦁ Dependency structure shows which units depend on which units. If we want to use the dependency structure on ''that old car'', we would have to say that ''car'' is the head word, and the determiner and adjective in this phrase depend on the head word. In dependency structure, we have three kinds of dependency relations: ⦁ Modification, which is a relation between the headword and modifiers, like in a noun phrase ''all these books''. ''Books'' is the headword and ''all these'' are modifiers (determiners), so this is called the relation of modification. ⦁ Complementation, which is related to verbs and the verbs' complements. Verbs have their complement, in the sense of something added to the verb. If we have a verb phrase and within it a verb + direct object or subject complement, it has a relation of complementation. For example, ''He read a book'' - the verb is ''read'', and the direct object is ''a book'', so this sentence has a relation of complementation, something added to the verb. ⦁ Predication is the relation between a subject and a predicate. We have this relation in a clause. For example, in a sentence ''They read a book'', ''they'' and ''read'' are the subject and the predicate, and they form the relation of predication. This relation is a dependency relation because everything depends on the verb. Just like morphological structures, syntactic structures can also be exocentric and endocentric. Exocentric means that the center is outside and we cannot reduce it to one element. Endocentric means that the center is inside and we can reduce it to one component. So we have two groups: ⦁ NP, AdjP, AdvP are endocentric. For example, if we have a noun phrase like ''all these books'', if we omit ''all these'' we still get books. The same goes with adjective phrase and adverbial phrase. ⦁ PP and clauses are exocentric. For example, if we have a prepositional phrase like ''in the house'', if we omit the preposition ''in'', we do not get the meaning of the phrase. If we omit the noun, we would get ''in the'', which also does not have a meaning. It is exocentric, because we cannot reduce this phrase to a single element like in endocentric. Clauses are also exocentric, because we have the subject and the predicate, and we know that in English we cannot omit the subject, subject has to be there.

⦁ LOAN WORDS, CALQUES

Instead of creating new words, we can actually borrow words. If words are borrowed they go through the process of adaptation, which is phonological, graphological and morphological. Phonological means pronunciation, graphological means writing and morphological means adding morphological elements like suffixes of the domestic language, not of the language from which the word was borrowed. Example of phonological adapation is ''kompjuter'' in Serbian, which was borrowed from English and it has a clear ''r'' which is not so clear in English, graphological adaptation can be seen in writing, as we write k and j in ''kompjuter'', but in English there is no k or j. An example of morphological adaptation is ''bilderka'', since we do not have ''ka'' in English, but we added the Serbian suffix for female. In these examples, Serbian is the receiving language (the one which borrows), and English is the source language (the one from which it is borrowed). In some cases, the meaning of borrowed words is not the same as in the language from which we have borrowed that word. For example. ''spiker'' in Serbian means ''announcer'', while in English ''speaker'' is the one who speaks. There is also ''the Speaker'', who is, in English political life, the Parliament president. When we say ''dragstor'' in Serbian, we refer to a specific kind of shop, which means it works 24 hours, so it is open all the time, but in English, drugstore is actually a shop which sells medicaments or cosmetics. Translation loans (prevedenice) or calques (kalkovi) are used if we do not want to borrow words or to create a new word, so we translate foreign words or phrases into a local language, keeping the grammatical pattern of the foreign language. We are literally translating them. For example, skyscraper literally means ''neboder'', night club is ''noćni klub'', brain washing is literally ''ispiranje mozga''. In Serbian we also have words translated from Greek and Latin. For example, the Latin word ''manuscriptum'' is literally translated as ''rukopis'', also the Greek word ''orthographia'' is translated as ''pravopis''. False pairs are words in a domestic and a foreign language, which have the same or similar form, but a different meaning. For example in Serbian ''eventualno'' means ''possibly'' but in English ''eventually'' means ''finally''. In Serbian ''aktuelan'' means ''current'', but in English ''actual'' means ''real''. In Serbian ''simpatija'' means ''crush'', but in English ''sympathy'' means ''compassion''.

⦁ MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS

Morphological structure of words includes roots, bases and affixes. Root is a morpheme carrying a meaning, and it cannot be further subdivided into morphemes. It is a non-affix lexical morpheme that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts. Roots may or may not stand alone as a word, for example: paint (paint-er), read (re-read). Roots are usually free, but there are bound roots and some of them are of Greek or Latin origin, audi- (hear), so we get ''audible'', ''audience'', ''auditory''. Stem is a part of a word to which either grammatical or inflectional affix (or both) is added. Base is a form consisting of a root and affix to which another affix is added. For example, we can add un- and -able to ''touch'', and it will become untouchable. Affixes are bound morphemes, they are added to words and they are subdivided into prefixes, infixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur before word stems, e.g. un-, pre-, bi-. Infixes occur in the middle of words, e.g. un-freaking-believable. Suffixes occur after word stems, e.g. -ing, -er, -ist, -ly. Affixes can be class changing and class maintaining. For example: class maintaining is write - rewrite (because it is still a verb when we add an affix). Class changing is organize - organization (because it is not a verb anymore, it became a noun).

⦁ INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is also divided into: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology (word formation). Inflectional morphology studies different grammatical forms of one word, in inflectional morphology we don't create new words. Inflectional morphemes vary (or inflect) the form of a word in order to express grammatical feature, such as singular/plural, past/present tense. Thus words boy and boys, for example, are two different forms of the "same" word, the choice between them, singular or plural, is a matter of grammar and thus the business of inflectional morphology. In English, we have inflectional suffixes only, not prefixes. As we can see in example rewrite, re is a prefix, but it is not inflectional because it creates a new word. Suffixes denote case, number, person and tense. In English, there is a small number of inflectional suffixes: -s third-person singular present -ed past tense -ing progressive -en past participle -s plural -'s possessive -er comparative -est superlative -ing gerund In English, we have inflectional suffixes only, not prefixes. As we can see in example rewrite, re is a prefix, but it is not inflectional because it creates a new word. Inflectional affixes do not change the part of speech of the word to which they are added. In English, inflectional affixes are always last in a word, after derivational affixes. They are always at the end of the word. As for the inflectional infixes, some older grammars treated irregular plurals like sing - sang as infixes, but we do not do this in modern grammar. We can say we do not have inflectional infixes in English. Inflectional paradigm is when we have different grammatical forms of one word, for example, adjectival paradigm: big, bigger and the biggest. As we can see, inflectional morphemes generally do not change basic meaning or part of speech, as big, bigger and the biggest are all adjectives. Inflectional morphemes are also productive. They typically combine freely with all members of some large class of morphemes, with predictable effects on usage/meaning. Inflectional morphemes occur outside any derivational morphemes. Thus in ration-al-iz-ation-s, the final -s is inflectional, and appears at the very end of the word, outside the derivational morphemes -al, -iz, -ation. We have a couple of specific cases when it comes to inflectional paradigms and inflections, we have something which we call suppletion. Suppletion is when we have grammatical forms of one word with a different base/root. We do not simply add a suffix to the base, but we have a different root. The verb BE is a good example - AM, IS, ARE (''am'', ''is'', ''are'' are called suppletive forms). Example in Serbian: ČOVEK - LJUDI. Periphrasis is adding a specific word, not affixes. So we have a grammatical meaning, but we did not express it by using affixes. We have nonperiphrastic comparison, like: nice, nicer and the nicest. And we have periphrastic comparison of adjectives, like: difficult, more difficult and the most difficult. We can also have periphrastic genitive, like: title of a book, and this is periphrastic because we used the preposition ''of'' to show genitive. Nonperiphrastic genitive is when we say book's title, when we use a suffix.

⦁ CATEGORIES OF NUMBER, CASE AND PERSON

Numbers express quantity of persons or things. They can be singular (one) and plural (more than one). In some languages there are also dual or trial. Nouns can be countable and uncountable. As for the pronouns I, You, He/She/It - singular : We, You, They - plural. As for the verbs, -s can be used for plural or for 3rd person singular. Case indicates the function of nouns/pronouns in a clause, e.g. subject, object, possession, recipient etc. There are seven cases in traditional grammar, usually with suffixes and they can be independent (upravni, nezavisni), nominative and vocative or oblique (zavisni, kosi). Declension is a set of case forms. Syncretism is when we have two or more cases with the same form, e.g. in Serbian SINOVIMA. In some languages function is indicated by the position in a clause, not by cases (e.g. subject, object). Persons refer to pronouns and verbs. 1st person - the one who speaks/writes, 2nd person - to whom sb is talking/writing, 3rd person - participant in a conversation or about whom sb is talking/writing. There are singular and plural, 1st person plural can be the inclusive plural (we + you) and exclusive plural (we, without ''you'' implied). Also, we have formal and informal. In Serbian, for example, there are 2 ways to address someone (ti or vi), but in English there is only one way (you). Deictic expression or deixis is a word or phrase (such as this, that, now, here) that points to the time, place, or situation in which a speaker is speaking. It is determined in a context, in a concrete situation. Deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns and tense.

OLD ENGLISH (from mid-5th to 12th century)

Old English was spoken from the time of settlement of the Anglo-Saxon tribes on the British isles (which was c450 AD) until the Norman Conquest which was in 1066. As for the spelling, there were runic signs first and after that the alphabet appeared. In grammar, Old English is chiefly distinguished from later stages in the history of English by greater use of a larger set of inflections in nouns, adjectives, verbs and pronouns, and also by rather less fixed word order. It also preserves grammatical gender in nouns and adjectives. Old English has nouns with 4 cases (sg and pl) and 5 basic declensions. As for the verbs, the infinitive was marked with an ending - an (writan - write, beatan - beat), and the present participle had the ending - ende (drifende - driving). As for the adverbs, they had the suffix ''lice'' (glaedlice - gladly). As for the vocabulary, Old English is much more homogeneous than later stages in the history of English, multiple negations were possible, as well as less fixed word order: OE ferde he (travelled he), he hine geseah (he him saw ) The influences on the lexicon were: ⦁ Celtic influence (because the Celts were the first inhabitants) - about 25 words, such as Avon, Dover, Kent, Thames ⦁ Latin influence - some borrowings from Latin date back to before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain, while many other date from the period of the conversion to Christianity and later. Some Old English words of Latin origin that have survived into modern English include: belt, butter, chalk, chest, cup, fan, fork, mile, mint, monk, pepper, school, sock, wine. ⦁ Old Norse - Scandinavian/Danish influence: because of the Viking raids on Britain, of Danelaw (part of England conquered by the Danes) and because Danes seized English throne and ruled for 25 years. We have words such as Grimsby, skin, sky, skill. And we have some synonyms: sick - ill, skill - craft, skin - hide (ON - OE). Old English was marked with works such as Beowulf, the Seafarer, the Wanderer and the letter called thorn (þ), which is pronounced as ''th''.Also, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, Kent and Wessex, and the dialects were Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. ⦁ SOUNDS AND ORTHOGRAPHY: Long vowels were marked like this: (god - God, gōd - good). Diphthongs are a combination of two vowel sounds, which take some duration of time of a single long vowel (for example leaf, food, head, beat...) We have consonant clusters: kn, wr, gn (for example: writan - write, cnawan - know, gnawan - gnaw) C - became K (cniht - knight, deorc - dark, cuman - come) CH - in front of I or E (cirice - church, cild - child) SC - became SH (scip - ship, sceap - sheep) CG - became dg (ecg - edge, brycge - bridge) ⦁ SOUND CHANGES: ⦁ i-mutation a/o + i = e for example: fot (sg) fot + iz (pl) =fotiz - fetiz = fet - feet u + i = y mus + iz = mys - mice comparison: old + ira = eldira ira - comparative degree old + ista = eldista ista - superlative degree strong + ira = strengira strong, strength singular plural • N hund hundas • Ac hund hundas • G hundes hunda • D hunde hundum • N sceap N sceap • N oxa N oxan ⦁ gradation - change of vowels (i-a-u) singan - sang - sungen writan - wrat - written ⦁ palatalization c + i/e = SH, CH Scip - ship, cild - child, cirice - church ⦁ Personal pronouns: 1 st person N ic we Ac me us 2 nd person N þu ge / ye 3 rd person N he, heo, hit hie

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS

On the basis of their articulation, sounds are first divided into vowels and consonants then further subdivided. In phonetics, the terms consonant and vowel refer to types of sounds (!), not to the letters that represent them We differ vowels and consonants by producing (vowels are produced without any obstacle in vocal tract, and consonants are produced with an obstacle in vocal tract). ⦁ CONSONANTS: We can classify consonants according to where the obstacle occurs and how the obstacle occurs: ⦁ THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION (where the obstacle occurs) ⦁ bilabials: m, b, p, w (we articulate by bringing both lips together) ⦁ labiodentals: f, v (we articulate by touching the bottom lip and upper teeth) ⦁ interdentals: θ, ð (both are pronounced as ''th'' and spelled that way too (we articulate by inserting the tip of tongue between teeth) ⦁ alveolars: d, t, z, s, n, r, l (we articulate by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge) ⦁ palatals: ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, j (we articulate by raising the front part of the tongue to the palate) ⦁ mission [mɪʃən], measure [mɛӡər],cheap [ʧip], judge [ʤʌʤ], and yoyo [jojo] ⦁ velars: g, k, ŋ (we articulate by raising the back part of the tongue to the velum (the soft palate)) ⦁ The initial and final sounds of the words kick [kɪk] and gig [gɪg] and the final sounds of the words back [bæk], bag [bæg], and bang [bæŋ] are all velar sounds. ⦁ glottal: h (created by the flow of air through the open glottis and past the tongue and lips as they prepare to pronounce a vowel sound, which always follows the sound ''h'') ⦁ THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION (the way in which the airstream is affected as it flows from the lungs and out of the mouth and nose) We have 4 general classes: ⦁ oral: b, p, d, t, g, k ⦁ nasal: m, n, ŋ ⦁ voiced: b, d, g, m, n, ŋ ⦁ voiceless: p, t, k ⦁ stops: b, p, d, t, k, g, tʃ, dʒ Stops are consonants in which the airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity for a short period (tens of milliseconds) and all the other sounds except stops are called continuants. p & b are bilabial stops, with the airstream stopped at the mouth by the complete closure of the lips, t & d are alveolar stops, with the airstream stopped by the tongue, making a complete closure at the alveolar ridge, k & g are velar stops, with the complete closure at the velum ⦁ nasals: m, n, ŋ The air stream goes through the nasal cavity, and may be stopped there. m is a bilabial nasal sound, n is an alveolar nasal, and ŋ is a velar nasal. ⦁ fricatives: f v, θ ð, s z, ʃ ʒ, h In the production of some continuants, the airflow is so severely obstructed that is causes friction, and the sounds are therefore called fricatives. The first of each the pairs of fricatives above is voiceless, the second is voiced. (f is voiceless, v is voiced, and so on) ⦁ affricates: tʃ, dʒ These sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect characteristic of a fricative. The palatal sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced affricates. ⦁ liquids: L, r In the production of the sounds L & r, there is some obstruction in mouth, but not enough to cause friction. The tongue produces a partial closure in the mouth, resulting in a resonant, vowel-like consonant. Liquids may be either syllabic or nonsyllabic, i.e. they may sometimes, like vowels, act as the sound carrier in a syllable. L and r are articulated differently, but are grouped as a class because they are acoustically similar. ⦁ lateral liquid - L A lateral liquid is a sound in which the flow of air out of the body is redirected around the tongue and toward the sides of the mouth before exiting through the lips. L occurs in a syllable-initial position in, for example, like & melon & hello ⦁ glides: j, w The sounds j and w, the initial sounds of you [ju] and [wi] are pronounced with a little obstruction, always directly followed by a vowel and they do not occur at the end of the words (don't be fooled by spelling - words ending in y or w like say and saw end in a vowel sound). After articulating [j] or [w], the tongue glides quickly into place for pronouncing the next vowel, hence the term glide. ⦁ VOWELS: Vowels are produced with little restriction of the airflow from the lungs out through the mouth and/or the nose. The quality of a vowel depends on the shape of the vocal tract as the air passes through. Vowel sounds carry pitch and loudness and you can sing vowels or shout vowels. They may be longer or shorter in duration. Also, vowels can stand alone - they can be produced without consonants before or after them. Vowels can be determined by: ⦁ parts of the tongue which is included: we have front, central and back vowels ⦁ level of raising of tongue in mouth: we have close, intermediate and open vowels ⦁ e.g. BEAT - front & close, CALM - back & open ⦁ the shape of lips ⦁ We have 4 shapes of lips: ⦁ spread (razvučene) e.g. while we pronounce BEAT ⦁ neutral (neutralne) e.g. while we pronounce CALM ⦁ open-rounded (zaokružene) e.g. while we pronounce HOT ⦁ close- rounded (zaokružene i ispupčene) e.g. while we pronounce WOOD We have long and short vowels. Some examples in words: We also have monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs. Monophthong is where there is just one vowel sound in a syllable, like in ''car'' /ka:/, ''ship'' / ʃɪp/, bus /bʌs/ Diphthong is where there are two vowel sounds in a syllable, like in ''made'' /meɪd/, ''lie'' /laɪ/, ''boy'' /bɔɪ/. We also have a couple of triple vowels called triphthongs, such as in the word ''fire'' /fʌɪə/ or ''our'' /aʊə/, power /paʊə/, which has three vowels stuck together in one syllable. Also, vowels can be stressed and unstressed. Stressed vowel sounds are longer, louder, and/or higher in pitch than vowel sounds without stress. The symbol [ə] in ''sofa'' /səʊfə/, ''ago'' /əɡəʊ/ is called a schwa, and it is a neutral vowel value.

⦁ GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY. COMPARISON AND DEFINITENESS

Parts of speech are related to grammatical categories. Grammatical category is a system of at least two members which denotes a grammatical meaning. Members are mutually exclusive. There are categories of case, tense, gender, aspect, person, mood, voice, number, definiteness, comparison. They are typical nominal and verbal categories. It is important to mention that not all languages have all categories. ⦁ Comparison deals with adjectives and adverbs, it is about how much certain feature is present. There is positive (strong), comparative degree (stronger), superlative degree (the strongest). ⦁ Definiteness is present in some languages, for example in Serbian, where zelen is indefinite and zeleni is definite. In English we have articles that determine, and those are a/an and the.

⦁ PHRASE IN SYNTAX

Phrase is a group of two or more grammatically related words which do not include the relation of predication (relation between the subject and the predicate). As for the structure of phrases, all the phrases have the premodification, head/headword and postmodification. We identify the type of a phrase by looking at the headword. If the headword is a noun, the type of phrase is a noun phrase (NP). If the headword is a verb, the type of phrase is a verb phrase (VP). The same goes with prepositional phrases (PP), adverbial phrases (AdvP) and adjective phrases (AdjP). So, the type of phrase is determined by the headword. For example, ''the old grey bicycle'' is a noun phrase, because the headword is ''bicycle'' and other words in this phrase just modify the headword. Then, ''is reading'' is a verb phrase, because ''reading'' is the headword, and here we have the auxiliary ''is'', which is modifying the headword. In ''in the house'', ''in'' is the headword, so the phrase is prepositional, as it starts with a preposition that is followed by a noun phrase. ''Very nice'' is an adjective phrase, because ''nice'' is an adjective. ''Very quickly'' is an adverbial phrase, because ''quickly'' is an adverb. We have premodification of nouns and those are: determiners, numbers, adjectives, nouns, genitive of nouns and some complex structures. Examples: all the books - (''all'' and ''the'' are determiners) Helen's book - genitive the oak table - here ''oak'' is a noun but it functions as a premodifier, almost as an adjective an on-the-spot investigation - on-the-spot is a prepositional phrase written with hyphen, it is a premodifier and it is a complex structure. We also have postmodifications of nouns (meaning following the nouns, after the nouns) and those are: prepositional phrases, clauses and sometimes adjectives (but very rarely, only in phrases taken from French). Examples: the book about grammar - ''about grammar'' is a prepositional phrase which follows a noun. secretary general - ''secretery'' is the headword and ''general'' is an adjective, but only because the word order it is taken from French. This is a rare example of an adjective following a noun the girl who is standing there is his sister - ''who is standing there'' is a clause postmodifying the headword. If we want to establish larger units, we need some criteria/test to know that something is a phrase. We have tests like movement, substitution and insertion. ⦁ Movement: Those students have made an interesting discovery. An interesting discovery has been made by those students. Here, ''an interesting discovery'' is an object and we moved it to the initial position in order to passivize it. The rule for movement is that you can move the entire unit, entire phrase, we cannot move half of the phrase or parts of phrases, like ''Discovery has been made by those students interesting''. If we can move several words together to a different position, it proves that those words make a phrase. ⦁ Substitution: That car of yours is giving me a lot of trouble. It is giving me a lot of trouble. Here, we simply replaced ''that car of yours'' which is a subject and a noun phrase, with a pronoun ''it''. The rule of substitution is that we can use a pronoun as a substitution for the entire phrase and it proves that it is a phrase. We cannot use a substitution for a part of a phrase, for example, we cannot say ''It of yours if giving me a lot of trouble''. To sum it up, if we can substitute an entire phrase with a pronoun, it is surely a phrase. ⦁ Insertion He went there to see the results. He went there in order to see the results. Here, we inserted ''in order to''. The rule for insertion is that we can insert new linguistic material only between units. We can insert linking elements between units. By inserting ''in order to'', we proved that ''there'' is one unit and ''to see the results'' is the second unit. But, insertion does not mean inserting new adjectives in front of a noun, for example ''the computer - the new computer'', this is not the type of insertion that we are interested in, we are interested in inserting linking elements. Clause and sentence: Sentence is a unit expressing the entire thought, but this definition is a bit problematic, because it is difficult to say what is the entire thought. For example, we can say ''Computer.'' which is a sentence but not the entire thought. We can also say that a sentence is a string of words between two full stops, but it is also a problematic definition. So, in syntax we use something more contemporary. In contemporary syntax, clause is a simple sentence with only one predication, so it has one subject - predicate relation. Simple sentence is equal to a clause, because a simple sentence has only one predication. So, a clause is larger than a phrase because clause has to have a relation of predication, it has to have a subject and a predicate, which a phrase does not have, but it is smaller than a complex sentence. A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of at least two clauses, or more. Clause has two or more phrases and obligatory relation of predication. Within a clause, we can discuss the word order. Word order is the order of syntactic units in a clause (subject, predicate, object, adverbial, complement). Word order in a clause can be free or fixed. Languages with rich inflection usually have a free word order, for example Serbian and Latin, because they have inflections, for example, cases, so if it is the nominative case, we know that it is the subject. If it is the accusative case, we know that it is the object. So, we can move the subject to a different position, it does not have to be the first in a clause. This is why inflections influence word order, if we mark grammatical relations in a clause by inflections, we do not need a fixed word order, and it can be free. However, languages with less rich inflection usually have a fixed word order, like English. For example: In Serbian we can say ''Petar je udario Pavla.'' or ''Pavla je uradio Petar''. So, the subject is still Petar, even if it is placed in the final position. We know it is a subject because it is in the nominative case. However in English, if we say ''Peter hit Paul.'', Peter is the subject and Paul is the object. But, if we put Paul in the initial position, it becomes the subject. The second thing which we can discuss within a clause is the agreement (sometimes called concord) between a subject and the predicate. Predicate agrees with the headword of the subject (subject can have several words, but it agrees with the headword). Agreement is seen if we have inflections. Most of the time we can see it more in Serbian than in English, but we have an English example of agreement: ''that car of Tom's is giving him a lot of trouble.'' The headword is ''car'' because the predicate agrees with it.

⦁ SEMANTIC FIELDS

Semantic field is a group of words with associated meanings and uses. Words are grouped in other ways according to their meaning. So, we have groups of words around one lexical core, derived words, words with a related meaning and the same general concept. These words have some semantic features in common, for example: words denoting furniture, relatives, clothes, food. We have conditions (shape, use, material) for words to be included in a semantic group. However, differences between members in one semantic group are not always completely clear. For example, chair - armchair. In order to distinguish them, we have to think about shape, material or some other features. So, armchairs have armrests, while chairs do not. The same goes with glass - cup - mug. The differences between them are that we use glasses for drinking water, cups for drinking tea and mugs for drinking coffee. We have to think about prototype, which is a typical representative of a certain concept and we compare words with that prototype. Words in a semantic field can have a neutral or emotionally-colored meaning. For example, ''kuća'' is neutral, ''kućica'' has a positive association and a hypocoristic meaning (emotionally-colored) and ''kućerina'' has a negative, pejorative meaning (it shows disapproval). Diminutive words denote something small, like ''doggy, piglet, kitchenette'', while augmentative words denote something enormous, like ''kucerina''.

⦁ SEMANTICS, KINDS OF MEANINGS

Semantics is a level of linguistic analysis studying meanings of words, phrases and clauses/sentences. The word semantics came from Greek word ''semantikos'' which means ''having meaning''. So we have linguistic units (words, phrases, clauses, sentences) and we attach meaning to these units. Strings of sounds (words) acquire specific meanings. We first started with sounds and phonemes, but phonemes do not have meaning, so we combined phonemes into syllables and words. Words are the smallest units with a meaning. For example, we know what a book is, simply because it is a matter of agreement among people who speak a certain language. It is not just words that acquire meanings, but the combinations of words (which are phrases, clauses, sentences) also have meanings. To sum up, semantics studies meanings of units, combinations of meanings of these units and relations between meanings of units (that means we do not study only the meaning of words but also relations between them, like, for example, the same or opposite meaning). Semantics also has to explain the differences in meaning, ambiguities and semantic irregularities, for example, if we say ''She cannot bear children'', this is ambiguous because we have two interpretations of this sentence. It could mean that she cannot have children or that she does not like them. Ambiguity is in the word ''bear''. Or if we say ''His unmarried sister is married to a bachelor'', that would be an example of a semantic irregularity, because if she is unmarried she cannot be married at the same time, and also ''bachelor'' is by definition not married, so this sentence is irregular. Semantics studies meaning, but the notion of meaning is difficult to define. For example, philosophers and linguists, they have different approaches, different theories, but there are still some unsolved issues and debates about what meaning really is. Meanings, for linguists, are ideas or concepts which we relate to linguistic units (words, phrases, sentences), phenomena from our reality. One of the problems in this discussion about the meaning is, for example, the meaning of THE or FOR. Linguists and philosophers try to answer questions like what is the meaning of the article THE or the meaning of the preposition FOR. The problem with words like ''vampire'' or ''unicorn'' is that they are not a part of our reality, they belong to imagination. Sometimes it is also difficult to explain words like ''hate'' or ''love'', because they are the abstract notions. There are several kinds of meanings in semantics: ⦁ The first one is lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning relates to notions from our reality, like: object, persons, ideas. However, grammatical meaning is related to grammatical categories, like: number, person, tense, etc. We can also combine these meaning in words, like in ''books''. Book without s denotes a concept (lexical meaning) while s denotes plural (grammatical meaning). ⦁ The second one is referential and emotive. Referential meaning is objective or neutral, without any specific attitude, like: father, mother. Emotive is when we use the same terms and we have a specific attitude towards them. So, this is emotionally colored, like: dad, mom. Or if we say ''dog'', it is referential, but if we want to add emotion to this word, we would say ''puppy'' or ''doggy''. ⦁ The third one is concrete and abstract. Concrete meaning is a specific meaning related to material object, like: book, car. Abstract meaning, on the other hand, refers to ideas, like: beauty, success. ⦁ We can also have literal and figurative meaning. Literal meaning is the primary meaning of a unit. Figurative meaning, or sometimes called ''metaphorical meaning'' is developed from literal meaning. For example, ''head'' and ''neck'' are in literal meaning parts of body. But in figurative meaning ''head'' could be used as ''the head of a family''. We developed this from literal meaning because head as a part of body is significant, just like a father in a family is significant. So, we project some features of literal meaning to the figurative meaning. ''Neck'' is also literally a part of our bodies, but in figurative meaning, ''neck'' can be used as ''bottleneck''. ⦁ Finally, we have denotation and connotation. Denotation is the very concept which is denoted by a word. But, connotation refers to the associations with the concepts. For example, ''roof''. Roof is a part of a house, so this is denotation. However, if we say that we have ''a roof above out heads'', we mean that we are protected and have where to stay, so this is connotation. Semantics is divided into: ⦁ lexical semantics (it deals with meanings of words, phrases) ⦁ sentential semantics (it deals with meanings of clauses/sentences) Meaning is always studied in the context, because a single word can carry several meanings.

⦁ SUFFIXES HOMOPHONES

Suffixes are affixes, added to the end of the words, but suffixes homophones are suffixes with the same form and pronunciation, but with a different function. For example, the word ''lighter'' can denote a lighter of a cigarettes, but also the comparative degree of light. The word ''painting'' can denote a noun, as a work of art, or it can be a verb. The word ''touching'' could be a present participle, like ''somebody was touching the door'', or it could be an adjective. ⦁ er: if it is comparative degree (nicer), it is inflectional (because it is only a form of the old word, like light - lighter) , but if it denotes an agent/worker (lighter for cigarettes) it is derivational (because we created a new word). ⦁ ing: if it is the present participle, it is inflectional (somebody is painting), but if it is a noun, a completely new word, then it is derivational. ⦁ ly: could be derivational for adverbs, like quick - quickly (we added -ly to quick, so we created a new word), or it can be derivational for adjectives, like daily in ''a daily paper''. BUT, daily without a noun following could be an adverb as well, like ''she reads two pages of that book daily''.

⦁ SYNONYMS, EUPHEMISMS

Synonyms are words with the same meaning, but different form. However, in language, there are no absolute, exactly the same words. They always have difference in style, connotation and nuances of meaning. For example, happy & glad are synonyms. However, we use the term ''happy'' more often, as it is the general term denoting the state of mind. If we were in a specific situation, we would say ''glad''. We also have synonyms like truck & lorry, which are the same words but one (truck) is used in American English, while the other one (lorry) is used in British. Sometimes one word is common domestic and the other is formal foreign, used in different context, for example, ancestry (domestic) - pedigree (French and formal). We have an example in Serbian as well: poslužiti (we would say that in home) - servirati (we would say that in a restaurant as it is more formal). Economy principle also causes differentiation between synonyms. There is no need for two words with exactly the same meaning, so one words slowly disappears, like časovničar - sajdžija. Now we say ''časovničar'' and ''sajdžija'' is old. Specialization is also common when it comes to synonyms, so, deep & profound are synonyms, but we would say only ''deep water'' not ''profound water''. Profound is used to describe some mental processes, like thinking. The same goes with mature & ripe. Mature is used for people, while ripe is used for fruit. Euphemisms are replacements for the words denoting unpleasant notions or associations like death, illness. So, we would not say that someone ''died'', but ''passed away''. We would not say ''the poor'', but ''the underprivileged''. Euphemisms are mild or indirect words or expressions substituted for ones considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant.

⦁ EXPONENTS OF SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

Syntactic functions have their exponents. An exponent is a linguistic unit representing a certain function or a category. For example, -s is in morphology an exponent of the category of number, like in book - books. This -s can also denote the 3rd person singular present tense. So, we also have exponents in morphology. Exponents in syntax can be words, phrases and even clauses. Exponents of subject: exponents of the subject could be words, noun phrases or clauses. Example for word: ''Lenny will arrive tomorrow''. Lenny is a word, it is a noun and a subject, but it is not a noun phrase because we do not have modifiers. Then, an example of a noun phrase would be ''That new computer is very fast''. This is a noun phrase consisting of the headword ''computer'' and premodifiers. And we have an example of a clause, like in ''That she is still alive is sheer luck.'' This is an example of a clause as a subject. Exponents of object: it refers to the direct object and the exponents of the object could be words, noun phrases and clauses. For example, ''I don't know whether we need it''. ''whether we need it'' is a clause functioning as a direct object, and we know it is a clause because we can see the predication. We can prove that this is a direct object, because we can replace it with ''I don't know that''. This was a clause which is the exponent of object. An example of a noun phrase would be ''She bought the new book''. And finally, an example of a word as an exponent of the object, ''He saw Barbara''. Barbara is a word, it is a noun, and we know it is not a noun phrase because it does not have modifiers. Exponents of adverbial: here we have several possibilities. Exponents of adverbial could be adverbs, AdvP, NP, PP and clauses. For example, ''They will arrive tomorrow''. ''Tomorrow'' is an adverb and it functions as an exponent of the category of adverbials. Next, we have an example of a noun phrase as an exponent of adverbial, like ''She will be there next week''. ''Next week'' is a noun phrase, in this case, an exponent of adverbial showing time. Then, we have an example of a prepositional phrase, like ''That book is in the library''. ''In the library'' is a prepositional phrase functioning as an exponent of adverbial showing place. We also have adverbial phrases, like ''He arrived very quickly'' and clauses like ''If they arrive soon, we'll go for a walk'' and they also function as exponents of adverbial. Exponents of subject complement: exponents of subject complement could be adjectives, AdjP, NP and clause. For example, ''Ellen is clever''. This is just an adjective as an exponent of subject complement. But if we add ''Ellen is a clever girl'', it would be a noun phrase functioning as an exponent of subject complement. If we say ''Ellen is very clever'', then it is an adjective phrase. And finally, if we say ''The assumption is that things will improve'', then it is a clause.

⦁ CATEGORIES OF TENSE, ASPECT, MOOD AND VOICE

Tense is deictic, since deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns and tense. Tense refers to location of a situation in time, in relation to the point of speech. Tense can be past, present and future. There are also subdivisions, e.g. in Serbian aorist, imperfekat, pluskvamperfekat, futur II, and so on. We call a set of tense forms of a verb a conjugation. Aspect (glagolski vid) can be simple, continuous, perfect or a combination of these. In Serbian we have imperfective and perfective verbs, for example, pisati - napisati. Mood (glagolski način) refers to the attitude of speaker. Mood can be indicative (declarations, statements, facts), subjunctive (wish, intention, doubt), imperative (commands) Voice is a relation between the subject, verb and object. It can be active (subject - agent), passive (subject - patient). Syncretism means that one form may indicate several categories, for example SINGS - 3rd person, singular, present tense.

English as an Indo-European, West-Germanic language

The approximate number of languages in the world is from 4000-6000. Languages can be classified in different ways. Genetic classification is a classification by ORIGIN. Language families can be further subdivided into branches. To form a language family, we have to establish similarities and differences and compare. We compare grammar and words and words need to have the same meaning and a similar structure. Protolanguage is a language from which all the other languages developed. Proto Indo-European language was spoken 5000-6000 years ago at the north of the Black Sea and it started to split into Indo-European languages about 4500 years ago. Branches of Indo-European languages are: Slavic, Romance, Germanic, Baltic, Indo-Iranian and many more. Germanic branch has sub-branches, which are north, east and west. English language is in West-Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. The development of English language is divided into three main parts: ⦁ Old English (also known as Anglo-Saxon) lasted from circa 450 AD to circa 1100 AD. ⦁ Middle English lasted from circa 1100 AD to circa 1500 AD ⦁ Modern English is usually divided into ⦁ Early Modern English which lasted from circa 1500 to circa 1700 ⦁ Modern English which started from 1700 and it still lasts Grimm's law refers to the systematic study and categorization of the consonant shifts that occurred between Proto-Indo-European and Germanic languages. The discoverer was Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (who was the elder of the Brothers Grimm, a German philologist and the editor of the Grimm's Fairy Tales). The sound changes are p-f; d-t; b-p; g-k; k-h; t-th Examples: piscis-fish, decem-ten, tres-three, centum-hundred. Verner's law was stated by a Danish linguist Karl Adolph Verner in 1875. The Germanic voiceless fricative consonants which appeared due to Grimm's law later became voiced if they were found after unstressed vowels. Examples: brother-bruder, book-buch, good-gut. We can talk about English language from 5th century AD. The Celts were the first inhabitants of the Britain we know about, they are the so called ''native population''. After them, Romans led by the emperor Claudius in 43 AD conquered Britain and ruled until 407 AD. When the local population was attacked by barbarians (those who don't speak, savages), Germanic mercenaries (three tribes: Angles, Jutes and Saxons) came from Denmark to Britain to defend the local population, in 449 AD. They defeated the barbarians and began the settlement. The tribe Angles gave England its name, culture and German heritage. The name English came and formed itself from Englaland and Englisc (Old English). The father of English history is a monk, the Venerable Bede who spread literacy in 8th century and wrote Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum - ''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' (ecclesiastical refers to church). Old English and German language were alike, for example: OE German Modern English (the influence of the French) hund hund dog lyft luft air fugol vogel bird On the other hand, Modern English distinguishes itself because of the influence of mainly French but also other languages. There are 3 periods of development of English language: ⦁ Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon) lasted from c450 AD to c1100 ⦁ Middle English lasted from c1100 to c1500 (the Norman conquest happened in this period) ⦁ Modern English (it is divided into: Early Modern English (from 1500 to 1700) Modern English (from 1700 and it still lasts) All languages change with time and those changes are: ⦁ Historical changes (wars, population mixing, culture domination, politics, technological progress, etc.) ⦁ Languages in contact ⦁ And also, different social groups use their own ''specific'' language (for example slang). These changes are slow and gradual compared to human-life span, otherwise we would have to re-learn our mother tongue every 20 years or so. Words may also change both meaning and function over time, as well as grammar. Those changes are: ⦁ In spelling and punctuation ⦁ In lexicon and semantics ⦁ In grammar ⦁ In the ways of language use, e.g. situational changes, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, etc. Some examples of words that no longer have the same meaning: EGREGIOUS now describes something outstandingly bad or shocking, but it originally meant remarkably good. Apparently the current (opposite) meaning arose from ironic use of the original. GIRL once meant a child or a young person of either sex, but now it refers to only the females. FURNITURE originally meant equipment, supplies or provisions in the literal or figurative sense, but now it describes large moveable equipment like chairs, tables etc. Some examples of 'nonsentences': ''Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.'' ''A ship-shipping ship shipping shipping ships.''

⦁ TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE SYNTAX

Transformational-generative syntax is a specific kind of syntax developed by a famous American linguist Noah Chomsky from the late 1950s (mid 20th century). It is called generative syntax from the word ''to generate'', which means to create phrases, clauses and sentences. Chomsky is interested in how the sentences are created in our minds. And it is called transformational because he wants to show how structure is transformed into another structure. He has two key notions: surface and deep structure, and transformations. Surface structure is the structure which we can see, read or hear, and this is the structure in communication. Deep structure, on the other hand, is something that exists in our minds before we say or write a sentence. It is deeper in our minds, and it is more abstract. And finally, he needs transformations to transform deep structure into the surface structure. We can show this through tree diagrams. For example: S (sentence) Their parents have bought a new house. NP PredP Det N VP NP Their Parents Aux V Det NP present have buy a Adj N new house The surface structure of the verb phrase is ''have bought'', but in the deep structure in our mind, before we make this sentence we have present tense in our mind and we have the auxiliary have, and we have the infinitive ''buy''. So we have to apply a transformation and we relate present with have, in order to agree with the plural subject ''Their parents''. Next, we have to agree ''have'' with ''buy'', because have requires ''bought'', so we get ''have bought''. If we want to, for example, make a passive sentence, we simply move ''a new house'' in the initial position, and the subject at the final position. If we want to make a negative sentence, we simply add the particle ''not'' after ''have''. If we want to form a question, we move ''have'' to the beginning, and so on.