Logical Fallacies

Faulty Cause / Effect

A cause and effect relationship that might not be true. Example: "When I took office, the unemployment rate dropped to four percent." Listeners should question whether the rate dropped because of the person in office or other factors beyond the person's control. Did that person actually cause the rate to drop?

Argument Ad Hominem ("To the man")

The writer attacks the opponent's character rather than the opponent's argument. Example: The statement "Dr. Bloom can't be a competent marriage counselor because she's been divorced" may not be valid. Bloom's advice to her clients may be excellent regardless of her own marital status.

Hasty Generalization

The writer bases the argument on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence, or an isolated example. Example: You have owned two poodles, and they have both attacked you. If you declare that all poodles are vicious dogs, you are making a hasty generalization. Example: "My opponent seems to be an inconsiderate person." Does the speaker offer examples or evidence to support this claim?

Argument Ad Populum ("To the people")

The writer evades the issues by appealing to reader's emotional reactions to certain subjects. Instead of arguing the facts of an issue, the writer might play on the readers' responses to certain ideas or words. The writer uses words such as "communism," "fascism," or "radical" to get a negative response from a reader and use words such as "God," "country," or "liberty" to get a positive response from a reader. The idea being to compliment people, making them feel important , intelligent or good. Example: "If you are a true American, you will vote against the referendum on flag burning," is a statement where the writer avoids discussion of the merits or weaknesses of the bill and merely substitutes an emotional appeal.

Red Herring

The writer introduces an irrelevant point to divert the readers' attention from the main issue (check out the red herrings - sometimes called pivots - politicians use all the time during debates). Example: Roommate A might be criticizing roommate B for his or her repeated failure to do the dishes when it was his or her turn. To escape facing the charges, roommate B brings up times in the past when roommate A failed to repay some money he or she borrowed. Even though this could be a problem, it is not relevant to the original argument

Quick Fix

The writer leans too heavily on catchy phrases or empty slogans. A clever turn-of-phrase may grab one's attention, but it may lose its persuasiveness when scrutinized closely. Example: A banner at a recent rally to protest a piece of antigun legislation read, "When guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns." Although the sentence had nice balance, it oversimplified the issue.

Begging the Question (also known as circular reasoning)

The writer presents as truth what is supposed to be proven by the argument (assumes point is already accepted as a fact). Example #1: In the statement "All useless laws such as Reform Bill 13 should be repealed," the writer has already pronounced the bill useless without assuming responsibility for proving that it is useless. Example #2: The reason everyone wants the new "Tickle Me Elmo" doll is because this is the hottest toy of the season! Everyone wanting the toy is the same thing as it being "hot," so the reason given is no reason at all—it is simply rewording the claim and trying to pass it off as support for the claim.

Either/or

The writer tries to convince the readers that there are only two sides to an issue - one right, one wrong. Example: The classic 1960's bumper sticker that was popular during the debate over the Vietnam War is an example of this: "America: Love It or Leave It." Obviously, there are other choices.

Bandwagon Appeal

The writer tries to validate a point by intimating that "everyone else believes in this." Such a tactic evades discussion of the issue itself. Example: Advertising often uses this technique: "Discriminating women use Smacky-Mouth lipstick." A recent Colorado bumper sticker says "Eat lamb - could 1000's of coyotes be wrong?" Example: "Join the rest of the nation in our goal to keep America great, and vote for me." Does joining everyone make it a good idea?

Hypostatization

The writer uses an abstract concept as if it were a concrete reality Example: "History has always taught us . . ." or "Science has proven . . ." The implication in each case is that history or science (or any other discipline) has only one opinion which is an incorrect assumption.

Faulty Analogy

The writer uses an extended comparison as proof of a point. Look closely at all extended comparisons and metaphors to see if the two things being compared are really similar. Although a compelling analogy might suggest similarities, it alone cannot prove anything. Example: In a recent editorial a woman bemoaned laws requiring small children to sit in car seats saying that lawmakers could just as easily require mothers to breastfeed instead of using formula. Are the two situations really alike?

Non Sequitur ("it doesn't follow")

The writer's conclusion is not necessarily a logical result of the facts. Example: When you conclude "Tony Hawke is a great skateboarder, so he will be an excellent skateboard teacher" this is a non sequitur. Just because someone knows how to do something well does not automatically mean that he or she can teach it well.

Card Stacking

This term comes from stacking a deck of cards in your favor. Card stacking is used to slant a message. Key words or unfavorable statistics may be omitted in an ad or commercial, leading to a series of half-truths. Example: "I introduced more bills into Congress than anyone else." How successful were the bills? How many passed? The speaker might leave out failures.