LS Exam #2

Judith Ortíz Cofer

"Born in 1952 in the small town of Hormigueros, Puerto Rico" Her parents came to the US in 1956 and attended and settled in Patterson, NJ She spent portions of her childhood commuting between PR and Paterson - This back and forth movement between her two cultures became a vital part of her poetry and fiction At 15, she moved with her family to Augusta, Georgia She received an undergraduate degree from Augusta College, later an MA from Florida Atlantic University In 1984 she joined the faculty of the University of Georgia Has many different writings - The Story of My Body - American History

12. What was the Nuyorican Movement? Mention some of its goals, and the names of some of the writers or artists associated with it.

"Cultural and intellectual movement involving Puerto Rican poets, writers, musicians, and artists who live in or near NYC, and either call themselves or are known as Nuyoricans" - "Diasporicans" and "Nuyorico" "Began in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a means to validate PR experience in the US, particularly for poor and working class people who suffered from marginalization, ostracism, and discrimination" Famous Artists like: - Sandra María Esteves ("From the Commonwealth") - Miguel Pinero ("A Lower East Side Poem") - Miguel Algarin - Tato Laviera ("AmeRícan") - Pedro Pietri ("Puerto Rican Obituary")

Nuyorican Movement

"Cultural and intellectual movement involving Puerto Rican poets, writers, musicians, and artists who live in or near NYC, and either call themselves or are known as Nuyoricans" - "Diasporicans" and "Nuyorico" "Began in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a means to validate PR experience in the US, particularly for poor and working class people who suffered from marginalization, ostracism, and discrimination" Some key cultural organizations associated with the movement are - The Nuyorican Poets Cafe and CHARAS/El Bohio in the Lowest East Side - The PR Travelling Theater - Agueybana Bookstore - Clemente Soto Velez Cultural Center - El Museo del Barrio (1969)

El Puerto Rican Embassy

"Establishment of neighborhood spaces like the Nuyorican Poet's Cafe and the New Rican Village to accommodate the rising generation of bilingual and English language writers. As a way to dramatize the quasi diplomatic aspirations or such grassroots efforts at official institution building/founding of the "PR Embassy;" with his usual ironic irreverence, Nuyorican poet Pedro Pietri has teamed up with photographer Adal Maldonado in the issuing of PR passports, complete with photos and to the accompaniment of PR music and literary recitals." El PR Embassy and El Spirit Republic de PR (1994)

Platt Amendment*

"In July 1900, the Constitutional Convention of Cuba started deliberations and was notified that the US Congress intended to attach an amendment to the Cuban Constitution" Secretary of War Elihu Root drafted a set of articles in 1901 as guidelines for future US-Cuban relations - This became known as the Platt Amendment, after Senator Orville Platt of Connecticut To be in place until 1934, it replaced the Teller Amendment and severely infringed the country's sovereignty. Some of its provisions were: - It stipulated the conditions for US intervention in Cuban affairs and permitted the US to lease or buy lands for the purpose of the establishing of naval bases and coaling stations in Cuba = The main one was Guantanamo Bay - The Cuban claim to the Isle of Pines was not acknowledged and to be determined by treaty - It barred Cuba from making a treaty that gave another nation's power over its affairs, going into debt, or stopping the US from imposing a sanitation program on the island - Specifically, Article III required that the government of Cuba consent to the rights of the US to intervene in Cuban affairs for "the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty of Paris on the US, now to be assumed and undertaken by the Government of Cuba" The amendment supplied the terms under which the US intervened in Cuban affairs in 1906, 1912, 1917, and 1920 - By 1934, rising Cuban nationalism and widespread criticism of the Platt Amendment resulted in its repeal as part of Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin America = The US however retained its lease on Guantanamo Bay, where a naval base was established The first occupation government improved roads, health, and schools - Yet governor Wood admitted "Little or no independence had been left to Cuba with the Platt Amendment and the only thing appropriate was to seek annexation" "On the whole, outright territorial annexation ceased after 1898 and gave way to gunboat diplomacy and to a more disguised, yet far more extensive system of financial domination. Economic conquest replaced outright political annexation, as the region evolved into the incubator for the multinational American corporations" (HOE 58)

Loisaida

"The Lower East Side (Loisaida), a neighborhood in the southeastern part of Manhattan, roughly located between the Bowery and the East River, and Canal Street and Houston Street"

First Wave

- Upper and middle class - Professionals - White - "Temporary" exile, many Batista supporters, political violence = 1961 Bay of Pigs, 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis - Included Operation Peter Pan 1960-62, = 14,000 children left the island, Catholic Church charities took them, CIA links

1. Explain two main causes of the Spanish-American War

1. American imperialism 2. Explosion of USS Maine

Ten Years War

1868-78 - The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives = Carlos Manuel de Cespedes & declare independence - Was part of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain - End in Pact of Zanjon, promising end of slavery - After War, US begins monopolizing devalued sugar markets on the island = In 1984, 90% of Cuba's total exports went to the US, which also provided 40% of Cuba imports = Cuba's total exports to the US were almost 12 times larger than the export to her mother country = "...key sections of American business were demanding rapid expansion into the markets of Asia and Latin America...Corporate titans Astor, Rockefeller, and Morgan all turned avidly pro-war in the months preceding Congress's declaration"

Commonwealth (ELA)*

1950: US Congress passed Public Law 600, authorizing a convention to draft a Constitution and establish a republican form of gov in PR Referendum held in 1952 - 81.9% of the island's electorate ratified the Commonwealth & Estado Libre Asociado becomes the official name of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Next year UN removed PR from its list of non self governing territories - Officially the island no longer considered a US colony Originally, commonwealth was supposed to be a transitory, intermediate status between full independence or annexation as a state of the American union The Commonwealth formula did not substantially alter the island's legal, political, and economic relation to the US - It continued to be an "unincorporated territory" that "belonged to but was not a part of the US"

The Spanish-American War -date, causes, context, effects (esp. Cuba and PR)

1898 USS Maine exploded in Habana Harbor President McKinney asked Congress to declare war against Spain - Teller amendment created - 250 sailors died & Causes of the explosion never fully determined Race of expansionism, imperialism - Some Americans don't approve of it b/c supposed to be nation of liberty and equality, not imposing beliefs on others Thousands of cubans put in concentration camps during Independence war - US can take advantage of situation and "bring democracy to people" and become imperialistic War lasts 10 weeks - "A splendid little war" said by Secretary of State John Hay - US navy destroyed Spanish fleet With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines and its fleets destroyed, Spain begins negotiations with US - The formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris on December 10, 1898 & ratified on February 6, 1899 US entered capital to get surrender but Cuban rebel army had to wait outside - Racism b/c Cubans were black, not white The US gained Spain's colonies of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico in the treaty and Cuba became a US protectorate - There were no representatives from the new "territories" at the signing of the treaty, Cubans not invited A new black legend created - Show Spain as savage nation & manipulate image for political reasons - General Wyler starts concentration camps in Cuba = See death and starvation in political drawings

Foraker Act*

1900 First law to define PR's territorial status in the early 20th century - Created civil gov in PR Two years after the occupation started, Congress passed the act, which declared the island a US territory and authorized the president to appoint its civilian governor and top administrators The new law permitted islanders their own House of Representatives with 35 elected members, but it reserved for congress the right to annul any laws those delegates passed - Also had a judicial system including a Supreme Court It assigned trade, treaty, postal, sanitary, and military powers to the federal government and it gave the island only one nonvoting delegate in Congress Forbade the island from making commercial treaties with other countries and it replaced the Puerto Rican peso with the American dollar, while devaluing the peso Made it easier for US sugar companies to gobble up the Puerto Rican owned lands In many ways the act gave PR less self government than they had under Spain After the Foraker Act's passage, US sugar growers flocked to the island - They not only set up plantations but also began recruiting Puerto Rican can cutters to work in their overseas subsidiaries = Oahu, Hawaii

Downes v. Bidwell*

1901 Pivotal decision The court ruled that "the island of Porto Rico is a territory appurtenant and belonging to the US, but not part of the US within the revenue clauses of the Constitution" - Since the island was not an incorporated territory of the US, as frontier territories had been, the Court ruled that the Constitution did not automatically apply in Puerto Rico unless Congress specifically granted Puerto Rican citizenship The Supreme Court ruled that nonincorporated territories would receive "fundamental" constitutional protections but not the full range of constitutional protections enjoyed by US citizens...PRs the justices reasoned, were "foreign in a domestic sense" - "A territory belonging to the US, but not a part of the US within the revenue clauses of the Constitution" Justice John Marshall Harlan said, "The idea that this country may acquire territories anywhere upon the earth, by conquest or treaty, and hold them as mere colonies or provinces, the people inhabiting them to enjoy only such rights as Congress chooses to accord to them, is wholly inconsistent with the spirit and genius as well as with the words of the Constitution"

Jones Act*

1917 Granted US citizenship to PR - Allowed conscription to be extended to the island = 20,000 soldiers fought in WWI - English become the official language of the PR courts "Two events in 1914 added to the island's importance in the eyes of US officials: the completion of the Panama Canal and the start of the First World War" - The canal's role as a vital connection...highlighted PR's strategic value as a stopover for maritime commercial traffic - In the early 20th century PR was crucial to US plans to protect the Panama Canal from German U-boats patrolling Caribbean shipping lanes Back in Washington, COngress repeatedly turned down petitions by Puerto Rican leaders for full self rule and eventual statehood for the island By 1914, the full Puerto Rican House of Delegates, frustrated by this intransigence, asked Washington to cede the island its independence - Congress responded instead with the Jones Act in 1917, imposing US citizenship on all Puerto Ricans over the unanimous objection of their House of Delegates For the next 30 years the island remained a direct colony, its ANglo governors appointed by the President, its population virtually ignored by Congress, and US policy toward it controlled by a handful of American sugar companies PRs were allowed to seek public office in the mainland US but were not given electoral votes in the election of US president - Constitution allows only full fledged states to have electoral votes US had power to veto any law passed by the legislature - Congress had power to stop any action taken by the legislature in PR US maintained control over PR fiscal and economic matters and exercised authority over mail services, immigration, defense, and other basic governmental matters

Palm Sunday Massacre

1937 Biggest massacre in PR history Hundreds were gunned down by police After the massacre, hysteria and near civil war swept the island - Nationalists were hunted and arrested on sight = Some fled in exile

Pedro Pietri, "Puerto Rican Obituary"

1944 - 2004 Known as El Reverendo, the Reverend Nuyorican poet and playwright Born in Ponce, PR but raised in Manhattan A few years after graduating from high school, drafted into the Army and served in the Vietnam War - Upon his return to New York, joined the Young Lords Author of many works - First read in 1969 at a rally in support of the Young Lords Party Some notes: - Obituary = Biography of dead people - Spic = Equivalent of the n word for PRs - "Rise table rise" = Palm reader, wanted to conjure the spirits of the dead - Negrito = Little black one, is term of endearment in PR society Certain Phrase of work and died repeated - Die B/c of the work, the physical exhaustion and destruction of their souls Speaks of materialism and consumerism - Competition between characters, they envy each other's happiness, a lack of solidarity - Aspiration for utopian world, like having car, winning the lottery = Want upward mobility Rise table rise table signals break in the poem - Go to card reader, visit with spirits and tell future and what our luck will be - Sees Sister Lopez to get the revelation = Speaks about how they could have lived if they had valued and believed in themselves and the PR community = hould have seen their beauty - Reveal lottery numbers so money can be achieved, that is what the dead can reveal to us Shift in poem from beginning to end - Replacement of false consciousness with real, instead of media and pursuit of money or lack of solidarity there is a real heaven that can be attained

"AmeRícan" by Tato Laviera

1951 to 2013 Born in PR, the son of a philosopher and a writer He moved to NYC in 1960 and was educated at Cornell University and Brooklyn College Shifting between English and Spanish in his poetry, he addresses themes of immigration, history, and transcultural identity Author of several collections of poetry A new generation of PR, a combo of PR and American - Integration of cultures Looking for a proper language, space of conflict, borderland of identity crisis The capital R that divides and the accent that combines Spanish and English Rhythm and cultures coming together - More affirmative, hopeful

Operation Peter Pan

1960-62, Part of First Wave 14,000 children left the island - Catholic Church charities took them to USA - CIA links People got their children out of the country before something went wrong

Second Wave

1965-74 Departure program administered by the US and Cuban government - Camarioca boatlift and airlift Middle and working class Freedom flights Acts of political violence from elements in the exile community Cuban Adjustment Act

Section 936 federal tax exemption

1976 = new stage through loophole in the IRS code, called Section 936 - exempted the income of US subsidiaries from federal taxes (255) Corporations in PR farmed out factory production costs to subsidiaries, then transferred patents and trademarks, all of which was tax exempt under section 936, passed in 1976 The creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, NAFTA in 1994, and the repeal of Section 936 in 1996 effectively displaced PR from its position of privilege in global value chains - 936 finally expired at end of 2005 and by 2006, PR in a deepening process of economic contraction = Process of borrowing, banks and financial brokers benefit = Default, bankruptcy "On June 30, 2016, President Barack Obama signed the PR Oversight, Management, and Economic Stability Act or PROMESA which empowered him to appoint a seven number Financial Oversight and Management Board that has ultimate control over the Commonwealth's budget and would negotiate the Commonwealth's debt restructuring" - They lose control once again Beginning with the Rossello administration (1993-2000, PNP) the gov borrowed money to finance public works, issue substantial service contracts, and pay for operational expenses Major banks and financial brokers assisted the PR political elite in their journey to the brink of default - According to Bloomberg, "banks including UBS, Citigroup, and Goldman Sachs, reaped more than $900 million in fees to manage PR's $126.6 billion of bond sales since 2000" In PR, bad governance is also at the root of the debt problems - "PR is ruled by a kakistocracy, where cronyism, nepotism, and pay for play practices are common" = Kakistocracy literary meaning of gov by the worst people

Third Wave

1980 Mariel Boatlift, marielitos - Mariel being the port from which they left Cubans seek political asylum in Peruvian Embassy Mixed, lower and poor class, relatively lower educational attainment, more mixed racial composition Public perceptions/media representation change - Scarface, Miami Vice Haitian boat people at the same time trying to escape from Santo Domingo

Fourth Wave

1994 (Balseros/rafters) After the collapse of Communism (1989-91) "Special Period in Times of Peace" Castro lets anyone leave "Wet feet, dry feet" policy changes to US immigration policy toward Cuban exiles

Current island/mainland ratio of Puerto Ricans

4 million is US, 3.8 in PR - US now outnumbers the island and will continue b/c of Hurrican Maria aftermath

Chiquita-fication (Zentella)

Dissing of dialects - Note: Historical contexts and the phenology of Caribbean spanish; language as marker of race, class, national origin (325-6) - Self perception and self criticism of speakers (pronunciation, accents) Spanglish Bashing - Narrow view of code switchers as confused or lazy - "Bilingualism as code" instead of "bilingualism as practice" - "As a result...Hispanics are undergoing language loss similar to, or even exceeding, that of other groups in US history...in 1979, 69% of the children [in el bloque] were bilingual, but by 1993 that figure had declined to 29%" (331-2) Can result in Hispanofobia = People going off on racist rants when hear or see spanish being spoken

Bernardo Vega

A socialist Puerto Rican journalist and tabaquero - Wrote memoirs starting in the 1940s = Bernardo Vega, Memoirs of Bernardo Vega: A Contribution to the History of the Puerto Rican Community in New York. Ed.C. Andreu Iglesias (1977) Emigrated to NY in 1916, refers to also his uncle's life in the city, where he arrived in 1854 Spoke of role of trade in formation of early community

Rafael Campo

Born in 1964 in Dover, NJ, of Cuban and Italian parents Renowned poet and essayist, 8 books, teaches and practices internal medicine at Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Medical Center in Boston - Numerous honors and awards Primary care practice serves mostly Latinos, LGBTQ+ people, and people with HIV infections His poetry mixes narratives of family, history, and illness with an attention to form - His interest in forms, he has alleged, comes from his own "hybrid" experience Frederick Luis Aldama says "His poems are highly structured...he uses the security of form as a position from which to delve deep into the heart of his own feelings-feelings for his AIDS and cancer patients and for emergency room arrivals who have suffered from brutal encounters with a homophobic and racist society

Autonomic Decree/Carta autonómica of 1897

After Grito de Lares and creation of political group that advocated for Cuba and Puerto Rico becoming independent from Spain" Granted autonomy to the island from Spanish gov and representation in Spanish courts - little more freedom but not enough

6. Why were Cuban exiles received generously in the 1960s? How did the U.S. government initially support them?

B/c were white, ealthy, educated also wanted to stop communism = support incoming refugges Cuban Adjustment Act 1966 Wet foot, dry foot policy

Nuyorican Poets' Café

Began in poet Miguel Algarin's apartment in 1973 At these meetings, attended by poets, playwrights, and musicians, poems were created and delivered as performance, and the spoken elements of the work became central to what characterized Nuyorican poetry In 1975 Algarin and Miguel Pinero publish Nuyorican Poetry: An Anthology of Puerto Rican Words and Feelings, and the Cafe moved to a location on 236 East Third Street

1.5 generation

Born in Cuba (or by extension abroad) but "made in the USA" "An intermediate immigrant generation whose members spent their childhood or adolescence abroad but grew into adults in America" "While one and a halfers may never feel entirely at ease in either one, they are capable of availing themselves of the resources-linguistic, artistic, comercial-that both cultures have to offer"

Lin Manuel Miranda

Born Jan 16, 1980 American composer, lyricist, playwright, rapper, and actor best known for creating and starring in the Broadway musicals In the Heights and Hamilton He co-wrote the songs for Walt Disney Animation Studios' Moana soundtrack (2016) and is set to co-star in the upcoming film Mary Poppins Returns Awards include: Pulitzer Prize, 3 Grammy Awards, Emmy Award, MacArthur Fellowship, and 3 Tony Awards In the Heights - Gentrification, displacement - Multi-Hispanic community, enclave Hamilton - Rap as language of revolution, of renewed country, casting - Integration, "bootstraps" narrative = From Caribbean to US - Being disregarded but complex character = politics, finance, race - Criticisms: "Founder's chic," racial/slavery question, medium & cost (Broadway) In a sense, see the two plays as mirror images, two narratives; conflict and integration

Sandra María Esteves

Born in 1948 Dominican Boricua Nuyorican poet and artist, born and raised in the Bronx A founding member of the Nuyorican poetry movement, she writes poems engaged with themes of social justice, environmentalism, and personal transformation She is the author of numerous collections of poetry

9. What does "chiquita-fication" consist of, according to Ana Celia Zentella in "Latin@ Languages and Identities"? Why should parents, policymakers, and academic institutions safeguard bilingualism, in her view?

Critics denounce hybrid identities as evidence of cognitive confusion, as watered down versions of one culture or another, and even as unpatriotic abandonment of a core culture Language is a powerful lens through which we can detect the way in which Latinos use different voices to speak as members of different groups at different times, and even at the same time To help us understand how linguistic codes help construct identities, including how and where the boundaries between linguistic codes are drawn, she has advocated an anthropological linguistics - Which assumes that the ways in which Latinos in the US speak Spanish and English cannot be divorced from socioeconomic and political realities What latinos are saying, and how they are using their languages and dialects in a Latino way to say it, is a joint product of linguistic behaviors and attitudes that are brought from the homeland and transformed in the new land and others that are created in the US In studies of Latinos throughout the US, two aspects of chiquita-fiction are a common motif: the dissing of dialects and Spanish bashing - Linguistic differences as simple as the presence or absence of an s at the end of a syllable can become identified with superiority or inferiority, and those judgements are extended to related features and speakers in a recursive fashion The levels of a linguistic security or insecurity that speakers of Spanish experience as a result of popular stereotypes about the dialects of their homeland can have important repercussions for their sense of self worth and group pride In the end, speakers shape ideologies brought from the homeland in ways that help them make sense of situations and groups they encounter in specific US locales Bilinguals may switch languages for complete sentences or for parts of a sentence, often performing what is called "acts of identity" - Mixing several varieties of Spanish and ENglish is a graphic way of showing that they have a foot in more than one world, and they are most at ease when they can incorporate all of them At the root of the problem is a view of languages merely as separate sets of rules, not as flexible symbolic systems of communication that are enmeshed with the speakers' identities and the communicative text Throughout the US where there is intense and prolonged conflict among distinct networks and generations of Latinos, it is precisely the ability to use English and Spanish in the same sentence and situation that identifies the most effective bilinguals - We have done a disservice to the creativity of Spanglish speakers who incorporate English words into Spanish, transform Spanish words along English models, and take every advantage of the double entendres that are bilingualism's forte The new creations that Latinos have added to Spanish usually reflect cultural items that are unknown or different in Latin America - In some cases, these labels are viewed as epithets and/or divisive, but in others, young Latinos are engaging in a process of semantic inversion that turns demeaning definitions into empowering and unifying identifiers Second and third generation Spanish is disappearing altogether because parents are raising their their children in English passively or actively But the net effect of dialect dissing, Spanglish bashing, the Hispanophobia that insists that only English be used in schools and workplaces, and the "Mock Spanish" spoken by Anglos that makes fun of Spanish speakers is the promotion of language shift - Latinos who end up convinced that their Spanish is bad and that "real Americans" are monolinguals, rush to adopt English and eventually do kill of their Spanish Despite the continued influx of monolingual immigrants, Hispanics are undergoing language loss similar to, and even exceeding, that of other groups in US history - US latinos of all generations are redefining their native cultures without a language requirement Latinos experience distinct and changing realities and are subject to conflicting ideologies that determine the nature and extent of their cultural and linguistic diversity - The work on language, identity, and education is crucial Distorted ideology (of English education only) keeps the nation from addressing the fact that more than half of all US teachers teach students whose proficiency in English is limited, and most of whom are Latinos, but only 20% of all teachers have the necessary training in language teaching methods

José María Heredia, "The Exile's Hymn"

Cuban born poet, initiator of Latin American romanticism - Author of "Ode to Niagara" and "The Exile's Hymn" in 1825 "The Exile's Hymn" included in the anthology El laud del desterrado (The Exile's Lute), published in NY in 1958 - First collection of poems written by Cuban writers in exile; united by a strong affinity for independence

José Martí

Cuban intellectual, poet, journalist, freedom fighter, anticolonial, antiracist thinker Considered father of Modernism in Latin American literature, the "Apostle of Independence" Published author by 16, condemned to 6 years hard labor for political activities, exiled to spain where he studied law Continued writing in favor of Cuban independence, moves to Mexico, embarks in life as journalist and poet Travels, writes, teaches in Guatemala, France, Venezuela, is deported from Cuba, arrives in the US in 1880 Member of Cuban Revolutionary Committee in NY - Writes, teaches, lectures on behalf of Cuban revolution - Serves as consul, lobbies to oppose US annexation of Cuba Continues writing, travelling, founds Cuban Revolutionary Party in 1892 Dies in battlefield in Dos Rios, Cuba, in 1895 Marti's letter from 1889 (Ten Years War ended in 1878) in response to an editorial from the Manufacturer of Philadelphia called "Do We Want Cuba?" - "As for the Cuban Negroes, they are clearly at the level of barbarity. The most degraded Negro in Georgie is better prepared for the presidency than is the ordinary Cuban negro for American citizenship" - "Our only hope of qualifying Cuba for the dignity of statehood would be to Americanize her completely, populating her with people of our own race; and there would still remain unresolved at least the question of whether our race would not degenerate under a tropical sun and under the conditions necessary to life in Cuba." - "They are helpless, idle, of defective morals, and unfitted by nature and experience for discharging the obligations of citizenship in a great and free republic. Their lack of manly force and of self respect is demonstrated by the supineness with which they have so long submitted to Spanish oppression, and even if their attempts at rebellion have been so pitifully ineffective that they have risen little above the dignity of farce..." Cuba considered for purchase and annexation under Benjamin Harrison - President 1889-1893 The editorial "looks upon the scheme [to annex Cuba] as ill considered, dangerous, and inadmissible. Its arguments are much the same as we should have employed..." - From an editorial in the New York Evening Post, March 21, 1889, quoting the Philadelphia text

Gloria Estefan

Cuban-American singer - Became sex symbol and Latino symbol due to using both english and spanish in popular music = Started latino music boomin America Perez Firmat begins his book with a reference to a magazine, Gloria Estefan's 1990 People's magazine cover - One of the songs he references is Estefan & the Miami Sound Machine's smash hit "Conga," Released in 1995 from the album Primitive Love Heyday in the 80s-90s, pop culture "Latinization" and crossover phenomena - Connections with the show "I Love Lucy," proposal for a pop culture "genealogy" of sorts "After all, if Gloria Estefan is the most prominent Cuban-American performer in this country today- a 'one woman Latin boom' as the New York Times put it- Ricky Ricardo is certainly her strong precursor. Surprising as it may seem, Desi Arnaz's TV character has

Effects of the Great Depression on Puerto Rico

Depression devastated PR in the 30s - Extreme Poverty - Loss of jobs Caused the Great Migration

Luis Muñoz Marín, PPD

Educated in the US where he studied law, returned to PR in 1926, entered local politics in 1932 - Elected its first governor in 1948, governed 4 terms = 16 years "Regarded as the 'Father of Modern PR' and the 'Architect of the Commonwealth'" - The most influential figure in the island's modern history A socialist and independentista as a young man, Munoz became an admirer of Roosevelt and co founded the Popular Democratic Party in 1938 as a New Deal vehicle for the island Once he gained control of the island's legislature, he pioneered a rapid industrialization program, Operation Bootstrap, which he turned into an economic development model for Third World countries - He lured foreign investment to the island, invariably US companies, by offering them low wages, a tax free environment to set up their factories, and duty free export to the mainland In 1952 the PPD held a majority in the delegation convened to draft the Constitution of PR - It ruled all branches of the PR gov afterward for 36 of the past 66 years, while establishing many of the institutions that permeate PR society today Flushed by his early economic success, Munoz deserted the pro-independence majority within his own party and opted instead for a form of local autonomy that would keep the island tied to the US economy - That autonomy, Munoz promised, would only be a transition stage to independence and in the meantime, Puerto Ricans would retain their own language and culture = The voters buoyed by the island's postwar prosperity, approved his commonwealth model in 1952 = His opponents blasted the referendum as a fraud, since it offered a choice only between the existing colony or commonwealth, and neither independence nor statehood was on the ballot

Treaty of Paris

Ended the Spanish American War in 1899 - Signed in Paris on December 10, 1898 & ratified on February 6, 1899 With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines and its fleets destroyed, Spain begins negotiations with US The US gained Spain's colonies of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico in the treaty and Cuba became a US protectorate - US paid 20 million to Spain for the Philippines There were no representatives from the new "territories" at the signing of the treaty

Bernardo Vega, author of an important volume of memoirs, was a Cuban poet and cigar-maker. His work is significant, as it underlines the presence and vitality of Caribbean Latino communities in U.S. cities since the XIX century. True or False?

False

The Exile's Lute is the title of an important poem written by Cuban José María Heredia, published in New York in 1858. True or False?

False

"Miss Key West" by Rafael Campo

Form" approached thematically and through a tightly controlled poetic scheme Note the emphasis on body and bodies But things "dissolve" also Refers to Miss Key West Pride parade, drag parade of reformers Toast is raised but dissolution happens Melting How would you interpret the image of the "bottle of perfume?" How would you interpret the poem's last line? - Rainbow passing through perfume = He is literally a prism, the poem is a prism - Saying LGBTQ+ people are beautiful, movement of celebration Would you consider this to be a nostalgic poem? Perhaps a "reflective" nostalgia? - Yes, he is crying b/c in Cuba would have been persecuted and not accepted LGBTQ+ people - He is the tears of those hurt in Cuba Note how it complicates "masculinity" narratives

Balseros

Fourth Wave of Cuban refugees 1994 Called Balseros/rafters b/c floated on rafts to get to US

8. What interpretation of Cuban-American culture does Gustavo Pérez-Firmat present in "Life on the Hyphen"? What characteristics distinguish this cultural production, in his view?

Hyphenated American - "An american citizen who can trace their ancestry to another, specified part of the world, such as an African American or an Irish American" Literatures of different countries have different conflicts and complexity of hyphenated culture - "Since its emergence in the 1980s, Cuban-American literature has occupied an ambiguous place within the canon of imaginative writing by US Hispanics. As the only segment of this canon produced by political exiles and their children, this literature exhibits a regressive, nostalgic streak not shared to the same degree by Chicano, Dominican-American, or US Puerto Rican writers" (Perez 172-3) Cubans see identity as complicated, conflicting alliance - Element of exile, think they will go back to Cuba but they don't so its a horrible loss and cut = Miss luxurious life that lived but wanted freedom Cuban Americans have a prominent role in the increasing latinization of the US 2 forces shape Cuban American culture: traditional and translational - Traditional points to the genealogy of Cuban American culture - Translation reminds us of the sorts of adjustments that have to occur for us to be able to rhyme "conga" and "longer" Ethnic cultures are constantly trying to negotiate between the contradictory imperatives of tradition and translation - Tradition designates convergence and continuity, a gathering together of elements according to underlying affinities or shared concerns - Translation is a distancing mechanism, displacement/mutilation of the original language or culture The first and second immigrant generations spent their childhoods or adolescence abroad but grew into adults in America - Have to transition from childhood to adulthood and they have to manage the transition from one socio-cultural environment to another = 1.5 generation 1.5 generation is more likely to undertake the negotiations and compromises that produce ethnic culture - May also never fully feel part of one, but they will have the resources available of both Linguistic, artistic, commercial - are translation artists, tradition bound but translation bent Newer generations born here are losing their cuban roots - second generation immigrants maintain a connection to their parents homeland, but it is a bond forged by their parents experiences and not their own Biculturation used to designate the type of blending that is specific or at least characteristic of the 1.5 generation - It designates not only contact of cultures but also describes a situation in which the 2 cultures achieve a balance that makes it difficult to distinguish between the dominant and subordinate culture = Equilibrium Cuban-American culture is a balancing act 1.5 no more American than Cuban - Cuban-American culture is appositional rather than oppositional for the relation between the two terms is defined more by continguinity rather than by conflict 1.5 in being equal can mix and match piece from each culture - can choose the language you want to work in and live in 3 stages in adaptation to new homeland - Substitutive = immigrant tries to deny the fact of displacement = Miami created as Cuba's copy b/c exiles can't emotionally accept that they left, they want to feel at home - Destitution = Exiles feeling like the ground has been taken from under them, that they no longer know their place and have lost it, disconnected - Institution = Establishment of new relation between person and place, endure and say Here we are Individuals all go through stages but at different times, and all 3 could be felt at the same time - Cuban America is hybrid, culture of both inside and outside America Cuban-American literature exhibits a regressive, nostalgi streak not shared to the same degree by Chicano, Dominican-American, or US Puerto Rican writers Castro labeled opponents inside and outside the island gusanos - Writers are bilingual, books constantly written in both english and spanish or just english or spanish = Changes depending on preference of author Spanish is most prized possession of cuban exiles, keep it with them always Cuban-Americans writing symbolizes how they work on the boundaries of Cuban and Cuban-American literature - Give voice to the in between parts

Desi Arnaz & I Love Lucy

I love Lucy, American sitcom that ran on CBS from 1951- 1957 starring Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz It "became the most watched show in the US in four of its six seasons...the first scripted television program to be shot on 35mm film in front of a studio audience, won five Emmy Awards and received numerous nominations and honors" It was the first show ever to feature an ensemble cast It is often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential sitcoms in history "After all, if Gloria Estefan is the most prominent Cuban-American performer in this country today- a 'one woman Latin boom' as the New York Times put it- Ricky Ricardo is certainly her strong precursor. Surprising as it may seem, Desi Arnaz's TV character has been the single most visible Hispanic presence in the US over the last 40 years. Indeed, several generations of Americans have acquired many of their notions of how Cubans behave, talk, lose their temper, and treat or mistreat their wives by watching Ricky love Lucy" Political context and Cuban-American cultural production

Spanglish, Salvador Tió

Spanglish "a portmanteau of the words "spanish" and "english" is a name sometimes given to various contact dialects that result from interaction between Spanish and English used by people who speak both language or parts of both languages, mainly in the US - It is a blend of Spanish and English lexical items and grammar The term was introduced by the Puerto Rican poet Salvador Tio in the late 1940s, when he called it Espanglish or Inglanol 3 separate phenomena are often called "Spanglish" - Code switching between Spanish and English in the same sentence or conversation - Importation (and adaptation) of English vocabulary items into Spanish - Calques: Literal translation of English terms using existing Spanish terms but giving them a meaning they do not have in Spanish

"A Vindication from Cuba"

In his letter Marti - Rejects annexation (99) - Praises heroic Cuban exiles in US - Admires "the country of Lincoln" but rejects imperialism and racism (pg 100) - Underscores Cuban heroics (pg 100) Heroic war against Spain (pg 103) - Without salary - Burning own property - Fostering freedom and emancipation - Living poorly - Suffering exile and death Cuba's lost war because (pg 104) - Rebels avoided excessive violence initially - US did not impede Spanish surge = Says people have participated the voluntary abandonment of wealth, the abolition of slavery in first moment of freedom, the burning of their cities by their own hands, the erection of villages and factories in the wild forests, dressing ladies of rank in the woods, killed 200,000 men in 10 years when were just a small Cuban army of patriots with no help but their own Values - Religious tolerance - Love of work - Theoretical and practical familiarity with democratic society - Long experience of struggle for liberty and patriotic sacrifice - Creative and industrious (men and women) in arts and sciences Engineers, teachers, physicians, journalists, etc. Note, however, his strongly gendered discourse -"virile heroism" ("we have fought like men" LR 100) against charges of "effeminacy," "half-breeds"

3. What arguments did José Martí make in defense of Cubans in "A Vindication of Cuba"? Why did he need to vindicate Cubans? What was the source of his discontent?

In his letter Marti praises heroic Cuban exiles in US and desrcibes Cubans' heroic war against Spain (pg 103) as they - Fought without salary - Burned own property - Fostered freedom and emancipation - Lived poorly - Suffered exile and death Also said Cubans lost war because (pg 104) - Rebels avoided excessive violence initially - US did not impede Spanish surge = KIlled 200,000 men in 10 years when were just a small Cuban army of patriots with no help but their own Values - Religious tolerance - Love of work - Theoretical and practical familiarity with democratic society - Long experience of struggle for liberty and patriotic sacrifice - Creative and industrious (men and women) in arts and sciences Engineers, teachers, physicians, journalists, etc. Marti's letter from 1889 (Ten Years War ended in 1878) in response to an editorial from the Manufacturer of Philadelphia

Fulgencio Batista

In power 1940-44, 1952-55, 1955-59 Elected President of Cuba from 1940 to 1944, and the US backed authoritarian ruler from 1952 to 1959, before being overthrown during the Cuban Revolution Rose as part of "Revolt of the Sergeants" in power directly or indirectly through puppet presidents - In 1944 left for Florida, staged a coup to avoid electoral defeat in 1952 "With financial, military, and logical support from the US government, Batista suspended 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including right to strike. Aligned with wealthiest landowners, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cuba's. Most of the sugar industry would eventually be in US hands, and with foreigners owning 70% of the arable land" His repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both the American Mafia and with large US multinationals To quell the growing discontent Batist established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture, and public executions, ultimately killing anywhere from hundreds to 20,000 people Fled Cuba in 1959, with millions of dollars "Tropicana was in fact the only Cuban owned casino cabaret in a city where all the casinos were either owned or run by members of the Mafia. For the mobsters, Cuba was a dream come true, a place to operate legally, no questions asked, as long as Batista and his minions were paid off. And the Mafia paid them handsomely, starting with a $250,000 bribe for each gambling license that officially cost $25,000" "Havana was still the place to be-especially if you were rich and social American with an impressive house on the grounds of Havana Country Club and were friends with the American ambassador... Flo gave a holiday party on the lawn for hundreds of children...Santa Claus arrived by helicopter, Mickey Mouse cartoons were shown, and the children were stuffed with chocolate ice cream"

Cuba's Wars of Independence (general idea of the extent of the conflicts)

Long context of Cuba's struggle for independence from Spain Ten Years War (1868-78) - The uprising was led by Cuban-born planters and other wealthy natives = Carlos Manuel de Cespedes & declare independence - Was part of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain - End in Pact of Zanjon, promising end of slavery - After War, US begins monopolizing devalued sugar markets on the island = In 1984, 90% of Cuba's total exports went to the US, which also provided 40% of Cuba imports = Cuba's total exports to the US were almost 12 times larger than the export to her mother country = "...key sections of American business were demanding rapid expansion into the markets of Asia and Latin America...Corporate titans Astor, Rockefeller, and Morgan all turned avidly pro-war in the months preceding Congress's declaration" Little War (1879-80) - General Calixto Garcia and Antonio Maceo - Was part of Cuba's fight for independence from Spain = Cubans lost this one 2nd Cuban Revolution - Cuban War for Independence - Marti gets support from exiles in Ybor City Spanish Cuban American War (1898)

13. When was U.S. citizenship granted to Puerto Ricans? Mention two important historical factors that weighted on the decision by U.S. officials to grant citizenship then.

Jones Act 1917 "Two events in 1914 added to the island's importance in the eyes of US officials: the completion of the Panama Canal and the start of the First World War" The canal's role as a vital connection...highlighted PR's strategic value as a stopover for maritime commercial traffic - In the early 20th century PR was crucial to US plans to protect the Panama Canal from German U-boats patrolling Caribbean shipping lanes Back in Washington, Congress repeatedly turned down petitions by Puerto Rican leaders for full self rule and eventual statehood for the island By 1914, the full Puerto Rican House of Delegates, frustrated by this intransigence, asked Washington to cede the island its independence - Congress responded instead with the Jones Act in 1917, imposing US citizenship on all Puerto Ricans over the unanimous objection of their House of Delegates

"lowercase literature"

Juan Flores " As a 'lowercase literature,' Nuyorican writing is illustrative of oral tradition and not an institutionalized, canon forming literature conceived of as a profession." (184) "Nuyorican literature, on the other hand, and the writing of 'lowercase people' in general, stands face to face with social experience, however harsh and however saturated with mass culture, with its characters, voices, and story lines all recognizable denizens of the 'mean' but real streets." (185) marginalized people Flores' main arguments/points Cuba's and PR are different, are abandoned Cubans welcomed with open arms PR, black, poor immigrants get different social treatment and literature Tension between cultures New latino literature, based on perspective Of lowercase people, marginalized people Criticality, context of culture & how people grow up From machismo to women and afro-latino contributions "Claiming to represent cultural traits shared by all Latinos, they typically have recourse to language, religion, and a Spanish inflected mestizaje (mixing) while evading differential relations of power among the groups involved. The result is an idea of Latino life based on what might be termed the 'highest common denominator,' one that highlights motives of success and opportunity and underplays issues of poverty and inequality as extraneous to the dynamics of Latino culture." "The difference lies in the differential positioning of the varied Latino groups in the prevailing structures of power and domination within the US and internationally. Those who collective identities in the US were constituted by a long-standing history of conquest and colonization generate a literary expression which contrasts with that of comparatively recent arrivals from countries with less direct ties to US imperial power." "Dismissed or ignored by the PR government and literary establishment, what they have had by way of an infrastructure was built from the ground up, with no auspice or recognition coming from any official entities." "Establishment of neighborhood spaces like the Nuyorican Poet's Cafe and the New Rican Village to accommodate the rising generation of bilingual and English language writers. As a way to dramatize the quasi diplomatic aspirations or such grassroots efforts at official institution building/founding of the "PR Embassy;" with his usual ironic irreverence, Nuyorican poet Pedro Pietri has teamed up with photographer Adal Maldonado in the issuing of PR passports, complete with photos and to the accompaniment of PR music and literary recitals." El PR Embassy and El Spirit Republic de PR (1994) "The typewriter was for him what drums or a guitar might be for the aspiring musician: the physical tool of the trade, the object required to express himself. As a 'lowercase literature,' Nuyorican writing is illustrative of oral tradition and not an institutionalized, canon forming literature conceived of as a profession." (184) "Nuyorican literature, on the other hand, and the writing of 'lowercase people' in general, stands face to face with social experience, however harsh and however saturated with mass culture, with its characters, voices, and story lines all recognizable denizens of the 'mean' but real streets." (185) Note on the other hand, the literary influences, sophistication, even formal training of some of the authors

Cuban Revolution

July 26, 1953 Began with the assault on the Moncada Barracks on July 26, 1953 and ended on January 1, 1959 US backed dictator Batista driven from the country and cities Santa Clara and Santiago de Cuba seized by rebels, led by Che Guevara and Fidel Castro's surrogates Raul Castro and Huber Matos, respectively - B/c of corruption, inequality, foreign control of the economy, political repression during Batista's regime Castro led the revolution and shortly after was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Cuba - He became First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba in 1965, and led the transformation of Cuba into a one party socialist republic Some causes: - Excessive dependence on/penetration by US = Ex. Hotels, casinos owned by wealthy Americans & Cuba's elite = Ex. US Owned Sugar and tobacco plantations - Scant land for peasants to farm = Great social inequality - Business interests encouraged US government support of dictators = Batista's repressive, corrupt regime

7. Briefly summarize Juan Flores' analysis of Davilita's song "Son Tres" in his essay "Island and Enclaves." Why does he consider this song especially relevant/eloquent in discussing the political and cultural similarities and differences of the Greater Antilles (PR, Cuba, DR)?

Las islas hermanas refer to Cuba, Puerto Rico, & the Dominican Republic in song written by Puerto Rican musician/artist Davilita - Davilita became the first to record that international anthem of the Latino migrant population, the first protest song in the history of Latin American popular music The song ends with an emphatic pronouncement of the singer's own longing for sovereignty of all three sister islands, and for the realization, in his own lifetime, of the historical ideal held since their national formation in the 19th century, "la union antillana" - Davillita shows that his hope for the cultural unity of his native region extends to the broader field of political struggle and beyond the present to the region's rich and challenging historical legacy Similarities: - People from the Spanish caribbean began gravitation toward the northern cities as soon as the US assumed its regional hegemonic role and became a counterpole to the stubbornly lingering Spanish empire - Whatever one thinks about the inclusion of Spanish immigrants and their descendants in the present day Latino configuration, there can be no doubt as to their presence and importance in the Florida and New York Latino settlements prior to the first World War and even earlier - The relationship between PR and Cuban cultures was not one of contention but of remarkable creative symbiosis and confluence = The shared African moorings of their national and popular cultures carry over strongly to the diasporic context, so that just as they share language and culture with other Spanish speakers, they share deep cultural heritages, and deeply radicalized social histories, with people of African descent - "The 3 islands are sisters, bound together in deep cultural and historical affinity" = Says art and music forms are combined together - The song adresses Puerto Rican independence and how Santo Domingo and Cuba also have freedom fighters - Artists/intellectuals marking important stages in formation of Carribean Latino communities Differences: - The 19th century is no doubt the Cuban century in Caribbean-Latino presence in the US, from the earliest signs and articulations of an exile location to the tumultuous activism and vocal community presence in the US - What often goes unmentioned in accounts of Spanish immigrants in early Latino history, however, is the issue of class and racial differences in those multi-Latino interactions, where the seams of the panethnic enclave life showed through = Spaniards and white Cuba's played an increasingly dominant role in the ownership and managerial operations of the cigar trade in later 19th century florida and how the class and black-white divide took an even greater toll on the earlier unity among the Spanish speaking tabaqueros - Davilitia, the renowned black Puerto Rican emigrant of long standing recalled the hierarchy he witnessed in the musical field, where Puerto Ricans and Cuba's were typically paid less than other Spanish language artists - But in the US setting, the community forged of a colonial labor migration stands in greater long term advantage than that which has issued from political exile, or even from the more recognizable Third World immigration seen in the Dominican case = In this respect, the social positioning and group history of Puerto Ricans would seem to approximate that of Mexican Americans more closely than that of the other Caribbean

Insular Cases

Legal challenges to the Foraker Act quickly led to several precedent setting cases before the Supreme Court Known as Insular Cases, they were all decided by a narrow one vote margin yet they have provided the legal backing for this country's holding of colonies to the present day "The Insular Cases stemmed from debate about whether overseas territories should be considered foreign or domestic for tax purposes, but the [foremost] question was whether PR would be entitled to full citizenship under the new civil government" A series of cases

Operation Bootstrap/Manos a la Obra

Luis Munoz Marin rapid industrialization program an economic development model for Third World countries - He lured foreign investment to the island, invariably US companies, by offering them low wages, a tax free environment to set up their factories, and duty free export to the mainland "After 1947, the economic shifts that reshaped PR society were propelled by a new wave of US investments in an expanding manufacturing sector, almost exclusively oriented to the US market. US capital was attracted to the island by a mix of incentives that included exemption from insular and federal taxes, relatively low wages, and open access to the US market" At the same time, beginning in 1945-46 a massive number of Puerto Ricans, unable to find employment in PR, left for the United States in search of jobs and higher pay" "Industry attracted by OB did not provide sufficient jobs; with increased population growth and displacement from traditional labor pursuits, much of the surplus labor migrates to the US"

Ybor City

Marti got support from here Company town near Tampa Home to steamship line - Between Havanna, Key West, and Tamp Became the cigar capital of the country - By 1900 there were 129 ciar factories in the town and 15,000 resident Steamship line & cigar companies created flesh and blood ties bwteeen Cuba and the US - By the early 20th century as many as 50,000 to 100,000 people traveled annually between Havana, Key West, and Tampa

As González indicates, during the 1960's, the Central Intelligence Agency had its second largest recruiting station in the world in the following city: a. Fairfax County, Virginia b. Miami, Florida c. Washington, D.C. d. Havana, Cuba

Miami, Florida

21. Discuss Urayoán Noel's poem "No Longer Ode." What political dynamics does this cultural product reveal? How does it relate to specific historical contexts?

Speaks of Hurrican Maria and the destruction on the island but also show strength of PR and the political struggle that continues Hurricane made people want to flee home - Operation Bootstrap & Great Depression Wave mental flags, the island is a syndrome - Syndrome of colonialism, people traumatized by lack of independece Governor says little problem, nothing private equity can't fix once seculator pour into San Juan - Marin and his policies that only benefited the US Parrots squawk survival politics - Calls the gov parrots - Gov made big deal about helping them but officials don't care, they just use PR for economic gain - All politicians say the same thing, don't really mean it b/c just repeat each other They have the indigenous chromosome, are chained and gagged, and paraded through colonies until left to die - Racism and what colonialism has done to the people/how they are thought of - Can't tear down the empirical walls trapped in

Young Lords Party

Most influential new nationalist and left wing organization - founded in 1969 and lasted until 1972 - the Lords galvanized thousands of young Latinos into radical politics = An amazing portion of the group's members later became influential leaders of the community Inspired by the Nationalist Party in PR and the Black Panther Party in the US

1st major Puerto Rican colony abroad

Oahu, Hawaai After the Foraker Act's passage, US sugar growers flocked to the island They not only set up plantations but also began recruiting Puerto Rican can cutters to work in their overseas subsidiaries Between 1900 and 1901, more than 5,000 Puerto Ricans were transported to Hawaii in a dozen shiploads under contract to the Hawaii Sugar Planters Association - The bulk of the migrants eventually settled on Oahu, where they founded the first major Puerto Rican community outside their homeland

19. Compare the views and experience of life on the U.S. reflected in the "Viva Cuba" episode (from One Day at a Time) and in Judith Ortíz Cofer's story "American History." What are the similarities or differences between them?

One Day At a Time - Is a remake of a Norman Lear sitcom of the same name (1975-84) - "Revolves around a Cuban-American family living in Los Angeles, focusing on a single mom who is an Army veteran dealing with PTSD, her kids and her Cuban mother" American History about what a little girl is experiencing in her own life around the time of JFK's assassination - Racism, Bullying, Sexism, Similarities: - Father never around, strong maternal role = In ODAAT Penelope is divorced = In AH her father works at a Blue Jeans factory all the time to support the family - Speak of the old times in sadness/nostalgia = In AH her parents dream of retiring to PR and buying a nice beach house, speak of PR fairy tales and see that they miss it = Abuela Lydia looking at old family photos and begins to talk about her family in Cuba and how she left them, she misses her family Differences: - Bullying vs personal gain = The girl in AH has racist remarks made about her being skinny and rice, beans, and pork chops = The writing program Elena was accepted only wanted her for a "diversity candidate" - PRs seperated from whites = Girl lives in "El Building," white across the street in nice houses = Schnieder always in the house, Dr. Berkowitz has close friendship with Penelope

15. Explain the significance and contributions that Puerto Rico, the most profitable U.S. colony, has made to the U.S., according to González's arguments and other class materials. What economic, human, and geopolitical contributions has PR made to the mainland?

PR remains the biggest, the most lucrative, and the oldest colony in the US US got from PR - exemption from insular and federal taxes - low wage labor - open access to market - For every $30,300 drug companies paid in salary & benefits to a worker in 1985, they got back $85,600 in federal tax benefits - 1986: US Companies earned $5.8 billion from their PR investments - no tariffs or local taxes - minimal enforcement of labor or environmental laws - Soildeer in all wars (96th Infantry) "the whole island was turned into a virtual free trade zone, thanks to Section 936"

Miguel Piñero, "A Lower East Side Poem"

Playwright, actor, and cofounder of the Nuyorican Poets Cafe Born in Gurabo, PR in 1946 moved with family to the Lower East Side of Manhattan when he was four Affiliated with a gang, committed many robberies with friends, convicted in 1964 and again in 1972 - Wrote the play Short Eyes, winner of many awards, in prison Author of many different works Died in 1988 - The film Pinero (2001) is about his life Has birds eye view of everyone and his Barrio - Wants to be higher than others in power but its only a possible sky, a devaluing of himself Its a wish and a requesting that his ashes be scattered through the Lower East Side - Wants his spirit to stay with his community = his identity = His community is his tomb The poem is his last will and testament - Anti utopian poem PR isn't his identity, the horrible reality is his home - He is claiming his background and the darkness of his community = Doesn't want to be in green pastures

Associated Republic/República Asociada

Possible solution to PR's Colonial Situation Officially articulated in the Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 - but was proposed in 1986 by the Pacific Trust Territories, A new status equivalent to a "free associated state" for the UN This would define PR as "a separate nation with a right to sovereignty and self-determination, maintaining a close and mutually beneficial voluntary association with the US" Some of its elements would include: - PR control over treaties - customs duties - participation in the UN - dual citizenship - common market - currency - postal system - foreign investment incentives - elimination of US maritime monopoly - 25 year compact after which would be renegotiated (303-4)

Cuban Exodus (2 periods, 4 waves)

Post castro Exodus Two broad periods, four waves - Before and after Mariel Boat Lift (1980) First Wave 1959-62 Second Wave 1965-74 - Cuban Adjustment Act Third Wave, 1980 (Mariel Boatlift, marielitos) Fourth Wave, 1994 (Balseros/rafters)

Pedro Albizu Campos, Nationalist Party

President of the island's Nationalist movement - A charismatic speaker and devout Catholic, Albizu wasted no time tapping into the country's long felt frustration over US control, and soon took to propagating an almost mystical brand of anti-Yankee, anti-Protestant nationalism In one strike in 1933 against the US sugar plantations, thousands of sugar workers called on Albizu Campos and the Nationalists for help - For the first time, the Nationalists and the labor movement were becoming united To stem the anti-Yankee violence, federal agents arrested Campos and several of the party's leaders on sedition charges in 1936 - Served 10 years The youth brigade of the Nationalists, called the Cadets, decided to march peacefully in response - Palm Sunday Massacre, biggest massacre in PR history = Hundreds were gunned down by police After the massacre, hysteria and near civil war swept the island - Nationalists were hunted and arrested on sight - Some fled in exile = The Nationalist ranks were decimated & many abandoned in fear Pedro Albizu Campos returned home and the Nationalist Party and the US gov hurtled toward a final bloody confrontation - Thousands of families fled from PR

The Great Migration (1946-60)

Puerto Ricans Contributing factors: WWII, the Great Depression, advent of air travel, implementation of Operation Bootstrap - "Industry attracted by OB did not provide sufficient jobs; with increased population growth and displacement from traditional labor pursuits, much of the surplus labor migrates to the US" 1910: 1,532 boricuas in US 1930: 53,000 Mostly Brooklyn, Bronx, East Harlem Mid century: The Great Migration - Operacion Manos a la obra/Operation Bootstrap = Post WWII industrial boom 1960: One million is the US 2005: 4 million in the US, only 3.8 in PR - Main in the US than in the homeland

Salsa

Salsa is a popular form of social dance that originated in Cuba - The movements of Salsa is a combination of Afro-Cuban dance, Cuban Son, cha-cha-cha, mambo and other dance forms Became famous in the mid-1970s in New York Evolved from earlier Cuban dance forms such as Son, Son Montuno, cha cha cha, Mambo and Puerto Rican Bomba and Plena which were popular in the Caribbean, Latin America and the Latino communities in New York since the 1940s Salsa, like most music genres and dance styles, has gone through a lot of variation through the years and incorporated elements of other Afro-Caribbean dances such as Pachanga Different regions of Latin America and the United States have distinct salsa styles of their own, such as Cuban, Puerto Rican, Cali Colombia, where the World master Dancers are in the best in the World. L.A. and New York styles. - Salsa dance socials are commonly held in night clubs, bars, ballrooms, restaurants, and outside, especially when part of an outdoor festival. There is some controversy surrounding the origins of the word "salsa," which has been ascribed to the dance since the mid-1800s - Some claim that it was based on a cry shouted by musicians while they were playing their music - Others believe that the term was created by record labels to better market their music, who chose the word "salsa" because of its spicy and hot connotations - Still, others believe the term came about because salsa dancing and music is a mixture of different styles in Latin American Effective bilingual speakers skillful like "expert salsa dancers"

Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966

Second Wave (Departure program administered by the US and Cuban government = Camarioca boatlift and airlift for Middle and working class. Also have Freedom flights and acts of political violence from elements in the exile community.) Act provides - Access to Medicare - Student loans - Expedited residency - Political asylum - Small business loans - Could become a resident a year after arriving - "Wet foot, dry foot" policy

65th Infantry (Division, Regiment)

Segregated unit of PRs from the American soldiers throughout the war and assigned largely to support work for combat units B/c they spoke no English, they found themselves frequently ridiculed by their fellow GIs Beyond the prejudice they faced, they were deeply shaken by the devastated countryside of southern France and Germany, which reminded them of the lush green hills of Puerto Rico For the first time, PR fought in defense of a country they knew nothing about - And they returned home like their Mexican American counterparts believing that they had earned a place at the American table and for the first time, they felt like citizens

"Grito de Lares" (Lares Revolt)

September 23, 1868 PR criollos resented the Majorcan peninsulares who quickly bought up most of the businesses in Lares and rarely employed the town's native born resident - The Majorcans were loyal to the Spanish Crown while Lares was a hotbed of separatist and abolitionist sentiment Popular name given to the revolution against Spain for PR independence that took place in the town of Lares - Most significant independence revolt in PR history Armed rebellion quickly crushed by the Spanish In the 19th century the expression grito, literally a shout or outcry, was used as synonym for a declaration of independence

PR potential solutions to political status

Several referendums have taken place - 1952, 1967, 1989, 1993, 1998, 2012, 2017 Pressures by the UN, local political and other forces "enhanced commonwealth," "estado criollo," independence From the US political operatives: mixed Spanish speaking population, leaning democratic, pop size, costs, changes in geopolitical and economic circumstances Traditional choices: independence, statehood, "enhanced commonwealth" 1988 Young Bill, new options were added but shelved by senate - Commonwealth, statehood, or "separate sovereignty" Yet another solution brewing long time, but officially articulated in the Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 - A new status, the associated republic or republica asociada, chosen in 1986 by the Pacific Trust Territories, the equivalent of a "free associated state" for the UN This would define PR as "a separate nation with a right to sovereignty and self-determination, maintaining a close and mutually beneficial voluntary association with the US" - Some of its elements would include PR control over treaties, customs duties, participation in the UN; dual citizenship; common market, currency, postal system; foreign investment incentives, elimination of US maritime monopoly, 25 year compact, after which it would be renegotiated (303-4)

Davilita, "Son tres"

Shared cultural ties, experience among Greater Antilles - "The 3 islands are sisters, bound together in deep cultural and historical affinity" (60) = Sisters meaning Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic = Says art and music forms are combined together Song addresses historical/cultural issues - Speaks of Puerto Rican independence and how Santo Domingo and Cuba also have freedom fighters Popular singer of boleros, patriotic music Born in Bayamon, Puerto Rico; settled in El Barrio, NY with family when very young First artists to record Rafael Hernandez's "Lamento Borincano" Supporter of PR's independence and PR's Nationalists Party

Per Juan Flores' interpretation, the main theme of Pedro Ortiz Dávila's ("Davilita's") song, "Son tres" is... a. The lives of three great Cuban poets and intellectuals of the XIX century: José María Heredia, Fr. Francisco Varela, and José Martí. b. The islands of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, their cultural links, and their divergent political destinies. c. The importance of three Caribbean musical genres: the Cuban son guajiro, the Puerto Rican danza, and the Dominican merengue. d. The interrelations between the Cuban son, the Dominican merengue, and Nuyorrican salsa music.

b. The islands of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, their cultural links, and their divergent political destinies.

20. Compare and contrast "Puerto Rican Obituary," "A Lower east Side Poem," In what ways is their approach to and understanding of the Nuyorican experience similar or different? How do the poems articulate those differences?

Similar in that show bad sides - PRO: Poverty and physica exhuastion = Repettiton of work and died, shows the physical exhaustion and destruction of their souls b/c of work = So desperate for upward mobility, aspiration for utopian world, like having car that go to card reader to communicate with the dead and get lotto numbers - LES: Violence and drug use = prostitutes, gangs, drug dealers, prisoners, etc. all on the streets, everyone is a criminal, theif, junkie = ansolute choas and darkness Different in ownership of identity - PRO: Didnt see beauty = Go to card reader (Sister Lopez) and get revelation that they could have lived if they had valued and believed in themselves and the PR community, should've seen their beauty = Says that instead of media and pursuit of money or lack of solidarity there is a real heaven that can be attained - LES: Accepted violence = He is claiming his background and the darkness of his community = Doesn't want to be in green pastures but in the streets where the drugs are sold and people are stabbed b/c thats his community and identity

22. Compare and contrast the gender dynamics reflected in Rafael Campo's "Miss Key West" and in Judith Ortíz Cofer "The Story of My Body." What are their similarities and differences? How do these texts relate to their historical contexts?

Similarities: - Finding beauty in oneself = Her skin color, size, and appearance were variable, things that were judged according to her current self image, the aesthetic values of the times/places she was in, an the people she met = What mattered is how she viewed herself, as olive skinned, dark haried, well dressed, compassionate and gentle, tallest in her family puerto rican = Rainbow passing through perfume bottle shows beauty of prism, saying LGBTQ+ people are beautiful, movement of celebration Differences: - Pro female vs Pro LGBTQ+ = About drag parade and the beauty of the men who transform themselves

Hurricane María*

Started September 16, 2017 Regarded as the worst natural disaster on record to affect Dominica and PR Tenth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record Total losses estimated at upwards of $91.61 billion mostly in PR 80% of the territory's agriculture was lost due to the hurricane, with agricultural losses estimated at $780 million The hurricane completely destroyed the island's power grid, leaving all 3.4 million resident without electricity In late August 2018, the Milken Institute of Public Health estimated 2,658 - 3,290 additional people died in the six months after the hurricane Estimate that between 114,000 and 213,000 PR residents will leave the island annually in the aftermath - From 2017 to 2019, we estimate that PR may lose up to 470,335 residents or 14% of the population After Maria, PRs are rebuilding by relying on each other

4. Briefly explain some of the main provisions of the Platt Amendment in Cuba.

The amendment supplied the terms under which the US intervened in Cuban affairs in 1906, 1912, 1917, and 1920 It stipulated the conditions for US intervention in Cuban affairs and permitted the US to lease or buy lands for the purpose of the establishing of naval bases and coaling stations in Cuba - The main one was Guantanamo Bay The Cuban claim to the Isle of Pines was not acknowledged and to be determined by treaty It barred Cuba from making a treaty that gave another nation's power over its affairs, going into debt, or stopping the US from imposing a sanitation program on the island Specifically, Article III required that the government of Cuba consent to the rights of the US to intervene in Cuban affairs for "the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty of Paris on the US, now to be assumed and undertaken by the Government of Cuba"

Frances Negrón-Muntaner's concept of the "Latino Disconnect" refers most specifically to... a. the correlation between increased Latino media presence, and the availability of TV roles that could be defined as "stereotypical" in the early 2000s. b. the effects that massive mergers between cable, telecom, and content providers have had on Latino media representation. c. the difference between the Latino percentage of the U.S. population, their visibility within the media landscape, and the quality of their media representation. d. the gap between rates of Latino media consumption and their internet access.

c. the difference between the Latino percentage of the U.S. population, their visibility within the media landscape, and the quality of their media representation.

Economic crisis in PR

The creation of the World Trade Organization in 1995 and the repeal of Section 936 in 1996 effectively displaced PR from its position of privilege in global value chains (NAFTA 1994) 936 finally expired at end of 2005 and by 2006, PR in a deepening process of economic contraction Beginning with the Rossello administration (1993-2000, PNP) the gov borrowed money to finance public works, issue substantial service contracts, and pay for operational expenses - Major banks and financial brokers assisted the PR political elite in their journey to the brink of default According to Bloomberg, "banks including UBS, Citigroup, and Goldman Sachs, reaped more than $900 million in fees to manage PR's $126.6 billion of bond sales since 2000" In PR, bad governance is also at the root of the debt problems "PR is ruled by a kakistocracy, where cronyism, nepotism, and pay for play practices are common" - Kakistocracy = Greek, means gov by the worst people "On June 30, 2016, President Barack Obama signed the PR Oversight, Management and Economic Stability Act or PROMESA, which empowered him to appoint a seven member Financial Oversight and Management Board that has ultimate control over the Commonwealth's budget and would negotiate the Commonwealth's debt restructuring"

Jesús T. Piñero

The first and only native born governor appointed by US President Truman to the office of PR governor - Served from 1946-49 Followed by Luis Munoz Marin - Served from 1949 to 1965

El Barrio

The original PR neighborhood in East Harlem in NYC - Working class families - Bilingual & multidialectal PR encountered both helping hands and hostility - Many mobster ran clubs that PR worked at - Italian gangs chased off PRs and blacks that wandered into their neighborhoods With gone, East Harlem lost its main voice for working class unity Racial tensions flared up after Marcantonio lost re election November 1950 - Italians blamed PR for his defeat - Ethnic war began Italians jumped every PR they saw and PR made street gangs in defense, but as new immigrants became too numerous to frighten off, the street gangs faded in importance Despite that bitter 1950s gang war era, common work experiences and the bond of the Catholic religion gradually drew PRs, Italians, and Irish together Era of working with hands/industrialization that could cut off your limbs or kill you while working 12 hours day for low pay Welfare system turned into an economic crutch, chaining countless PR families into dependence on government - Gov then started to build public housing projects all over the city for the working poor that PR moved into

Biculturation

The two cultures achieve a balance that makes it difficult to distinguish between the dominant and the subordinate cultures "The type of blending characteristic of the one and a half generation. It designates not only contact of cultures but a situation where the two cultures achieve a balance that makes it difficult to distinguish between the dominant and the subordinate culture. Biculturation implies an equilibrium, however tense between the two contributing cultures" "Mine is not a fashionable view of relations between "majority" and "minority" cultures. Contemporary models of culture contact tend to be oppositional: one culture vanquishes another... I like to think of Cuban-American culture as "appositional" rather than "oppositional" for the relation between the two term is defined more by contiguity than by conflict"

Aftermath of the Spanish-American War

Treaty of paris formally ended the war - Gave the US direct control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, & the Phillipines - Fulfilled what US Presidents had always wanted, acquiring Cuba and dominating Latin America - American imperialism "...key sections of American business were demanding rapid expansion into the markets of Asia and Latin America...Corporate titans Astor, Rockefeller, and Morgan all turned avidly pro-war in the months preceding Congress's declaration" (HOE 57) Spain as a stagnant power, new "black" legend - Show Spain as savage nation & manipulate image for political reasons = General Wyler starts concentration camps in Cuba = See death and starvation in political drawings Platt Amendment - "In July 1900, the Constitutional Convention of Cuba started deliberations and was notified that the US Congress intended to attach an amendment to the Cuban Constitution" = Secretary of War Elihu Root drafted a set of articles in 1901 as guidelines for future US-Cuban relations The amendment supplied the terms under which the US intervened in Cuban affairs in 1906, 1912, 1917, and 1920 "On the whole, outright territorial annexation ceased after 1898 and gave way to gunboat diplomacy and to a more disguised, yet far more extensive system of financial domination. Economic conquest replaced outright political annexation, as the region evolved into the incubator for the multinational American corporations" (HOE 58)

After Cuba's 1959's revolution, Cuban exiles left the country in what has been generally described as four waves (1959-62, 1965-74, 1980, 1994). The Mariel Boatlift has been used to roughly divide the process into two broad stages (a "before" and "after"), due to the differences in class and racial makeup of the exiles. True or False?

True

In an article published in 1889, Martí expressed his disapproval of U.S. neutrality during the "Ten Years War," indicating that Cuba had not achieved its independence at that time partially because the U.S. deferred to Spain's Imperial authority in America. True or False?

True

Post-Castro Exodus

Two broad periods, four waves - Before and after Mariel Boat Lift (1980) First Wave 1959-62 Second Wave 1965-74 - Cuban Adjustment Act Third Wave, 1980 (Mariel Boatlift, marielitos) Fourth Wave, 1994 (Balseros/rafters)

Vito Marcantonio

Vito Marcantonio, ethnic tensions, gang turf wars, "West Side Story" Ethnic tensions stayed under control as long as Vito Marcantonio whp was the local congressman & Old style socialist, managed to fashion a unique coalition of East Harlem's ethnic and racial groups Always advocated for the poor, whether it was unemployed workers being evicted from their homes or families with no food to eat For years, he was the lone critic in Washington of US rule in Puerto Rico - In 1937 he helped elect the US' first PR to political office, Oscar Garcia RIvera He lost re-election in 1950 when Republican, Democratic, and Liberal Party boses united against him - With Marcantonio gone, East Harlem lost its main voice for working class unity Racial tensions flared up immediately, with some Italians blaming PR for his defeat EThnic war began on election night that Marcantonio lost November 1950 - Italians jumped every PR they saw - PR made street gangs in defense, but as new immigrants became too numerous to frighten off, the street gangs faded in importance

The Exile's Lute/El laúd del desterrado

Written by Jose Maria Heredia - Cuban born poet, initiator of Latin American romanticism Author of "Ode to Niagara" and "The Exile's - Hymn" in 1825 "The Exile's Hymn" included in the anthology El laud del desterrado (The Exile's Lute), published in NY in 1958 - First collection of poems written by Cuban writers in exile; united by a strong affinity for independence

Unfolding in the aftermath of Cuba's 1959 revolution, "Operation Peter Pan" refers to... a. A coordinated effort to bring 14,000 Cuban children to the United States between 1960-62. b. The administered departure program of "freedom flights" that took place from Cuba between 1965-1974. c. A failed CIA-sponsored military invasion by Cuban exiles on July 1961. d. The U.S. government program that provided Cuban exiles with access to Medicaid, food stamps, and low-interest college loans.

a. A coordinated effort to bring 14,000 Cuban children to the United States between 1960-62.

The Downes v. Bidwell decision, perhaps the most influential of the "Insular Cases," ruled that... a. Puerto Rico represented a territory belonging to, but not a part of the US within the revenue clauses of the Constitution. b. Puerto Rico could not make treaties that gave other nations power over its affairs, or go into debt. c. Puerto Ricans were not and could never be citizens of the United States. d. English would become the official language of Puerto Rico's courts.

a. Puerto Rico represented a territory belonging to, but not a part of the US within the revenue clauses of the Constitution.

Gustavo Pérez Firmat's concept of "biculturation" refers to... a. the slow process of passing from one culture to another. b. a situation where two cultures achieve a balance that makes it difficult to distinguish between a dominant and a subordinate culture. c. the process of acquiring a new culture. d. the various contact dialects that result from interaction between Spanish and English.

b. A situation where two cultures achieve a balance that makes it difficult to distinguish between a dominant and a subordinate culture.

Select the option that most closely matches the events that immediately preceded the Cuban Revolution of 1959, culminating in the triumph of Fidel Castro's rebels: a. Gerardo Machado becomes president, uses repressive measures as public protests and discontent grows against his regime, and is driven out of the country. b. A group of Cuban rebels launches the Ten Years War, eventually gaining logistical support from exiles in Ybor City, Florida. c. Fulgencio Batista rises to power as part of the "Revolt of the Sargeants," leaves for Florida, returns to the island and stages a coup. d. Starting with the assault on the Moncada Barracks, Fidel Castro and his rebels take the cities of Santa Clara and Santiago de Cuba; Batista flees the country, and Castro is sworn as Prime Minister.

d. Starting with the assault on the Moncada Barracks, Fidel Castro and his rebels take the cities of Santa Clara and Santiago de Cuba; Batista flees the country, and Castro is sworn as Prime Minister.

In the early XX century, Oahu was the site of... a. the largest massacre in Puerto Rican history. b. the largest community of Puerto Rican cigar-makers in U.S. territory. c. a major insurrection of Puerto Rican creoles against Spanish rule. d. the first major Puerto Rican community of migrants outside the island.

d. The first major Puerto Rican community of migrants outside the island.

In identifying critical factors that led most directly to U.S. intervention in Cuba and to the Spanish-American war, we would include: a. Public opinion, manipulated by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer through the "yellow press." b. Demands for expanded markets from key sections of American business interests. c. The attempt to keep Cuban radicals, many of them black, from winning the island's independence from Spain. d. Both a and b. e. Both b and c.

e. Both b and c.

"The Latino Disconnect"

by Negron Muntaner With 17.4% of the total U.S. population, and an even larger share of younger subgroups, Latinos have been aggressively courted by political parties and marketing strategists vying to tap into our $1.5 trillion buying power - But while we've seen some concrete improvements regarding access, representation, and opportunity for Latinos in US media, there's still an undeniable lag in the ability of big media institutions to catch up to demographic reality. = Called the "Latino Disconnect," Problems - Diversity on TV is worse than we think = Latinos comprised less than 7% of behind-the-camera talent across the top 10 shows, news, and film = precisely zero Latinos involved in the company's highest-level executive decision making - Not as many roles and the roles are stereotypical = maids, cops, gang bangers, drug addicts - actually increased from 34.1% to 52.5% between the 2008-2009 and 2014-15 seasons - Even the news sucks = Between 2012-2014, 3% of all NBC Nightly News stories were Latino-themed, of which 64% focused on illegal immigration and crime Communism came in third, with Cold War-style boogeyman talk of Cuba and Venezuela dominating international coverage - Streaming is okay but still issues = one show, East Los High, on Hulu & they claim they are diverse = Netflix fared a little betterwith Latinos making up 8.1% of actors and 3.6% behind-the-camera talent but 49% of their Latino roles were defined as "stereotypical" - Latinos have a voice = Thanks to Latino advocacy, the initial terms of the Comcast-NBCUniversal merger included a Memorandum of Understanding that required the new mega-corporation to actively diversify their workforce and corporate governance, while dedicating a larger portion of their philanthropical endeavors to Latino causes = Comcast-NBCUniversal never fully honored the agreement & a few years later yet another merger between Comcast and Time Warner Cable was jettisoned thanks primarily to Latino activism, congressman Tony Cardenas (D-CA), & Latino advocates

The series of articles drafted after the 1898 war that severely restricted Cuba's sovereignty—including provisions stipulating conditions for U.S. intervention in the country—were known as: a. The Teller Amendment b. The Treaty of Paris c. The Platt Amendment d. The Pact of Zanjón

c. The Platt Amendment

Who was Luis Muñoz Marín? a. The founder of the Young Lords. b. A leader of the Grito de Lares revolt. c. The first elected governor of Puerto Rico. d. A former union leader in NYC and editor of a community newspaper.

c. The first elected governor of Puerto Rico.

11. Indicate what were the main contributing factors to the Great Migration of Puerto Ricans to the U.S. in the XX century. When and why did this process begin? Where did these Boricuas predominantly settle?

the advent of air travel, "Operation Bootstrap," and the Great Depression. 1946-1960 Came to major cities in NY - Brooklyn, Bronx, East Harlem - Today can find in Hartford, New Haven, Bronx, etc.