MAN 320F Unit 3 Midterm

retrieval

- Each stage of the perception process becomes part of memory - This information stored in our memory must be retrieved if it is to be used - But all of us at times have trouble retrieving stored information due to memory decay

stereotyping in a 4 step process

- Step 1: Categorizing people into groups based on some distinguishing feature such as skin color, hair color, height, weight, or some other feature. - Step 2: Inferring that all people in a category possess similar traits or characteristics (i.e., all tall people are arrogant). - Step 3: Formation of expectations of people assigned to that group and the interpretation of their behavior accordingly (e.g., Bill is tall, and he didn't say hello this morning. He didn't say hello because tall people are arrogant). - Step 4: Maintenance and reinforcement of the stereotype. This is done by ignoring stimuli or information that isn't consistent with the stereotype and overemphasizing stimuli or information that can be interpreted as supporting the stereotype (e.g., Jim is tall and he is very friendly. Jim is pretty friendly, for a tall person).

3 factors influence internal or external determination of causality

1. distinctiveness 2. consensus 3. consistency

interpretation

Even if your attention is called to the same information and you organize it in the same way your friend does, you may still interpret it differently or make different assumptions about what you have perceived

primacy/first impression

First impressions are important because subsequent interactions are usually interpreted based on the prior ones. Giving greater weight to a first impression may result in discounting later interactions that may contradict the earlier impression. Observing someone make a mistake in an early encounter may lead one to expect that this person is not very talented, even in light of numerous successful or accurate performances. This can impact what tasks are assigned to an employee and what development opportunities are offered.

influences on how the perceiver perceives others

How familiar they are with the person (target) being perceived or the situation has a direct impact on their perceptions. Characteristics of the person being perceived (target) also have a major influence on the interpretation made by the perceiver. Characteristics of the situation provide a context for the interpretations

what forms the basis for managers expectations?

How the job, the company culture, and working relationships are described to the employee

the discrepancy between expectations and perceived reality

Job satisfaction is influenced by the extent to which one perceives he or she is receiving what was expected from a job. Less perceived discrepancy tends to lead to higher job satisfaction ratings.

perceiver familiarity with target

Previous encounters with that person or stereotypes about the classification (nationality, physical attributes, etc) they make for that person will directly color their perceptions. The perceiver's knowledge base and past experiences, as well as their own mood and attitudes about the situation, will influence the interpretation of their observations. Whether the perceiver is in a good mood or a bad mood can create very different interpretations of the exact same event. The perceiver's self-concept, personal values, personality, and beliefs will influence how they perceive an event or person. If the perceiver has negative beliefs about people with tattoos, then an individual with a tattoo is likely to be perceived in a negative light.

Reinforcement Cons

Reinforcement to influence human behavior can be demeaning and dehumanizing and it can let managers abuse the power of their positions when they exert this type of external control over individual behavior

extent to which the job is perceived to be consistent with the employee's values.

Satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important work and personal values. A good match with values tends to lead to higher job satisfaction, while a poor match tends to lead to lower job satisfaction.

characteristics of the situation

Situational characteristics include the surrounding environment, background noise, or activities taking place around the target. Many times the situation is used to make sense of the actions of the target. Why is the target exhibiting specific behaviors? If the target is crying, the perceiver will look to the environment to contextualize that behavior in order to make their interpretation. A wedding or a funeral setting will cue the perceiver to make the interpretation of whether they are tears of joy or sadness. In ambiguous situations, where there are not many cues or if the situation is unfamiliar (e.g., in a foreign country), they may have difficulty interpreting action and will rely on their past experiences.

characteristics of target

The target's physical appearance (how they dress and physical attributes, such as height or weight) as well as their verbal communication skill (language, accent, and apparent confidence) all will have an impact on how they are perceived by the perceiver. Non-verbal communication will also impact the interpretation. Eye-contact, handshake, gestures, and tone of voice (loud/soft) will color the interpretations made by the perceiver as well.

prototype

a bundle of features expected to be characteristic of people in certain categories or roles

stereotype

a cognitive shortcut based on an individual's preconceived beliefs about a group and the assumption that all members of that group share the same characteristics. very quick generalizations and can often be wrong can lead to poor decisions and discrimination when used too broadly ignore individual differences by grouping people together based only on one or two characteristics about which the perceiver has a specific belief not always negative and can, sometimes, be quite useful, such as when an individual uses them to make a quick assessment of whether or not a situation looks safe, or whether a person represents a threat to them

script schema

a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation

the perceiver

a person's past experiences, needs or motives, personality, values, and attitudes may all influence the perceptual process

law of immediate reinforcement

a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs

law of contingent reinforcement

a reward should only be given when the desired behavior occurs

continuous reinforcement

administers reward each time a desired behavior occurs; draws forth a desired behavior more quickly but is easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present

selective screening

allows only a portion of available information to enter our perceptions This comes from controlled processing: consciously deciding what information to pay attention to and what to ignore (ex. Screening out background noise)

perceptions of equity

also impact job satisfaction. When an employee perceives that they are being treated "fairly" at work and their perception that their own work outcomes relative to their inputs compare favorably with other coworker's inputs/outcomes, they tend to report higher job satisfaction. This extends to the overall organizational climate and interactions with supervisors.

job satisfaction

an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job. These facets include the actual work being performed, the supervisory relationship, the relationship with coworkers, promotion and development opportunities, and the compensation/benefit package. While job satisfaction is often discussed as a one-dimensional concept, it is really an amalgamation of all of these facets. Job satisfaction can also vary dramatically across countries and cultures. In one culture, individuals may place greater emphasis on compensation, and in another, individuals may place greater emphasis on relationships with coworkers.

stereotypes

assigns attributes commonly associated with a group to an individual - It is an oversimplification - They obscure individual differences - Gender, age, race, and physical ability

projection

assigns personal attributes to other individuals - Likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception - A classic error is projecting your needs, values, and views onto other→this can be avoided by self-awareness and empathy; being able to view a situation as others see it is the tendency to assign or project one's own personal attributes (needs, values, and point of view) onto other individuals and to assume that others would think and feel the same as the person making the projection. For example, "Anyone would be angry in this situation." or "Everyone will think this is funny." In organizations, this can occur when deciding what rewards would be most appreciated by employees or designing jobs based on what is important to the designer, rather than what is important to the person performing the job.

law of effect

behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not (E. L. Thorndike)

schemas

cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about people, objects, or events

behavior that is externally caused is

coming from outside a person

self schema

contains information about a person's own appearance, behavior, and personality

self-fulfilling prophecies

creating or finding in a situation that which you expected to find in the first place - Sometime called the "Pygmalion effect," names after the mythical Greek sculptor who created a statue of his ideal mate and then made her come to life - Can have positive or negative (disappointing) outcomes is the tendency to create or seek out a situation you expected to find in the first place (i.e., you see what you expect to see). If managers believe that they have been assigned to a high performance team, they tend to set higher expectations for the team, which subsequently leads to higher performance (thus fulfilling the prophecy), even if the team was made up of average performers. By the same token, a manager assigned to a team with a history of lower performance, is likely to begin with low expectations and to end up with low performance.

social learning theory

describes how learning occurs through interactions among people, behavior, and environment

punishment

discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence - It is the administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated - When punishment is perceived as arbitrary and capricious, it leads to low satisfaction and low performance; possible to handle it very poorly

extinction

discourages a behavior by making the removal of a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence - Even though a successful extinction strategy decreases the frequency of or weakens behavior, the behavior is not "unlearned"→it simply is not exhibited and will reappear if reinforced again

positive reinforcement can be given on

either continuous or intermittent schedules

There is a link between job satisfaction and intentions to stay or leave a job; therefore, it is directly related to

employee turnover

When the ________ are aligned and the psychological contract is upheld, employees are more likely to have higher job satisfaction and are more inclined to stay with the company.

expectations

contrived rewards

have direct costs and budgetary implications

attribution theory

helps us understand how people perceive the causes of event, assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved

distinctiveness

how consistent a person's behavior is across different situations

consensus

how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the same way

classical conditioning

involves learning to display a behavior through its association with a stimulus (Ivan Pavlov) - A stimulus is something that incites action and draws forth a response - The trick is to associate one neutral stimulus with another stimulus that already affects behavior - The once-neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it affects behavior in the same way as the initial stimulus - Such learning through association is so common in organizations that it is often ignored until it causes considerable confusion -learning occurs through conditioned stimuli

shaping

is a positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior; behavior shaped gradually rather than changed all at once typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one

Albert Bandura social learning idea

is that an individual uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior by overseeing and imitating others

attribution

is the explanation or reasoning an individual creates to pinpoint the causes of a behavior or action. This can be an explanation of why they engaged in a specific behavior or an explanation of why someone else engaged in a specific behavior. the process of creating explanations for events

contrast effect

is the tendency to assign meaning to something by contrasting it with another event, situation, or person. Compared with others in a particular workgroup, one employee's performance may be much better than the other employees. Therefore, they are rated highly when, in fact, if they were compared to employees in other work groups, their performance may have only been average. Managers must make sure that they are basing their perceptions on an appropriate comparison.

self-serving bias

is the tendency to overestimate the influence of situational factors when evaluating our own negative outcomes and to overestimate the influence of personal factors for positive outcomes (and vice-versa for others!). underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior; the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success

recency effect

is the tendency to remember and give more weight to the most recent information or events and to minimize earlier information (i.e., to base a rating decision primarily on the most recent performance information, while placing much less emphasis on prior performance). This is one of the more common distortions that managers make, especially when rating an employee's performance. In an annual review, what happened in the last month or two will generally be given much more attention (good or bad) than the earlier part of the year.

neutral rewards

no real cost other than the time and effort expended to deliver them

low self-efficacy

observes someone who they think is better than they are struggling with a task that reinforces the idea in their mind that they aren't gonna be able to do this well (low self-efficacy, won't put forth the effort or plan or prepare or stick to it once they try it when doesn't work out)

halo/horns effect

occurs when a perceiver allows a characteristic or general feeling about a person or object to positively (halo) or negatively (horns) influence other assessments of the person or object (i.e., rating the performance of graduates of your alma mater more positively than they really earned, just because of the school from which they graduated). In the work place, this is potentially found in performance ratings, hiring and promotion decisions, and work assignments. This obviously brings up fairness issues and negatively impacts organizational performance by overlooking or bypassing qualified people in favor of truly less qualified people.

contrast effects

occurs when the meaning of something that takes place is based on a contrast with another recent event or situation occurs when an individual's characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics

fundamental attribution error

overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior

Self-efficacy plays role in job satisfaction

placed in role where don't think will be successful or struggle to be successful it is hard to be happy or satisfied in that job - don't look forward to it, brings down satisfaction

social perception

process of receiving and interpreting information about another person

psychological contract

refers to individual beliefs that are shaped by the organization, regarding terms of exchange between the individual and the organization. In essence, this is the implied understanding of the employment relationship, how each party will be treated, and the expectations each party has concerning the other. Both the employee and employer always have expectations of each other, whether these have been explicitly communicated or are simply implied.

intermittent reinforcement

rewards behavior only periodically; more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement can be given according to fixed or variable schedules

personal schemas

sort people into categories—types or groups, in terms of similar perceived features

positive reinforcement

strengthens a behavior by making a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence (B. F. Skinner)

negative reinforcement

strengthens a behavior by making the avoidance of an undesirable consequence contingent on its occurrence - Uses the withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of desirable behavior being repeated - Also called avoidance learning because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior

Reinforcement pros

such control is an irrevocable part of every manager's job

model of social learning

symbolic processes, verbal/mental images help guide behavior --> behavior --> modeling behavior acquired by observing and imitating others self-control, self-efficacy controls behavior --> environment --> modeling behavior acquired by observing and imitating others

if they see someone who is equally low in self-efficacy

tends to help them raise their self-efficacy to a certain extent and will increase the effort that they will put forth

extrinsic rewards

the consequences that reinforce behavior under the Law of Effect positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person contrived and neutral rewards

when expectations in the psychological contract are not fulfilled...

the contract is perceived to be broken. The result of a broken psychological contract from an employer's perspective can be employee turnover, lower productivity, and lower engagement and satisfaction with the job and company. From the employee's perspective, a broken psychological contract could result in dismissal of the employee or limited promotion and development opportunities because the employee is perceived as not fulfilling their obligations.

operant conditioning

the control of behavior by manipulating its consequences (B. F. Skinner) - Learning by reinforcement - In a work setting the goal is to use reinforcement principles to systematically reinforce desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior - It occurs by linking behavior and consequences - learning occurs through consequences of behavior

reinforcement

the delivery of a consequence as a result of behavior Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual's behavior

Overall job satisfaction is heavily influenced by...

the extent to which an employee perceives that the characteristics of a job fulfill his or her needs. Unmet needs can affect both job satisfaction and turnover.

the perceived

the perceived person, object, or event are important in the perception process; contrast, intensity, figure-ground separation, size, motion, and repetition or novelty

factors influencing perception

the perceiver, the setting, the perceived

satisfaction results from

the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important work and personal values

the setting

the physical, social, and organizational context can influence the perception process

perception

the process through which people make sense of the world around them the process through which people receive and interpret information form the environment

impression management

the systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us (Richard Branson, CEO of the Virgin Group)

selective perception

the tendency to define problems from one's own point of view - Impact occurs in the attention stage of the perceptual process - You pick what you think is the problem based on your area of work - Kind of like a bias refers to the tendency to perceive only those aspects of the situation or person that are consistent with the perceiver's point of view, needs, values, or beliefs. When a person only attends to these aspects they will typically miss or misinterpret other aspects that could be critically important and could change the decision or course of action taken. One example is from Sherlock Holmes in "Silver Blaze" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle where reference is made to "the dog that did not bark," which was the key to solving the mystery. Here, the fact that the dog did not bark during the incident indicated that the dog knew the person involved. In selective perception, one would be more likely to look for clues that did occur rather than looking at those clues that did not.

fundamental attribution bias

the tendency to underestimate the influence of situational (external) factors and to overestimate the influence of personal (internal) factors when evaluating other people's behavior.

organizational behavior modification

the use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and discourage undesirable behavior (it involves the use of the following four basic reinforcement strategies)

Behavior that is internally caused is

under the individuals control

halo effects

uses one attribute to develop an overall impression of a person or situation - More likely to occur in the organization stage of perception - Halo effects are particularly important in the performance appraisal process because they can influence a manager's evaluations of subordinates' work performance

consistency

whether an individual responds the same way across time

organizational commitment

which is the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and its goals Higher job satisfaction also tends to lead to stronger organizational commitment. Employees with higher levels of organizational commitment tend to demonstrate higher job performance and lower intentions to leave their jobs.

high self-efficacy

witnessing someone who has good skills not being successful tends to reinforce their desire to put forth more effort and keep trying and even persist sometimes longer b/c they will have witnessed someone else attempting this and they want to see if they can do it better

self-efficacy

your belief in the ability to do a specific task, task-specific often influenced by our observation of others the person's belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation; confidence, competence, and ability