Management 4620 Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts

Expectancy Theory Order

Individual Effort —(1. Effort-Performance Relationship)—>Individual Performance —(2. Performance-Reward Relationship)—>Organizational Rewards —(3. Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship)—> Personal Goals

"If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?"

Many employees say "no" because their skill level may be deficient, which means no matter how hard they try, they're not likely to be high performers. This suggests that people will only be motivated if they perceive a link between their effort and performance

"If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?"

Many organizations reward things besides performance. When pay is based on factors such as having seniority, being cooperative, or "kissing up" to the boss, employees are likely to see the performance-reward relationship as weak and demotivating

What is a persistence dimension?

Motivation has a persistence dimension; this measures how long a person can maintain effort

What is the only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal setting theory?

Participation- MBO strongly advocates it, whereas goal setting theory demonstrates that managers' assigned goals are usually just as effective

"If I'm rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?"

The employee works hard in the hope of getting a promotion but gets a pay raise instead. Or the employee wants a more interesting and challenging job but receives only a few words of praise. Unfortunately, many managers are limited in the rewards they can distribute, which makes it difficult to tailor rewards to individual employee needs. Some incorrectly assume all employees want the same thing, thus overlooking the motivational effects of differentiating rewards. In either case, employee motivation is sub maximized

Example of Job Engagement:

When nurse Melissa Jones comes to work, it seems that everything else in her life goes away, and she becomes completely absorbed in what she is doing. Her emotions, her thoughts, and her behavior are all directed toward patient care. In fact, she can get so caught up in her work that she isn't even aware of how long she's been there. As a result of this total commitment, she is more effective in providing patient care and feels uplifted by her time at work.

McClelland's Theory of Needs

a theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation

Why does training work?

because it increases self-efficacy individuals with higher self-efficacy also appear to reap more benefits from training programs and are more likely to use their training on the job

Managers who seek to eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction may

bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation they will be placating (making less angry) rather than motivating their workers

Managers can help their employees achieve high levels of self-efficacy by:

bringing goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory together *they don't compete, they compliment each other

Although it may be logical to assume easier goals are more likely to be accepted:

but one a hard goal is accepted, we can expect the employee to exert a high level of effort to try to achieve it

Changes in self-efficacy over time are related to:

changes in creative performance

What are Informational and Interpersonal Justices strongly associated with?

citizenship behavior

Intensity

describes how hard a person tries, however, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job-performance outcomes unless the effort is channelled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore we consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity

Inequities created by overpayment:

do not seem to significantly affect behavior in most work

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Actualization

drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment

What kind of effort should we be seeking?

effort that is directed toward, and consistent with the organization's goals

What is the most important source of increasing self-efficacy?

enactive mastery - that is, gaining relevant experience with the task or job. If you've been able to do the job successfully in the past, you're more confident you'll be able to do it in the future

What does fair treatment do?

enhances commitment to the organization and makes employees feel it cares about their well-being, which reduces uncertainty and fear of being exploited by the organization. It also elicits positive emotions, which in turn prompts behaviors like citizenship

Employees low in conscientiousness and emotional stability:

experience greater emotional exhaustion when their leaders set goals

Lower-Order Needs are satisfied

externally (extrinsic) - by rewards such as pay, union contracts, and tenure

Factors related to job dissatisfaction

extrinsic: supervision, pay, company policies, and working conditions

Factors that influence goals-performance:

goal commitment, task characteristics, and national culture

MBO Programs:

goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the setting of goals or objectives), an explicit period, and performance feedback

Having an explicit time period to accomplish objectives matches:

goal-setting theory's emphasis on goal specificity

Goal commitment is likely to occur when

goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, when the goals are self-set rather than assigned, and when goals are based at least partially on individual ability

What did McGregor believe about Theory X and Theory Y?

he believed that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore he proposed such ideas as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations to maximize an employee's job motivation

Assigned goals appear to generate greater goal commitment in:

high than in low power-distance cultures

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Physiological

includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs

Individuals with high self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with:

increased effort and motivation

Equity Theory

individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any equities

What is a dark side of job engagement?

individuals might grow so engages in their work roles that family responsibilities become an unwelcome intrusion

Higher-Order Needs are satisfied

internally (intrinsic)

Factors related to job satisfaction

intrinsic: advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement respondents who felt good about their work tended to attribute these factors to themselves

What does setting difficult goals do for your employees?

it communicates you confidence in them - this sets in motion a psychological process in which you're more confident in yourself (higher self-efficacy) and you set higher personal goals, performing better both inside and outside the workplace

People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals because?

it helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do - that is feedback guides behavior

What is a major advantage of participation?

it may be that is increases acceptance of the goal as a desirable one toward which to work. Without participation, the individual pursuing the goal needs t clearly understand its purpose and importance

Individuals with low self-efficacy are likely to:

lessen their effort after negative feedback

In difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to:

lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to mater the challenge

Researchers believe that goals are powerful in shaping behaviors, therefore, manager should:

make sure goals are aligned with company objectives

In collectivistic and high-power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be:

more motivating that difficult ones

Theory Y

motivated by higher order needs (social, esteem, and self-actualization) the assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction

Theory X

motivated by lower order needs (physiological and safety) the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to perform indolent, lack ambition, dislike responsibility, prefer to be led, inherently self-centered, gullible, not bright, and ready dupes

Extrinsic

motivation is controlled by some contingent reward based on our performance

Management by Objectives (MBO)

a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress

To enhance perceptions of justice:

they should realize that employees are especially sensitive to unfairness in procedures when bad news has to be communicated (that is, when distributive justice is low). Thus, it''s especially important to openly share information about how allocation decisions are made, follow consistent and unbiased procedures, and engage in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice

What do goals do?

they tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed

Studies suggest that managers are indeed motivated to foster employees' perceptions of justice because?

they wish to ensure compliance, maintain a positive identity, and establish fairness at work

Self-efficacy can create a positive spiral in which:

those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then in turn, increase performance, which increases efficacy further

What is the best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion?

through the Pygmalion Effect (a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make is true) or the Galatea Effect

The third source of increasing self-efficacy is?

verbal persuasion - becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use this

The second source of increasing self-efficacy is?

vicarious modeling - becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. It is more effective when you see yourself as similar to the person you are observing

Evidence suggests that specific goals increase performance because?

when difficult goals are accepted, they result in higher performance than do easy goals, and that feedback leads to higher performance that does non feedback

Some goals can be too effective:

when learning something is important, goals related to performance undermine adaptation and creativity because people become too focused on outcomes and ignore changing conditions

If outcomes are unfavorable, what happens?

people pay attention to the process. If the process is judged to be fair, then employees are more acceptable of unfavorable outcomes. It is likely that employees believe that fair procedures, which often have long-lasting effects, will eventually result in a fair outcome, even if the immediate outcome is unfair

What types of people are likely to have high self-efficacy?

people who are intelligent, conscientious, and emotionally stable

Distributive Justice:

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals ex: I got the pay raise I deserved

Lower-Order Needs

physiological and safety

Interpersonal Justice:

reflects whether employees are treated with dignity and respect. Is unique because it can occur in everyday interactions between managers and employees. This quality allows managers to take advantage (or miss out on) opportunities to make their employees feel fairly treated

Informational Justice:

reflects whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters. The more detailed and candid managers are with employees, the more fairly treated those employees feel

What do employees in collectivist cultures expect?

rewards to reflect the individual needs as well as their performance

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Safety

security and protection from physical and emotional harm

Motivation

set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity and persistence of our behavior

Higher-Order Needs

social, esteem, and self-actualization

Not everyone is equity-sensitive:

some people actually prefer outcome-input ratios lower than the referent comparisons

Fairness is often:

subjective; what one person sees as unfair, another may see as perfectly appropriate

What are Distribution and Procedural Justices strongly associated with?

task performance

Intrinsic

task performance itself serves as the motivation (doing well on the task is motivating)

Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when

tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, independent rather that interdependent, and are on the high end of achievable goals

What did J. Stacey Adams propose?

that this negative state of tension provides the motivation to do something to correct it

What makes people more likely to be engaged in their jobs?

the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work a match between the individual's values ad those of the organization leadership behaviors inspire workers to a greater sense of mission also increase employee engagement

Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship

the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual

Self-Concordance

the degree to which peoples' reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values

Performance-Reward Relationship

the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

Need for Affiliation: nAff

the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

Need for Achievement: nAch

the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and strive to succeed *focused most attention on this *dislike gambling with no high odds because they get no achievement satisfaction from success that comes by pure chance *they dislike low odds (high probability of success) because then there is no challenge to their skills *they like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little

Job Engagement

the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance

Theory X and Theory Y

the manager's views of the nature of human beings are based on certain assumptions that mold the managers' behavior toward the employees

The higher you self-efficacy,

the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.

What happens if factors such as acceptance of goals are held constant?

the more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance

Need for Power: nPow

the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise

Procedural Justice:

the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

Effort-Performance Relationship

the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance

When MBO fails, what are the culprits?

the tend to be unrealistic expectations, lack of commitment by top management, and inability or unwillingness to allocate rewards based on goal accomplishment

Hygiene Factors (contribute to job dissatisfaction: extrinsic)

these are extrinsic to the work itself According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are what causes dissatisfaction among employees in a workplace. In order to remove dissatisfaction in a work environment, these hygiene factors must be eliminated. quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others, and job security

If outcomes are favorable and individuals get what they want, what happens?

they care less about the process, so procedural justice doesn't matter as much when distributions are perceived to be fair

What do Procedural and Distributive Justice do when they combine?

they influence people's perceptions of fairness

What do specific goals do?

they produce a higher level of output than the generalized goal "do your best" because specificity itself seems to act as an internal stimulus

What happens when employees feel fairly treated?

they respond in a number of positive ways. All four types of justice have been linked to higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors such as helping co-workers, as well as lower levels of counterproductive behaviors such as shirking job duties.

The opposite of "dissatisfaction" is

"no dissatisfaction"

The opposite of "satisfaction" is

"no satisfaction"

What does the individual need to do?

(1) believes he can achieve the goal and (2) wants to achieve it

What happens after a need is substantially satisfied?

(although no need is ever fully gratified) satisfied needs no longer motivate, thus as each need is satisfied, the next one becomes dominant

Why are people motivated by goals?

1. Challenging goals get our attention and help us focus 2. Difficult goals energize us because we have to work harder to attain them 3. When goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them 4. Difficult goals lead us to discover strategies that help us perform the job or task more effectively. If we have to struggle to solve a difficult problem, we often think of a better pay to go about it

When equity is perceived:

1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid) 2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality) 3. Distort perceptions of self ("I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else") 4. Distort perceptions of others ("Mike's job isn't as desirable as I thought) 5. Choose a different referent ("I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I'm doing a lot better than my dad did when he was my age") 6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Increase self-efficacy:

1. Enactive mastery 2. Vicarious modeling 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Arousal

Myth or Science: Women are more motivated to get along, and men are more motivated to get ahead

Science: generally, men are focused more on outcomes, and women tend to focus more on relationships

Does Expectancy Theory work?

Some critics suggest it has only limited use and is more valid where individuals clearly perceive effort-performance and performance-reward linkages. Because few individuals of the theory tends to be idealistic. If organizations actually rewarded individuals for performance rather than seniority, effort, skill level, and job difficulty, expectancy theory might be much more valid However, rather than invalidating it, this criticism can explain why a significant segment of the workforce exerts low effort on the job

Prevention Focus

a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations focus is related to safety performance

Promotion Focus

a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment focus is related to higher levels of task performance, citizenship behavior, and innovation

Self-Determination Theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

Hertzberg's Two Factor Theory

a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction also called motivation-hygiene theory

Goal-Setting Theory

a theory that says specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance

Expectancy Theory

a theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

a version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling

Self-Efficacy Theory

also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory refers to an individual's belief that he is capable of performing a task

What do Individualistic and collectivistic cultures prefer?

an equitable distribution of rewards over and equal division (everyone gets paid the same regardless of performance). Across nations, the same basic principles of procedural justice are respected, and workers around the world prefer rewards based on performance and skills over rewards based on seniority.

Organizational Justice

an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice ex: I think this is a fair place to work

Motivating Factors (contribute to job satisfaction: intrinsic)

arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself the other half would be to increase satisfaction in the workplace. This can be done by improving on motivating factors promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement

The last source of increasing self-efficacy is?

arousal - leads to an energized state, so the person gets "psyched up" and performs better. But if a task requires a steady, lower-key perspective (say, carefully editing a manuscript), arousal may in fact hurt performance

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Social

attention, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

When do employees perceive that procedures are fair?

when they are given a say in the decision-making process. Having a direct influence over how decisions are made, or at the very least being able to present you opinion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and makes us feel empowered also when decision makers follow several "rules." These include making decisions in a consistent manner, avoiding bias, using accurate information, considering the groups or people their decisions affect, acting ethically, and remaining open to appeals or correction

When will employees be motivated to expect a high level of effort?

when they believe it will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards; and that the rewards will satisfy the employees' personal goals

When does a state of equity exist?

when we believe our ratio to be equal to those with whom we compare ourselves then we perceive the situation as fair

Self-Generated Feedback

with which employees are able to monitor their own progress or receive feedback from the task itself - is more powerful than externally generated feedback People monitor their progress differently depending on how close they are to goal accomplishment