Management Chapter 9

negative affectivity

A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood

positive affectivity

A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood It's even been proposed that positive affectivity may also play a role in entrepreneurial success.

creativity

The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas

distinctiveness

The basic framework around which we form attributions; the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way in other situations

consensus

The basic framework around which we form attributions; the extent to which other people in the same situation behave the same way

consistency

The basic framework around which we form attributions; the extent to which the same person behaves in the same way at different times

selective perception

The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs The manager has a very positive attitude about the worker and thinks he is a top performer. One day the manager notices that the worker seems to be goofing off. Selective perception may cause the manager to quickly forget what he observed. Similarly, suppose a manager has formed a very negative image of a particular worker. She thinks this worker is a poor performer and never does a good job. When she happens to observe an example of high performance from the worker, she may not remember it for very long

Psychological contract

The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return

stereotyping

The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute. For example, suppose a manager forms the stereotype that women can perform only certain tasks and that men are best suited for other tasks. To the extent that this affects the manager's hiring practices, the manager is: (1) costing the organization valuable talent for both sets of jobs, (2) violating federal law, and (3) behaving unethically.

attribution

The process of observing behavior and attributing causes to it For example, suppose someone comes to realize that she is working fewer hours than before, that she talks less about her work, and that she calls in sick more frequently. She might conclude from this that she must have become disenchanted with her job and subsequently decide to quit. Thus she observed her own behavior, attributed a cause to it, and developed what she thought was a consistent response. More common is attributing cause to the behavior of others. For example, if the manager of the individual described earlier has observed the same behavior, he might form exactly the same attribution. On the other hand, he might instead decide that she has a serious illness, that he is pushing her too hard, that she is experiencing too much stress, that she has a drug problem, or that she is having family problems.

personality

The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another

Incubation

The second phase of the creative process is incubation—a period of less intense conscious concentration during which the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop. A curious aspect of incubation is that it is often helped along by pauses in concentrated rational thought. Some creative people rely on physical activity such as jogging or swimming to provide a break from thinking. Others may read or listen to music. Sometimes sleep may even supply the needed pause.

Myers-Briggs framework; Sensing (S) versus intuition (N).

The sensing type prefers concrete things, whereas intuitives prefer abstract concepts.

perception

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment

performance behaviors

The total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display. Thus they derive from the psychological contract.

Myers-Briggs framework; Thinking (T) versus feeling (F)

Thinking individuals base their decisions more on logic and reason, whereas feeling individuals base their decisions more on feelings and emotions.

Self-awareness

This is the basis for the other components. It refers to a person's capacity for being aware of how they are feeling. In general, more self-awareness allows people to more effectively guide their own lives and behaviors.

Motivating oneself.

This refers to a person's ability to remain optimistic and to continue striving in the face of setbacks, barriers, and failure.

Empathy.

This refers to a person's ability to understand how others are feeling, even without being explicitly told.

Managing emotions.

This refers to a person's capacities to balance anxiety, fear, and anger so that they do not overly interfere with getting things accomplished.

emotional intelligence (EQ)

The extent to which people are self-aware, manage their emotions, motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills

person-job fit

The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization

contributions

What the individual provides to the organization; effort, skills, ability, time, loyalty,

inducements

What the organization provides to the individual to compensate for their contributions. pay and benefits, are tangible rewards; job security and recognition are intangible

absenteeism

When an individual does not show up for work. The cause may be legitimate (illness, jury duty, death in the family, and so forth) or feigned (reported as legitimate but actually just an excuse to stay home). When an employee is absent, his or her work does not get done at all, or a substitute must be hired to do it. In either case, the quantity or quality of actual output is likely to suffer.

Verification

Once an insight has occurred, verification determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight. For many creative ideas, verification includes scientific experiments to determine whether the insight actually leads to the results expected. Verification may also include the development of a product or service prototype. A prototype is one product or a very small number of products built just to see if the ideas behind this new product actually work. Product prototypes are rarely sold to the public but are very valuable in verifying the insights developed in the creative process. Once the new product or service is developed, verification in the marketplace is the ultimate test of the creative idea behind it

individual differences

Personal attributes that vary from one person to another

Social skill.

This refers to a person's ability to get along with others and to establish positive relationships.

turnover

occurs when people quit their jobs. An organization usually incurs costs in replacing individuals who have quit, but if turnover involves especially productive people, it is even more costly. Turnover seems to result from a number of factors, including aspects of the job, the organization, the individual, the labor market, and family influences. In general, a poor person-job fit is also a likely cause of turnover.

Interpersonal demands

stressors associated with relationships that confront people in organizations. For example, group pressures regarding restriction of output and norm conformity can lead to stress. Leadership styles may also cause stress. An employee who feels a strong need to participate in decision making may feel stress if his boss refuses to allow participation.

workplace behavior

A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness Important workplace behaviors include performance and productivity, absenteeism and turnover, and organizational citizenship.

Agreeableness

A person's ability to get along with others. A high level of agreeableness in people causes them to be relatively gentle, cooperative, forgiving, understanding, and good-natured in their dealings with others. Those with lower agreeableness can be relatively more irritable, short-tempered, uncooperative, and generally antagonistic toward other people.

Conscientiousness

A person's ability to manage multiple tasks and consistently meet deadlines People who have higher levels of conscientiousness are likely to be more organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, and self-disciplined as they work to accomplish tasks and meet goals. Others, however, tend to take on more tasks than they can manage and, as a result, are somewhat more disorganized, careless, and irresponsible, as well as less thorough and self-disciplined.

Extraversion

A person's comfort level with relationships People who are called extraverts are somewhat more sociable, talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships. But introverts are somewhat less sociable, talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships. Research suggests that extraverts tend to be higher overall job performers than introverts and that they are also more likely to be attracted to jobs based on personal relationships, such as sales and marketing positions.

openness

A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests People with higher levels of openness are willing to listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs, and attitudes as a result of new information. They also tend to have a wider range of interests and to be curious, imaginative, and creative. On the other hand, people with lower levels of openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas and be less willing to change their minds. Further, they tend to have fewer and narrower interests and to be less curious and creative.

Big 5 personality traits

A popular personality framework based on five key traits

Role demands

A role is a set of expected behaviors associated with a position in a group or organization. Stress can result from either role conflict or role ambiguity that people can experience in groups. For example, an employee who is feeling pressure from her boss to work longer hours or to travel more, while also being asked by her family for more time at home, will almost certainly experience stress as a result of role conflict Similarly, a new employee experiencing role ambiguity because of poor orientation and training practices by the organization will also suffer from stress.

organizational commitment

An attitude that reflects an individual's identification with and attachment to the organization itself A person with a high level of commitment is likely to see herself as a true member of the organization (e.g., referring to the organization in personal terms like "We make high-quality products"), to overlook minor sources of dissatisfaction with the organization, and to see herself remaining a member of the organization. In contrast, a person with less organizational commitment is more likely to see himself as an outsider (e.g., referring to the organization in less personal terms like "They don't pay their employees very well"), to express more dissatisfaction about things, and to not see himself as a long-term member of the organization.

Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction

An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work A satisfied employee also tends to be absent less often, to make positive contributions, and to stay with the organization. In contrast, a dissatisfied employee may be absent more often, may experience stress that disrupts coworkers, and may be continually looking for another job.

self-efficacy

An individual's beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task People with high self-efficacy believe that they can perform well on a specific task, whereas people with low self-efficacy tend to doubt their ability to perform a specific task.

stress

An individual's response to a strong stimulus, which is called a stressor

cognitive component

Attitudes generally have three components. derived from knowledge an individual has about a situation. It is important to note, however, that this knowledge may be incomplete or inaccurate and is subject to individual perceptions

affective component

Attitudes generally have three components. reflects feelings and emotions an individual has toward a situation.

intentional component

Attitudes generally have three components. reflects how an individual expects to behave toward or in the situation.

Machiavellianism

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others More Machiavellian individuals tend to be rational and nonemotional, may be willing to lie to attain their personal goals, may put little weight on loyalty and friendship, and may enjoy manipulating others' behavior. Less Machiavellian individuals are more emotional, are less willing to lie to succeed, value loyalty and friendship highly, and get little personal pleasure from manipulating others.

cognitive dissonance

Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes The affective and cognitive components of the individual's attitude conflict with intended behavior.

Personal Traits and creativity

Certain personal traits have also been linked to creativity in individuals. The traits shared by most creative people are openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence and autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief that one is, in fact, creative.

Cognitive Abilities and Creativity

Cognitive abilities are an individual's power to think intelligently and to analyze situations and data effectively. Intelligence may be a precondition for individual creativity—although most creative people are highly intelligent, not all intelligent people are necessarily creative. Creative people are generally very skilled at both divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking is a skill that allows people to see differences among situations, phenomena, or events Convergent thinking is a skill that allows people to see similarities among situations, phenomena, or events.

attitudes

Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people Attitudes are important because they are the mechanism through which most people express their feelings

neuroticism

Extent to which a person experiences anxiety and is poised, calm, resilient, and secure People who are relatively less neurotic will be relatively poised, calm, resilient, and secure and experience less anxiety and stress. But people who are relatively more neurotic will be more excitable, insecure, reactive, and subject to extreme mood swings. They are also prone to be anxious and exhibit signs of vulnerability.

Myers-Briggs framework; Extraversion (E) versus introversion (I).

Extraverts get their energy from being around other people, whereas introverts are worn out by others and need solitude to recharge their energy.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

General cycle of the stress process 1) According to this view, when an individual first encounters a stressor, the GAS is initiated, and stage 1, alarm, is activated. He may feel panic, wonder how to cope, and feel helpless. 2) If the stressor is too intense, the individual may feel unable to cope and never really try to respond to its demands. In most cases, however, after a short period of alarm, the individual gathers some strength and starts to resist the negative effects of the stressor. At stage 2 of the GAS, the person is resisting the effects of the stressor and trying to deal with it. 3) In many cases, the resistance phase may actually end the GAS. If the manager is able to complete the evaluation earlier than expected, he may drop it in his briefcase, smile to himself, and head home tired but satisfied. On the other hand, prolonged exposure to a stressor without resolution may bring on stage 3 of the GAS—exhaustion. At this stage, the individual literally gives up and can no longer resist the stressor.

Type A

Individuals who are extremely competitive, are very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency

Type B

Individuals who are less competitive, are less devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency Type B people are not necessarily more or less successful than Type A people. But they are less likely to experience stress.

Myers-Briggs framework; Judging (J) versus perceiving (P).

People who are the judging type enjoy completion or being finished, whereas perceiving types enjoy the process and open-ended situations.

Background experiences and creativity

Researchers have observed that many creative individuals were raised in environments in which creativity was nurtured. Mozart was raised in a family of musicians and began composing and performing music at age six. Pierre and Marie Curie, great scientists in their own right, also raised a daughter, Irene, who won the Nobel Prize in chemistry. Thomas Edison's creativity was nurtured by his mother

organizational citizenship

The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization Consider, for example, an employee who does work that is acceptable in terms of both quantity and quality. However, she refuses to work overtime, will not help newcomers learn the ropes, and is generally unwilling to make any contribution to the organization beyond the strict performance of her job. Although this person may be seen as a good performer, she is not likely to be seen as a good organizational citizen. Another employee may exhibit a comparable level of performance. In addition, however, he will always work late when the boss asks him to, takes time to help newcomers learn their way around, and is perceived as being helpful and committed to the organization's success. Although his level of performance may be seen as equal to that of the first worker, he is also likely to be seen as a better organizational citizen.

preparation

The creative process normally begins with a period of preparation. To make a creative contribution to business management or business services, individuals must usually receive formal training and education in business. Formal education and training are usually the most efficient ways of becoming familiar with this vast amount of research and knowledge. This is one reason for the strong demand for undergraduate- and master's-level business education.

Locus of control

The degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior People who believe that individuals are in control of their lives are said to have an internal locus of control People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an external locus of control.

risk propensity

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions A manager with a high risk propensity, for example, might be expected to experiment with new ideas and gamble on new products. She might also lead the organization in new and different directions. This manager might also be a catalyst for innovation. On the other hand, the same individual might also jeopardize the continued well-being of the organization if the risky decisions prove to be bad ones. A manager with low risk propensity might lead to a stagnant and overly conservative organization or help the organization successfully weather turbulent and unpredictable times by maintaining stability and calm.

self esteem

The extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving individual A person with high self-esteem is more likely to seek high-status jobs, be more confident in her ability to achieve higher levels of performance, and derive greater intrinsic satisfaction from her accomplishments. In contrast, a person with less self-esteem may be more content to remain in a lower-level job, be less confident of his ability, and focus more on extrinsic rewards.

authoritarianism

The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations For example, a person who is highly authoritarian may accept directives or orders from someone with more authority purely because the other person is "the boss." On the other hand, although a person who is not highly authoritarian may still carry out appropriate and reasonable directives from the boss, he or she is also more likely to question things, express disagreement with the boss, and even refuse to carry out orders if they are for some reason objectionable.

dysfunctional behaviors

Those that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance Two of the more common ones, absenteeism and turnover, were discussed earlier. But other forms of dysfunctional behavior may be even more costly for an organization. Theft and sabotage, for example, result in direct financial costs for an organization. Sexual and racial harassment also cost an organization, both indirectly (by lowering morale, producing fear, and driving off valuable employees) and directly (through financial liability if the organization responds inappropriately). So, too, can politicized behavior, intentionally misleading others in the organization, spreading malicious rumors, and similar activities. Incivility and rudeness can result in conflict and damage to morale and the organization's culture. Workplace violence is also a concern in many organizations. Violence by disgruntled workers or former workers results in dozens of deaths and injuries each year.

Insight

Usually occurring after preparation and incubation, insight is a spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation. Insight represents a coming together of all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation. It may occur suddenly or develop slowly over time. Insight can be triggered by some external event, such as a new experience or an encounter with new data, which forces the individual to think about old issues and problems in new ways, or it can be a completely internal event in which patterns of thought finally coalesce in ways that generate new understanding.

burnout

a feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time. Burnout results in constant fatigue, frustration, and helplessness. Increased rigidity follows, as do a loss of self-confidence and psychological withdrawal. The individual dreads going to work, often puts in longer hours but gets less accomplished than before, and exhibits mental and physical exhaustion

Task demands

associated with the task itself. Some occupations are inherently more stressful than others. Having to make fast decisions, decisions with less than complete information, or decisions that have relatively serious consequences are some of the things that can make some jobs stressful.

Physical demands

stressors associated with the job setting. Working outdoors in extremely hot or cold temperatures, or even in an improperly heated or cooled office, can lead to stress. Likewise, jobs that have rotating work shifts make it difficult for people to have stable sleep patterns. A poorly designed office, which makes it difficult for people to have privacy or promotes too little social interaction, can result in stress, as can poor lighting and inadequate work surfaces. Even more severe are actual threats to health. (like mining and toxic waste handling