Management Final
The path-goal theory of leadership suggests that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment and valued rewards—that is, the leader should clarify the paths to goal attainment. Path-goal theory identified four kinds of leader behavior:
(1) directive, (2) supportive, (3) participative, and (4) achievement-oriented. In contrast to Fiedler's theory, path-goal theory assumes that leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the demands of a particular situation. Like other situational theories of leadership, path-goal theory suggests that the appropriate leader style depends on situational factors. Path-goal theory focuses on the situational factors of the personal characteristics of subordinates and environmental characteristics of the workplace.
The two-factor theory also hypothesizes that individuals fill needs, but the needs are defined as
(1) hygiene factors, such as pay, security, and good working conditions; and (2) motivation factors, such as achievement and recognition. In Herzberg's theory, there are two distinct continua: satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Satisfaction results when motivation factors are filled. When hygiene factors are provided, workers feel no dissatisfaction.
The LMX model suggests that leaders form unique independent relationships with each of their subordinates.
A small number of trusted subordinates are referred to as the in-group. The in-group usually receives special duties requiring responsibility and autonomy. Subordinates who are not a part of this group are called the out-group, and they receive less of the superior's time and attention.
The LPC theory, developed by Fred Fiedler, identified two styles of leadership: task oriented and relationship oriented.
Leadership style is assessed by the LPC measure. A high total score is assumed to reflect a relationship orientation on the part of the leader, and a low score a task orientation on the leader's part. According to Fiedler, appropriate leader behavior varies as a function of the favorableness of the situation. Favorableness is determined by leader-member relations (the nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group), task structure (the degree to which the group's task is well defined), and position power (the power vested in the leader's position). According to the LPC theory, the most and least favorable situations call for task-oriented leadership, whereas moderately favorable situations suggest the need for relationship-oriented leadership. Fiedler argued that, for any given individual, leader style is essentially fixed and cannot easily be changed. Thus, when a leader's style and the situation do not match, Fiedler argued that the situation should be changed to fit the leader's style.
What activities do managers perform? What activities do leaders perform? Do organizations need both managers and leaders? Why or why not?
Managers are responsible for planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving. Leaders establish direction, align people, motivate, and inspire. A firm needs to achieve results in an orderly fashion, which falls in the domain of management, and it also needs to create change, which is the role of leadership.
Summarize Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the two-factor theory. In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different?
Maslow's hierarchy of needs claims that individuals have five different levels of needs and they work to fulfill their needs starting at the lowest level. The levels are, from lowest to highest:1) physiological, (2) security, (3) belongingness, (4) esteem, and (5) self-actualization. Maslow believed that individuals would fulfill one need, then move on to the next, always in order. Once the need is satisfied, it ceases to act as a primary motivational factor. In Maslow's theory, satisfaction is a single dimension and results when workers are able to fulfill all of their needs.
What are the two generic approaches to leadership? What can managers today learn from these approaches?
One generic approach to leadership is the search for leadership traits. The trait approach assumed that some basic trait or set of traits, such as intelligence, assertiveness, and attractiveness, existed that differentiated leaders from nonleaders. If those traits could be defined, experts argued, potential leaders could be identified based on the extent to which they did or did not have those traits. During the first half of the twentieth century, hundreds of studies were conducted in an attempt to identify important leadership traits. For the most part, the results of the studies were disappointing. For every set of leaders who possessed a common trait, a long list of exceptions was also found, and the list of suggested traits soon grew so long that it had little practical value. Alternative explanations usually existed even for relationships between traits and leadership that initially appeared valid. For example, it was observed that many leaders have good communication skills and are assertive. Rather than those traits being the cause of leadership, however, successful leaders may begin to display those traits after they have achieved a leadership position. Although it remains very popular with individuals and the popular media, managers today will not find this approach very helpful.
What are the situational approaches to leadership? Briefly describe each and compare and contrast their findings.
Situational models assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from situation to another. Four of the most important and widely accepted situational theories of leadership are the least-preferred coworker (LPC) theory, the path-goal theory, Vroom's decision tree approach, and the leader-member exchange (LMX) approach.
Compare and contrast content, process, and reinforcement perspectives on motivation.
The content theories of motivation focus on why people are motivated, whereas the process and reinforcement perspective focus on how people are motivated. In both the reinforcement and the process perspectives, individual rewards are seen as fulfilling the needs discussed in the content theories; however, the actual decision to perform is outlined in the process perspective.
Describe the subordinate's characteristics, leader behaviors, and environmental characteristics used in path-goal theory. How do these factors combine to influence motivation?
The subordinate's characteristics include the subordinate's perception of his or her own abilities and the subordinate's locus of control. Leader behaviors can be directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented. Characteristics of the environment include task structure, authority system, and social support from the work group. Path-goal theory asserts that effective leaders will choose from the four types of leader behavior the one that best fits the demands of the situation, including characteristics of the subordinates and the environment.
The other generic approach to leadership is the behavioral theories.
These theories include the Michigan studies (conducted by Likert), the Ohio State studies, and the Managerial Grid. Each of these approaches assumes that leaders have one of two types of behavior: behavior focused on goal achievement and behavior focused on employee satisfaction. This approach has been largely discounted because managers are able to show both types of behavior at different times or at the same time. These approaches do identify some leader behaviors that contribute to leader effectiveness, which may be helpful to some managers. However, other theories identify the same types of behavior and approach the issues in a way that is more theoretically sound.
Describe some new forms of working arrangements. How do these alternative arrangements increase motivation?
Variable work schedules allow workers to work a 40-hour week outside of the traditional "Monday to Friday, 9-to-5" hours of most businesses. Flexible work schedules give even more freedom for each employee to design their own optimum schedule. Job sharing allows two part-time workers to share one full-time job. Workers who telecommute can work from home or any other location by using email and the Internet to communicate with their office. Anything that makes workers' lives more convenient or gives workers control over how they work is likely to be motivating.
Vroom's decision tree approach concerns itself with only a single aspect of leader behavior:
subordinate participation in decision making. Vroom's decision tree approach assumes that the degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation. In other words, no one decision-making process is best for all situations. Managers should use one of two decision trees. One decision tree is to be used when the manager is interested primarily in making the decision as quickly as possible; the other is to be used when time is less critical and the manager is interested in helping subordinates to improve and develop their own decision-making skills. Vroom's decision tree approach identifies five leadership styles: (1) decide, (2) consult (individually), (3) consult (group), (4) facilitate, and (5) delegate.
