Management: Final Exam

Five Dimensions of the Concept of Trust

- Integrity: honesty and truthfulness - Competence: technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills - Consistency: reliability, predictability, and good judgment in handling situations - Loyalty: willingness to protect a person, physically and emotionally - Openness: willingness to share ideas and information freely

Emotions

- Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.

Stereotyping

- Judging a person on the basis of one's perception of a group to which he or she belongs.

CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION

- Managers must cope with four current motivation issues: • motivating in tough economic circumstances • managing cross-cultural challenges • motivating unique groups of workers • designing appropriate rewards programs

Work groups

Interact primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each member do his or her job more efficiently and effectively.

GROUP MEMBER RESOURCES

A group's performance potential depends to a large extent on the resources each individual brings to the group. These include: - Knowledge - Skills - Abilities (KSA's) - Personality traits

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY

Cognitive dissonance theory sought to explain the relationship between attitudes and behavior. • Cognitive dissonance - any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. • Attitude surveys - surveys that elicit responses from employees through questions about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization

LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY (CONT.)

Developing Trust - Credibility: the degree to which followers perceive someone as honest, competent, and able to inspire. - Trust: the belief in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader.

GLOBAL TEAMS

Drawbacks - dislike of team members - mistrust of team members - stereotyping - communication problems - stress and tension Benefits - greater diversity of ideas - limited groupthink - increased attention on understanding others' ideas, perspectives, etc...

Team Leadership -

Many leaders are not equipped to handle the change to employee teams. • A team leader's job is to focus on two priorities: 1. Managing the team's external boundary. 2. Facilitating the team process.

Group Processes

Processes that go on within a work group determines group performance and satisfaction. These include: - Communication - Decision-making - Conflict management

FOUR STAGES OF FOLLOWER READINESS

R1: People are both unable and unwilling to take responsibility for doing something. Followers aren't competent or confident. • R2: People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the appropriate skills. • R3: People are able but unwilling to do what the leader wants. Followers are competent, but don't want to do something. • R4: People are both able and willing to do what is asked of them.

Informal groups

Social groups that are independently formed to meet the social needs of their members.

Group

Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve specific goals.

HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) - developed by Frederick Herzberg, is the motivation theory that claims that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. Herzberg believed that the opposite of satisfaction was not dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, simply removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job would not necessarily make the job satisfying. Hygiene factors are extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction. They include factors such as supervision, company policy, salary, working conditions, and security— i.e., extrinsic factors associated with job context, or those things surrounding a job. Motivators are factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation. They include factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement—i.e., intrinsic factors associated with job content, or those things within the job itself. When the hygiene factors are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they won't be satisfied (or motivated) either ...To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing motivators, the intrinsic factors having to do with the job itself.

Employee engagement

When employees are connected to, satisfied with, and enthusiastic about their jobs. Highly engaged employees are passionate about and deeply connected to their work. Disengaged employees have essentially "checked out" and don't care. They show up for work, but have no energy or passion for it.

LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

Where do leaders get their power—that is, their right and capacity to influence work actions or decisions? Five sources of leader power have been identified: legitimate, coercive, reward, expert, and referent. - Legitimate power :the power a leader has as a result of his or her position. - Coercive power: the power a leader has to punish or control. - Reward power: the power to give positive benefits or rewards. - Expert power: the influence a leader can exert as a result of his or her expertise, skills, or knowledge. - Referent power: the power of a leader that arises because of a person's desirable resources or admired personal traits.

WORK GROUP PERFORMANCE AND SATISFACTION

Why are some groups more successful than others? -The abilities of the group's members -The size of the group -The level of conflict -The internal pressures on members to conform to the group's norms

Behavioral theories

leadership theories that identify behaviors that differentiated effective leaders from ineffective leaders. • The University of Iowa Studies • The Ohio State Studies • The University of Michigan Studies • The Managerial Grid

TYPES OF WORK TEAMS

• Problem-solving team - a team from the same department or functional area that's involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems. • Self-managed work team - a type of work team that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment. • Cross-functional team - a work team composed of individuals from various functional specialties. • Virtual team - a type of work team that uses technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow argued that each level in the needs hierarchy must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes dominant. In addition, Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower levels. Physiological and safety needs were considered lower-order needs; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs were considered higher-order needs. Lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally, while higher-order needs are satisfied internally.

SHOW HOW ROLE REQUIREMENTS CHANGE IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

Role - a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Role perception - refers to one's view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation. Role expectations - refers to how others believe you should act in a given situation (e.g. what managers expect from workers and vice versa). The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer. It defines the behavioral expectations that go with every role. If role expectations as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions from the offended party. Role conflict - refers to situations in which the individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. It exists when compliance with one role requirement may make it more difficult to comply with another (e.g. employees may be torn between their identities during M&As).

MCGREGOR'S THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Theory X - is a negative view of people, that assumes employees have little ambition, dislike work, are lazy, want to avoid responsibility, and must be closely controlled to perform. Theory Y - is a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, are creative, seek out and accept responsibility, and can exercise self-direction. McGregor believed that Theory Y assumptions should guide management practice and proposed that participation in decision-making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations would maximize employee motivation.

CREATING EFFECTIVE WORK TEAMS

* Clear Goals - high-performance teams have a clear understanding of the goal to be achieved. • Relevant Skills - team members have the necessary technical and interpersonal skills. • Mutual Trust - effective teams are characterized by high mutual trust among members. • Unified Commitment - members are dedicated to team goals. • Good Communication - messages are clearly understood. • Negotiating Skills - members need to be able to confront and reconcile differences. • Appropriate Leadership - leaders motivate a team to follow through difficult situations. • Internal and External Support - proper training, incentives, and resources.

THE BIG FIVE MODEL

- A personality trait model that includes: 1. Extraversion: The degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, assertive, and comfortable in relationships with others. 2. Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. 3. Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is reliable, responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented. 4. Emotional stability: The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). 5. Openness to experience: The degree to which someone has a wide range of interests and is imaginative, fascinated with novelty, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

Perception

- A process by which we give meaning to our environment by organizing and interpreting sensory impressions. • Research on perception consistently demonstrates that individuals may look at the same thing yet perceive it differently. • None of us "sees reality". We interpret what we see and call it reality. And, of course, we behave according to our perceptions. • A number of factors act to shape and sometimes distort perception including: - Perceiver - Target - Situation

Proactive personality

- A trait belonging to people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.

Resilience

- An individual's ability to overcome challenges and turn them into opportunities. • A resilient person is likely to be more adaptable, flexible, and goal-focused.

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: Self-efficacy

- An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. • The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task.

Leading Across Cultures

- Effective leaders do not use a single style. They adjust their style to the situation. - National culture is certainly an important situational variable in determining which leadership style will be most effective.

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

- Employees' general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.

Empowering Employees

- Empowerment - increasing the decision making discretion of workers such that teams can make key operating decisions in developing budgets, scheduling workloads, controlling inventories, and solving quality problems.

Attitudes

- Evaluative statements, either favorable or unfavorable, concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, "I like my job," he or she is expressing an attitude about work. An attitude is made up of three components: cognition, affect, and behavior.

Expectancy Relationships

- Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) • The perceived probability that an individual's effort will result in a certain level of performance. - Instrumentality • The perception that a particular level of performance will result in attaining a desired outcome (reward). - Valence • The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual.

THE FIEDLER MODEL

- Fiedler proposed that a key factor in leadership success was an individual's basic leadership style, either task oriented or relationship oriented. - To measure a leader's style, Fiedler developed the Least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire - a questionnaire that measures whether a leader is task or relationship oriented.

Work teams

- Groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills.

Attribution Theory

- How the actions of individuals are perceived by others depends on what meaning (causation) we attribute to a given behavior. • Attribution theory was developed to explain how we judge people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.

The Ohio State Studies

- Identified two dimensions of leader behavior: • Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members in attaining goals. • Consideration: the leader's mutual trust and respect for group members' ideas and feelings.

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

- Maslow's theory proposed that human needs — physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization — form a sort of hierarchy. • Physiological needs - a person's needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical needs. • Safety needs - a person's needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm. • Social needs - a person's needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. • Esteem needs - a person's needs for internal esteem factors (e.g., self-respect, autonomy, and achievement) and external esteem factors (such as status, recognition, and attention). • Self-actualization needs - a person's need for growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment; the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Group Decision-making

- Most organizations use groups to make decisions. • Advantages of group decision-making: - More complete information and knowledge - A diversity of experience and perspectives - Increased acceptance of a solution • Disadvantages of group decision-making: - Time consuming - Dominant and vocal minority can influence the decision - Ambiguous responsibility - Groupthink

Conflict

- Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition. • Traditional view of conflict: - the view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided. • Human relations view of conflict: - the view that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. • Task conflict: - conflicts over content and goals of the work. • Relationship conflict: - conflict based on interpersonal relationships. • Process conflict: - conflict over how work gets done. Research shows that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional because the interpersonal hostilities increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding and the tasks don't get done. On the other hand, low levels of process conflict and low-to-moderate levels of task conflict are functional. For process conflict to be productive, it must be minimal.

Group Size

- Small groups are faster than larger ones at completing tasks. - Large groups consistently get better problem solving results than smaller ones. - Amazon founder and CEO Jeff Bezos uses a "two-pizza" philosophy; that is, a team should be small enough that it can be fed with two pizzas.

Leader

- Someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority. • Leadership - what leaders do; the process of influencing a group to achieve goals. • Ideally, all managers should be leaders.

Behavioral component

- That part of an attitude that refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Cognitive component

- That part of an attitude that's made up of the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person (for instance, the belief that "Discrimination is wrong").

Affective component

- That part of an attitude that's the emotional or feeling part (for instance, using our example, this component would be reflected by the statement, "I don't like Pat because he discriminates against minorities").

Organizational commitment

- The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in that organization.

Job involvement

- The degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance to be important to self-worth.

Group cohesiveness

- The degree to which group members are attracted to one another and share the group's goals. Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to a group's productivity. Groups in which there's a lot of internal disagreement and lack of cooperation are less effective in completing their tasks than groups in which members generally agree, cooperate, and like each other.

Adjourning Stage

- The final stage of group development for temporary groups during which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.

Forming stage

- The first stage of group development in which people join the group and then define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership.

Performing stage

- The fourth stage of group development when the group is fully functional and works on group task.

HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

- The motivation theory that claims that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors - extrinsic factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but don't motivate. Motivators - factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation.

THREE-NEEDS THEORY

- The motivation theory that says three acquired (non-innate) needs (achievement, power, and affiliation) are major motives in work. Need for achievement (nAch) - the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards. Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Shaping behavior

- The process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement or lack of reinforcement. § Positive reinforcement: Rewarding desired behaviors (e.g. praising an employee for a job well done). § Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant consequence once the desired behavior is exhibited (e.g. A manager who says "I won't dock your pay it you start getting to work on time"). § Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior (e.g. Suspending an employee for two days without pay for habitually coming to work late). § Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired behavior (e.g. employees who ask irrelevant / distracting questions may be ignored in meetings ... when they raise their hand to speak)

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION: Goal-setting theory

- The proposition that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.

Storming stage

- The second stage of group development, characterized by intragroup conflict

Self-serving bias

- The tendency of individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming personal failures on external factors (i.e. take credit for success and lay blame for failures).

Fundamental attribution error

- The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and to overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.

Equity theory

- The theory that an employee compares his or her job's input-outcome ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity. • Referents - the persons, systems, or selves against which individuals compare themselves to assess equity. • Distributive justice - perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. • Procedural justice - perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

EXPECTANCY THEORY

- The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Reinforcement Theory

- The theory that behavior is a function of its consequences. • Reinforcers - consequences immediately following a behavior which increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated. Reinforcement theory ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs. Instead, it focuses solely on what happens to a person when he or she does something.

Norming stage

- The third stage of group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness.

Personality

- The unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns that affect how a person reacts to situations and interacts with others. It's our natural way of doing things and relating to others.

Leader Training

- Training is more likely to be successful with individuals who are high self-monitors than those who are low self-monitors. - Individuals with higher levels of motivation to lead are more receptive to leadership development opportunities.

Groupthink

- When a group exerts extensive pressure for conformity on an individual to align his or her opinion with that of others.

Halo effect

- When we form a general impression of an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability or appearance.

Fiedler Contingency Model

- a leadership theory proposing that effective group performance depends on the proper match between a leader's style and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence. - The model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. - The keys were to (1) define those leadership styles and the different types of situations, and then (2) identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation.

Managerial grid

- a two-dimensional grid for appraising leadership styles, based on "concern for people" and "concern for production". • Places managerial styles in five categories: - Impoverished management - Task management - Middle-of-the-road management - Country club management - Team management

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning

Organizational behavior focuses on three major areas:

1. Individual behavior including attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivation. 2. Group behavior including norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict. 3. Organizational aspects including structure, culture, and human resource policies and practices.

FIVE DIMENSIONS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

1. Self-awareness: The ability to be aware of what you're feeling. 2. Self-management: The ability to manage one's own emotions and impulses. 3. Self-motivation: The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. 4. Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling. 5. Social skills: The ability to handle the emotions of others.

JCM - FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS

1. Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities so that an employee can use a number of different skills and talents. 2. Task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. 3. Task significance: the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. 4. Autonomy: the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 5. Feedback: the degree to which doing work activities required by a job results in an individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

HERSEY AND BLANCHARD'S SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY (SLT)

A leadership contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness. • Readiness - the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.

Path-goal theory

A leadership theory that says the leader's job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the goals of the group or organization. - Directive leader: Lets subordinates know what's expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks. - Supportive leader: Shows concern for the needs of followers and is friendly. - Participative leader: Consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision. - Achievement oriented leader: Sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level.

JOB SATISFACTION

A person with a high level of job satisfaction has a positive attitude toward his or her job. A person who is dissatisfied has a negative attitude. Job satisfaction is linked to productivity, absenteeism, turnover, customer satisfaction, OCB, and workplace misbehavior.

EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Early Leadership research focused on isolating leader traits— that is, characteristics that would differentiate leaders from non leaders. Trait Theories (1920s -1930s) - Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that differentiated leaders from non-leaders was unsuccessful. - It proved impossible to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate a leader (the person) from a non-leader.

Fiedler Model (Contingency Theory)

Fiedler's research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors in leader effectiveness. • Leader-member relations - the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor. • Task structure - the degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured; rated as either high or low. • Position power - the degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak.

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN STUDIES

Identified two dimensions of leader behavior: - Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships - Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment • Research findings: - Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.

DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS

Job design - the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs. •Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion of a job that occurs as a result of increasing job scope. Job scope - the number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated. • Job enrichment - the vertical expansion of a job that occurs as a result of additional planning and evaluation of responsibilities. Job depth - the degree of control employees have over their work. Employees are empowered to assume some of the tasks typically done by their managers. • Job characteristics model (JCM) - a framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.

CONTRAST LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Leaders: - Challenge the status quo. - Create visions of the future. - Inspire organizational members to want to achieve the visions. Managers: Formulate detailed plans. - Create efficient organizational structures. - Oversee day-to-day operations.

MBTI

MBTI®- a popular personality-assessment instrument. • Classifies individuals as exhibiting a preference in four categories: 1.Extraversion or introversion (E or I) 2.Sensing or intuition (S or N) 3.Thinking or feeling (T or F) 4.Judging or perceiving (J or P).

DEMONSTRATE HOW NORMS AND STATUS EXERT INFLUENCE ON AN INDIVIDUAL'S BEHAVIOR

Norms - standards or expectations that are accepted and shared by a group's members. Norms dictate things such as work output levels, absenteeism, promptness, and the amount of socializing on the job. Performance norms: (e.g. how to get job done, expected output levels) Appearance norms: (e.g. dress codes, unspoken rules) Resource allocation norms: (e.g. assignment of jobs, distribution of resources like pay or equipment) Status - a prestige grading, position, or rank within a group. Status is derived from one of three sources: The power a person wields over others, A person's ability to contribute to a group's goals, An individual's personal characteristics.

SLT LEADERSHIP STYLES

SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler identified: task and relationship behaviors. • Telling (high task-low relationship): The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks. • Selling (high task-high relationship): The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior. • Participating (low task-high relationship): The leader and followers share in decision-making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating. • Delegating (low task-low relationship): The leader provides little direction or support.

UNIVERSITY OF IOWA STUDIES

The University of Iowa Studies identified three leadership styles: • Autocratic style - A leader who dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation. • Democratic style - A leader who involves employees in decision-making, delegates authority, and uses feedback as an opportunity for coaching employees. • Laissez-faire style - A leader who lets the group make decisions and complete the work in whatever way it sees fit.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

The ability to notice and to manage emotional cues and information.

Behavior

The actions of people.

GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

The goal of OB is to explain, predict, and influence behaviors such as: - Employee productivity: a performance measure of both efficiency and effectiveness. - Absenteeism: the failure to show up for work. - Turnover: the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization. - Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB): discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization. - Job satisfaction: an employee's general attitude toward his or her job. - Workplace misbehavior: any intentional employee behavior that is potentially damaging to the organization or to individuals within the organization. Workplace misbehavior shows up in organizations in four ways: deviance, aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence.

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX)

The leadership theory that says leaders create in-groups and out-groups and those in the ingroup will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.

Motivation

The process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed and sustained toward attaining a goal. This definition has three key elements: energy, direction, and persistence. - Energy is a measure of intensity, drive, and vigor. A motivated person puts forth effort and works hard. - The quality of the effort must be considered as well as its intensity. The effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. - Finally, motivation includes a persistence dimension: we want employees to persist in putting forth effort.

Organizational behavior

The study of the actions of people at work; people are the most important asset of an organization

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.

Formal groups

Work groups defined by the organization's structure that have designated work assignments and tasks.

EXTERNAL CONDITIONS IMPOSED ON THE GROUP

Workgroups are affected by the external conditions imposed on them: - The organization's strategy - Authority relationships - Formal rules and regulations - Availability of resources - Employee selection criteria - The performance management system and culture - The general physical layout of the group's workspace

ADDITIONAL PERSONALITY INSIGHTS

• Locus of control - the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate. • Machiavellianism - a measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends justify means. • Self-esteem - an individual's degree of like or dislike for him/herself. • Self-monitoring - a personality trait that measures the ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors.

How can we learn?

• Operant conditioning - Behavior is a function of its consequences... (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4) • Social learning theory - we can learn through observation and experience.

CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF LEADERSHIP

• Transactional leaders - leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions). • Transformational leaders - leaders who stimulate and inspire (transform) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes. • Charismatic leader - an enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways. • Visionary leadership - the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation.