Management: Motivation
what are the 2 types of need theories
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2. Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory 3. McClelland's Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
What are Maslow's five basic kinds of needs that all people seek to satisfy (bottom to top)
1. Physiological needs (air, food, water, sex) 2. Safety (job security, physical and psychological safety) 3. Social Needs (belonging, friends, affilliation) 4. Self-esteem (self-respect, self-confidence, recognition, reward) 5. Self-actualization (ideal; never attained)
Expectancy theory identifies three major factors that determine a person's motivation:
1. expectancy 2. instrumentality 3. valence
Many research studies have tested Herzberg's propositions, and, by large, the theory fails to receive supports. Nevertheless, Herzberg's formulations have contributed to our understanding of motivation in at least two ways:
1. helped to focus researchers' and manager's attention on the important distinction between intrinsic motivation (related to motivator needs) and extrinsic motivation (related to hygiene needs) 2. Prompted researchers and managers to study how jobs could be designed or redesigned so they are intrinsically motivating
What two factors is Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene theory focused on
1. outcomes that can lead to high levels of motivation and job satisfaction 2. outcomes that prevent people from being dissatisfied
whether workers are intrinsically motivated, extrinsically motivated, or both depends on a what three main factors
1. personal characteristics 2. the nature of their jobs 3. the nature of the organization
what are the four tools of operant conditioning theory
1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement 3. Extinction 4. Punishment
what are 3 ways managers can boost expectancies
1. through expressing confidence in their subordinates' capabilities 2. provide training so people have the expertise needed for high performance 3. increasing their levels of autonomy and responsibility as they gain experience so they have the freedom to do what it takes to perform at a high level
According to McClelland, People with a high need for ___ often set clear goals for themselves and live to receive performance feedback
achievement
Psychologist David McClelland extensively researched the needs for___, ____, and ____
achievement, affiliation, and power
Based on McClelland's theory, research suggests that high needs for ___ and ___ are assets for the first-line and middle managers and that a high need for ___ is especially important for upper managers
achievement, power, power
According to McClelland, ___ is the extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked and having the people around him or her get along with each other
affiliation
Based on McClelland's theory, a high need for ___ may not always be desirable in managers and other leaders because it might lead them to try too hard to be liked by others (including subordinates) rather than doing all they can to ensure that performance is as high as it can and should be
affiliation
Why is motivation central to management?
because it explains why people behave the way they do in organizations
employee's pay is based on a percentage of sales that the employee makes
commission
The __ of a person's behavior refers to the many possible behaviors a person could engage in
direction
__ refers to how hard people work
effort
how hard the individual will work:
effort
Based on Expectancy theory, members of an organization are motivated to put forth a high level of ___ only they if think that doing so leads to high ___
effort, performance
pay based on organizational performance
employee stock option
___ are financial instruments that entitle the bearer to buy shares of an organization's stock at a certain period or under certain conditions
employee stock options
According to ___ theory, both underpayment and overpayment inequity creates tension that motivated most people to restore equity by brining the ratios back into balance
equity
Based on Equity theory, ___ exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome-input ratio to be equal to a referent's outcome-input ratio
equity
___ theory complements expectancy and needs theories by focusing on how people perceived the relationship between the outcomes they receive from their jobs and organizations and the inputs they contribute
equity
when ___ exists, people are motivated to continue contributing their current levels of inputs to their organizations to receive their current levels of outcomes.
equity
A theory of motivation that concentrates on people's perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to, or in proportion to, their work inputs:
equity theory
Based on expectancy theory, in order for people's motivation to be high, ___ must be high
expectancy
____ theory is one of the most popular theories of work motivation because it focuses on all three parts of the motivation equation: inputs, performance, and outcomes
expectancy
a person's level of ___ determines whether he or she believes that high levels of effort results in a high level of performance
expectancy
a person's perception about the extent to which effort (an input) results in a certain level of performance
expectancy
formulated by Victor H. Vroom in the 1960s, posits that motivations is high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes:
expectancy theory
According to the operant conditioning theory, ___ is the process through which responses that are no longer reinforced tend to gradually diminish in strength. (A way for managers to curtail the performance of dysfunctional behaviors by eliminating whatever is reinforcing the behaviors)
extinction
___ motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment; the source of motivation is the consequences of the behavior not the behavior itself
extrinsically
outcomes, such as pay, job security, benefits, and vacation time, result in ___ motivated behavior
extrinsically
How can managers use Maslow's theory
find out what people need and then give it to them, if workers are in crappy conditions, they get the idea that management doesn't think much of them
high prosocial motivation + high intrinsic motivation = ___
high job performance
Under conditions of equity, if you receive more outcomes than a referents, your inputs are perceived to be proportionally ___
higher
According to Herzberg's theory, __ needs are satisfied by outcomes such as pleasant and comfortable working conditions, pay, job security, good relationships with coworkers, and effective supervision
hygiene
According to Herzberg's theory, ___ needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed
hygiene
According to Herzberg's theory, ___ needs, however, does not result in high levels of motivation or even high levels of job satisfaction
hygiene
What is the importance of understanding global needs
in our increasingly global economy, managers must realize that citizens of different countries might differ in the needs they seek to satisfy through work
___, or lack of fairness, exists when a person's outcome-input ratio is not perceived to be equal to a referent's
inequity
anything a person contributes to the job or organization, such as time, effort, education, experience, skills, knowledge, and actual work behaviors:
input
If people wish to increase their outcomes under conditions of equity they are motivated to increase their ___
inputs
organizations hire people to obtain important ___
inputs
a person's perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes (P -> O)
instrumentality
jobs that are interesting and challenging are more likely to lead to ___ motivation than jobs that are boring or do not use a person's skills and abilities
intrinsic
___ motivated behavior is behavior that is performed for its own sake; the source of motivation is actually performing the behavior, and motivation comes from doing the work itself
intrinsically
many managers are ___ motivated; they derive a sense of accomplishment and achievement from helping the organization achieve its goals and gain competitive advantages
intrinsically
some outcomes, such as autonomy, responsibility, a feeling of accomplishment, and the pleasure of doing interesting or enjoyable work, result in ____ motivated behavior
intrinsically
what does goal setting theory say
just having a goal makes you more likely to reach it, but you can improve your chances by making sure that your goal is as specific as possible
___ takes place in organizations when people learn to perform certain behaviors to receive certain outcomes
learning
a relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience
learning
___ focuses on the linkage between performance and outcomes in the motivation equation
learning theories
the basic premise of ___ theories as applied to organizations is that managers can increase employee motivation and performance of desired behaviors and the attainment of goals
learning theories
the ___ level of unmet needs in the hierarchy is the prime motivator of behavior
lower
Explain how Maslow's hierarchy of needs works
lower level needs must be satisfied before a person can strive to satisfy needs higher up on the hierarchy
Based on McClelland's theory, ___ help others accomplish their goals, while high achievers focus on their own accomplishments
managers
___ is a compensation plan that bases pay on performance
merit pay plan
Based on Equity theory, ___ is influence by the comparison of one's own outcome-input ratio with the outcome-input ratio of a referent
motivation
instrumentalities must be high for ___ to be high
motivation
psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence in the face of obstacles
motivation
According to Herzberg's theory, ___ needs are related to the nature of the work itself and how challenging git is
motivator
According to Herzberg's theory, for motivation and job satisfaction to be high, __ needs must be met
motivator
According to Herzberg's theory, outcomes such as interesting work, autonomy, responsibility, being able to grow and develop on the job, and a sense of accomplishment and achievement help to satisfy ___ needs
motivator
According to Herzberg's theory, to have a highly motivated and satisfied workforce, managers should take steps to ensure that employee's ___ needs are being met
motivator
According to Herzberg's theory, people have what two sets of needs or requirements?
motivator needs and hygiene needs
___ theories suggest that to motivate a person to contribute valuable inputs to a job and perform at a high level, a manager must determine what needs the person is trying to satisfy at work and ensure that the person receives outcomes that help to satisfy those needs when the person performs at a high level and helps the organization achieve its goals
need
___ theory complements expectancy theory by exploring in depth which outcomes motivate people to perform at a high level
need
a requirement or necessity for survival and well-being:
need
theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs
need theories
According to the operant conditioning theory, ___ can encourage members of an organization to perform desired or organizationally functional behaviors. Managers using this actually eliminate or remove undesired outcomes once functional behavior is performed
negative reinforcement
___ theory provides four tools that managers can use to motivate high performance and prevent workers from engaging in absenteeism and other behaviors that district from organizational effectiveness
operant conditioning
people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences
operant conditioning
___ are behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness; they can include producing high-quality goods and services, providing quality customer service, and meeting deadlines
organizationally functional behaviors
anything a person gets from an organization
outcome
regardless of whether people are intrinsically, extrinsically, or prosocially motivated, they join and are motivated to work in organizations to obtain certain ___.
outcomes
__ inequity can be restored when people realize they are contributing more inputs than they originally thought
overpayment
___ inequity can be restored by perceiving the referent's inputs to be lower or the referent's outcomes to be higher than one originally thought. When equity is restored in this way, actual inputs and outcomes are unchanged, and the person being overpaid takes no real action. What is changed in how people think or view their or the referent's inputs and outcomes
overpayment
___ inequity exists when a person perceives that his or her own outcome-input ratio is greater than that of a referent. In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are receiving more outcomes than you should be given, given your inputs
overpayment
when people experience __ inequity, they may try to restore equity by changing their perceptions of their own or their referent's inputs or outcomes
overpayment
___ is used to motivate workers at all levels within the organization and can also be used to motivate people to join the organization and remain with the organization
pay
Based on Equity theory, one's ___ of outcomes and inputs (not any objective indicator of them) are key
perceptions
whether the individual will keep trying or give up:
persistence
employee's pay is based on the number of units that the employee produces
piece-rate pay
According to the operant conditioning theory, ___ gives people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors
positive reinforcement
According to McClelland, ___ is the extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others
power
Based on McClelland's theory, one study found that U.S. presidents with a relatively high need for ___ tended to be especially effective during their terms of office
power
Based on McClelland's theory, the best managers are high in ___ and lower in ___
power, affiliation
employees receive a share of an organization's profits
profit sharing
___ motivated behavior is behavior that is performed to benefit or help others
prosocially
behavior can be ___ motivated in addition to being extrinsically and/or intrinsically motivated
prosocially
outcomes, such as improving the lives or well-being of other people and doing good by helping others, result in ___ motivated behavior
prosocially
According to the operant conditioning theory, ___ decreases undesirable behavior by following it with undesirable consequences
punishment
Based on Equity theory, the ___ could be another person or a group of people who are perceived to be similar to oneself or could be oneself in a previous job or one's expectations about what outcome-input ratios should be
referent
Equity theory was formulated in the 1960s by J. Stacy Adams, who stressed that what is important in determining motivation is the ___ rather than the ____ levels of outcomes a person receives and inputs a person contributes
relative, absolute
the business world is built entirely around extrinsic motivators, but for 21st century tasks, that mechanistic, ___ approach, doesn't work, often doesn't work, and often does harm
reward-and-punishment
managers can distribute merit pay in the form of ___ and ___
salary increase, bonus
According to Maslow, once a need is ___, it ceases to operate as a source of motivation
satisfied
focuses on reduced expenses or cutting costs
scanlon plan
According to the social learning theory, ___ is a person's belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully
self-efficacy
According to the social learning theory, ___ is when people can control their own behavior by setting goals for themselves and then reinforcing themselves when they achieve the goals
self-reinforcers
___ theory proposes that motivation results not only from direct experience of rewards and punishments but also from a person's thoughts and beliefs
social learning
what does SMART stand for
specific measurable ambitious realistic time-based
Under conditions of equity, if a referent receives more outcomes than you receive, the referent contributes proportionally more inputs to the organization, so his or her outcome-input ratio ___ your ratio
still equals
According to McClelland, although each of these needs is present in each of us to some degree, their importance in the workplace depends on ____
the position one occupies
if people who feel they are ___ have other employment options, they may leave the organization
underpaid
___ inequity exists when a person's own outcome-input ratio is perceived to be less than that of a referent. In comparing yourself to a referent, you think you are not receiving the outcomes you should be, given your inputs
underpayment
What are the two types of inequity
underpayment and overpayment
when people experience ___ inequity, they may be motivated to lower their inputs by reducing their working hours, putting forth less effort on the job, or being absent; or they may be motivated to increase their outcomes by asking for a raise or promotion
underpayment inequity
when people experience ___ inequity and other means of equity restoration ___, than can change their perceptions of their own or the referent's inputs or outcomes. for example, they may realize that their referent is really working on more difficult projects than they are or that they really take more time off from work than their referent does
underpayment, fail
refers to how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person
valence
According to the social learning theory, ____ learning, often called observational learning, occurs when a person (the learner) becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person (the model) performing the behavior and being positively reinforced for doing so
vicarious
Social learning theory extends operant conditioning's contribution to managers' understanding of motivation by explaining ___, ____, ____
vicarious learning, self-reinforcement, self-efficacy
According to McClelland, ___ is the extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence.
Achievement
