Management

Describe, using an example, the concept of 'core competence';

'A business activity that an organisation does particularly well in comparison to competitors'-Expertise the organisation has that the competitors don't. - EG: • Research & development / Innovation • Technological know-how • Process efficiency • Customer service

Briefly describe, using an example, the relationship between innovation and entrepreneurship;

'Innovation and entrepreneurship are the heart of productivity growth' Entrepreneurship is the process of initiating a business venture, organising the necessary resources, and assuming the associated risks and rewards. Anentreprenur recognise a viable idea for a business product or service and carries it out. e.g. Tindall made a business model of 'red sheds' filled with inexpensive imported goods- soon became 'The Warehouse". Innovation is the process of creating something new- it is the central to the entrepreneurial process. Small firm innovation has high impact on society and high impact on larger firms- it keeps organisations competitive. Entreprenur- starts a new business e.g. running Maccas. Innovation eg. the ipod

Describe five reasons for becoming an entrepreneur;

-Because you are a pioneer, not a settler - you thrive on innovation & change. -You can create your own job (be your own boss) -You can choose the type of venture that suits you (entrepreneurial/high growth; lifestyle; salary substitute) -You can solve important problems, develop innovative ideas & implement the solutions (pursue own ideas) -You can have financial success (pursue financial rewards)

Define ethics and explain how ethical behaviour relates to behaviour governed by law and free choice;

'The code of moral principles and values that governs the behaviour of a person or a group with respect to what is right or wrong.' Business ethics are the corporate values and culture that shape decisions concerning social responsibility with respect to the external environment (ie. Stakeholders) Human behaviour falls into three categories the first is codified law in which values and standards are written into the legal system and enforceable in courts. The domain of free choice is at the opposite end of the scale and relates to behaviour about which law has no say and over which an individual or organisation enjoys complete freedom. e.g an individuals choice of religion. Between these lies the area of ethics. This domain has no specific laws, yet it does have standards of conduct based on shared principles and values about moral conduct that guide an individual or organisation.

Define leadership and explain its importance for organisations;

'ability to influence people towards the attainment of organisational goals.' Leadership occurs among people, involves the use of influence and is used to attain goals. Leaders attitudes and behaviours play a critical role in shaping employee attitudes, such as their job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Leadership involves the influence of power and to get things done without this it would be hard for an organisation to run effectively.

Describe, using examples, Porter's three competitive strategies;

(i) Differentiation - Distinguish products/services from the competitors (ii) Cost leadership - Consistently cheaper than competitors - More efficient, cuts costs (iii) Focus - Concentrate on a specific market or buyer group - Differentiation - Cost leadership page 295

Explain, using examples, how a team is different from a group;

A team is a unit of two or more people who interact and coordinate their work to accomplish a specific goal. People in the team have regular interaction. e.g In the duty free lounge a group of individuals start dancing. There has to be some coordination.They have planned to work as a team. Also a group is attached around the edge- some people choose to join in and some don't

Describe, using an example, the relationship between authority, responsibility and delegation;

AUTHORITY is the formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions, issue orders and allocate resources to achieve organisationally desired outcomes. RESPONSIBILITY is the flip side of the authority coin. Responisiblity is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been assigned. DELEGATION is the process managers use to transfer authority and responsibility to positions below them in the hierarchy.

Define the four types of corporate cultures as they relate to the strategic focus of the firm, and the needs of the general environment;

Adaptability Culture: - fast response and high-risk decision making -managers encourage values that support the company's ability to rapidly detect, interpret, and translate signals from the environment into new behaviour responses. Employees have autonomy to make decisions and act freely to meet new needs, and responsiveness to customers is highly valued. -managers achievely create change by encouraging and rewarding creativity, experimentation, and risk taking. eg. Lush cosmetics 'We reserve the right to make mistakes'-guiding motto.The CEO is passionately devoted to change and encourages employees to break boundaries, experiment, and take risks. • Achievement culture: - serving specific customers in the external environment - without the intense need for flexibility and rapid change -this results-orientated culture values competitiveness, aggressiveness, personal initiative, and willlingness to work long and hard to achieve results. eg. At Siebel Systems(sells complex software) they thrive on achievement culture. Professionalism and aggressiveness-core values. Competitive and driven to win employees. • Involvement Culture: - internal focus - involvement and participation of employees - rapidly adapt to changing needs -organisation may be characterised by a caring, family-like atmosphere. eg ANZ has moved to this in recent years • Consistency Culture: - internal focus - consistency orientation - stable environment -follow the rules and be thrifty eg. husband and wife team Lisa and Scott implanted a culture of order, discipline, and control from the moment they funded the company. The emphasis on focus means employees can generally go home by 6pm rather than working all night to finish an impt. project.

cultures

Adaptability Culture: - fast response and high-risk decision making • Achievement culture: - serving specific customers in the external environment - without the intense need for flexibility and rapid change • Involvement Culture: - internal focus - involvement and participation of employees - rapidly adapt to changing needs • Consistency Culture: - internal focus - consistency orientation - stable environment

Describe, using examples, the three different sector classifications of organisations;

Agricultural; creating or transforming natural products into goods in order to sell. E.g cows into beef. Manufacturing; creating artificial goods in order to sell. Dealing with objects. E.g Boeing aircraft, fonterra output- milk. Service; transforming human capital in order to create a service to satisfy customers. E.g restaurants

Describe, using examples, the three factors that can influence the attributions an employee may make about a colleagues' behaviour;

An attribution is how we explain someones behaviour. DISTINCTIVENESS(whether the behavious is unusual) eg. A flatmates showing anxiety around exams- unusal or you can explain. CONSENSUS(whether other people tend to respond to similar situations in the same way) eg. everyone gets stressed. CONSISTENCY(Whether the person being ibserved has a history of behaving in the same way) eg. is this person always stressed.

Discuss, using examples, the impact of using an open-systems perspective to think about the organisation;

An open system focuses on relationships and the external environment. Must interact with the environement to survive. The cost of ignoring the environment may be failure. Opening up the organisation to explore different elements. If a system does not use fresh inputs and energy from its environment, it will eventually cease to exist. Organisations must monitor their environments, adjust to changes and continuoisly bring in new inputs in order to survive and prosper.

Describe, using examples, the key questions associated with the three levels of strategy;

Another aspect of strategic management concerns the organsiational level to which strategic issues apply. WHAT BUSINESS ARE WE IN? Corporate-level strategy applies to the organisation as a whole and the combination of business units and product lines that make it up. eg. For Cookie time the core business is the production and distribution of cookies. HOW DO WE COMPETE? It relates to each business unit or product line within the organisation. Strategic decisions at this level concern amount of advertising, direction, and extent of research and development, product changes, new product development, equipment and facilities, and expansion or contraction of product and service lines. e.g NutriSystem went bankrupt a decade ago, managers reinvented the company as an internet distributor sending customers a months worth a shelf stable diet food where they can track their progress online. HOW DO WE SUPPORT THE BUSINESS LEVEL STARTEGY? Functional-level strategy relates to all of the organsations major departments. Strategies include finance, research and development, marketing and manufacturing. eg. NutriSystem features real-life customers in direct-response print and tv ads that steer dieters to the company's website.

Discuss the contribution a SWOT analysis makes to the strategic management process;

Assessment of the internal and external factors that will affects the organisation's competitive strategy. It searchs for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that affect an organisations performance. External info about opps. and threats may be obtained from a variety of sources including customers, suppliers, govt. reports etc. Can get ifo about internal strengths and weaknesses from a variety of reports including budgets, surveys of emply attitudes, profit and loss statements etc. An organisation can exploit its strengths to achieve its strategic performance goals. Weaknesses may inhibit or restrict the organisations performance. e.g. Nestles strength in research and development in their key competitive advantages. Nestle have been able to devote considerable resources to developing successful and innovative products.Some innovations include: instant coffee, fortified milks and beverages. By taking adv. of their strengths in research and development they have been able to build and sustain industry and market leadership.

Describe, using examples, the different components of attitude;

Attitude- 'A cognitive and affective evaluation that predisposes a person to act in a certain way.' COGNITION(thoughts, beliefs and opinions) e.g. The thought that my job is interesting and challenging, AFFECT(Feelings and emotions) e.g. the feeling 'I love my job', BEHAVIOURAL(persons intention to behave) e.g. an employee might choose to arrive at work early because he/she is happy with the job.

Explain, using examples, the difference between a certain and uncertain decision making context;

CERTAIN- all the info. that the decision maker needs is fully available. Managers have info. om operating conditions, resource costs or constraints, and each course of action and possible outcome. eg. If a company considers a $10000 investment in new equipment that it knows for certain will yield $4000 in cost savings per year over the next five years, managers can calculate a before-tax return of about 40 per cent(with certainty). UNCERTAINTY-managers know which goals they wish to achieve, but info. about alternatives and future events is incomplete.Managers do not have enough info. to be clear about alternatives or to estimate their risks. Managers have to make assumptions. eg. want to run a 13000km broadband cable from NZ to U.S. although cables already exist this one would be direct- no lagging. Huge risk involved-impossible to identify all risks.

Describe, using examples, the three decision-making models, as described by the text;

CLASSICAL MODEL: RATIONAL DECISION MAKING- defines how a decision makers should make decisions and provides guidelines for reaching an ideal outcome for the organisation. Based on economic assumptions. Arisen because managers are expected to make decisions that are economically sensible and in the organisation's best economic interests. The four assumptions underlying this model are- 1. decision maker operates to accomplish goals, problems defined , 2. decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete info. All alternatives and potential results are calculated. 3. criteria for evaluating alternatives are known, decision maker will select alternative that will maximise the economic return to the organisation. 4.decision maker is rational and uses logic to assign values, orders preferences, evaluate alternatives and make the decision that will maximse the attainment of organisational goals.eg. New analytical software programs automate many programmed decisions, such as freezing the account of a customer failing to make payments. ADMINISTRATIVE MODEL: Describes how managers actually make decisions in situations characterised by non-programmed decisions, uncertainty and ambiguity. Recognises human and environmental limitations How non-programmed decisions are made. Managers are typically unable to make economically rational decisions even if they want to. e.g the video game industry represents some $40 billion per year, and is fiercly competitive.Even microsoft entering the market with a new game console platform was a major decision. Bounded rationality-people have limits or boundaries, on how rational they can be. Satisficing- the decision makers choose the first solution alternative that satisfies minimal decision criteria. 1. Decision goals are often vague, 2.rational procedures not always used. 3. Managers search for alternatives is limited. 4. Most managers settle for a satisficing rather than a maximising solution. Intuition- The immediate comprehension of a decision situation based on past experience but without conscious thought. THE POLITICAL MODEL- useful for making non-programmed decisions when conditions are uncertain, info. is limited and there is disagreement among managers about what goals to purse or what course of action to take. Most involve many managers pursing different goals they have to talk, share info and reach an agreement. Managers often engage in coalition building- Coalition 'An informal alliance among managers who support a specific goal'

Describe, using examples, the five styles of handling conflict team members may use;

COMPETING: reflects assertiveness to get one's own way, should be used when quick, decisive action is vital on important issues or unpopular actions, such as during emergencies or urgent cost cutting. AVOIDING: want to pretend its not happening- not good if its a big issue. eg. when issue is trivial, no chance of winning or delay to gather more info is needed. COLLABORATING: individuals and teams needs are met- very productive eg. when both sets of concerns are to impt. to be compromised, insights from people are merged into an overall solution. ACCOMODATING: works best with cooperativeness when people realise they are wrong, when an issue is more important to others than to oneself. COMPRISING: reflects a moderate amount of both assertiveness and cooperativeness. impt when goals on both sides are equally impt.

Describe, using examples, four common causes of conflict in a work team;

COMPETITION OF RESOURCES: who has access to what, eg. money, info and supplies. DIFFERENT GOALS. , COMMUNCATION BREAKDOWNS: poor communication can occur in any team- virtual and global teams are prone. TRUST BROKEN- if members feel like they are being left out of important communication interactions.

Describe, using examples, 2 channels of communication that have high levels of richness and 2 channels of communication that have low levels of richness;

Channel richness is the amount of info that can be transmitted during a communication period. FACE TO FACE discussion is the highest level of richness because it permits direct respond, multiple information cues immediate feedback and personal focus- emotional understanding. TELEPHONE CONVERSATIONS are the next rich although eye contact, posture and other body language is missing the human voice carries a tremendous amount of emotional info. Low level richness- Impersonal written media, including fliers, bulletins and standard computer reports are the lowest richness. These channels are not focussed on a single reciever,use limited information cues and do not permit feedback.

Describe two characteristics of the stimuli and two characteristics of the perceiver that can influence what an individual employer will perceive about a prospective employee in an employment interview;

Characterististics of the stimuli: FAMILIARITY (people tend to percieve stimuli that are known or familiar.) e.eg In an interview people notice particular characteristics that are comfortingly familiar. REPETITION(Repeated stimuli tend to attract more attention) e.g in an interview the interviewer will pay more attention to the piece of info if repeated a lot. Characteristics of the perciever( In an interview follows first impressions are important): NEEDS AND MOTIVATION( People tend to notice stimuli that provide a way to satisfy their needs) e.g. , PRIMACY(People pay relatively greater attention to stimuli near the beginning of an event)e.g. form impressions quickly and then pay less attention to later behaviour, even though it could contradict the first impression. Unfortunately early impressions can lead to perceptual errors.

Describe, giving examples, five visible artifacts of an organisation's culture;

Culture: 'The shared knowledge, beliefs, values, behaviours and ways of thinking among members of a society' Visible organisation culture: - See, hear & watch artefacts - Communicate the vision and values of the organisation • Symbols: object, act or event that conveys meaning to others. eg. John-CEO of Massachusetts based mechancial contractor wanted to imprint the value of mistakes and risk taking so pulled a $450 mistake out of the dump and named it the 'No-Nuts Award for the missing parts. Award presented and represents freedom to make mistakes. • Stories: narrative based on true events that is repeated frequently and shared among organisational employees. Stories are told to new employees to keep the organisation's primary values going. • Heroes: figure who exemplifies the deeds, character and attributes of a strong corporate culture. • Slogans: phrase or sentence that bluntly expressesa key corporate value eg. 'you don't have to please the boss, you have to please the customer' • Ceremony: a planned activity that makes up a special event and is conducted for the benefit of an audience. Managers hold ceremonies to provide dramatic examples of organisations values.

Explain the difference between "ethnocentrism", "monoculture", "ethnorelativism", and "pluralism";

ETHNOCENTRISM: the belief that one's own group or subculture is inherently superior to other groups or cultures eg. The Western business world still tends to reflect the values, behaviuors, and assumptions based on the experiences of a rather homologous, white, midlle-class, male workforce. Indeed, most traditional theories of management presume that workers share similar values, beliefs, motivations, and attitudes about work and life in general. MONOCULTURE: A culture that accepts only one way of doing things and one set of values and beliefs which can cause problems for employees who don't share those same values and beliefs. eg. Employees may feel undue pressure to conform, may be victims of stereotyping attitudes, and may be presumed deficient if they are different. ETHNORELATIVISM: the belief that groups and subcultures are inherently equal. PLURALSIM: means that an organisation accomodates several subcultures, including employees who would otherwise feel isolated and ignored.

Explain how a bureaucratic organisation structure improves efficiency and control in an organisation;

Emphasis on an impersonal, rational basis through such elements as clearly defined authority and responsibility, formal record keeping, and separation of management and ownership. (Emphasis on: Division of labour, clear hierarchical authority, rational impersonal rules (programmed decisions)) This improves the efficiency and control of the organisation because continuity/stability is related to formal structure and positions rather than to a particular person, who may leave or die. This meant that employees were able to be selected based on capability not on who you know. The organsation relies on rules and written records for continuity. The manager depends not on his or her personality for successfully giving orders but on the legal power invested in the managerial position. This provides a standard way of dealing with employees-everyone gets equal treatment, and everyone knows what the rules are. This has enabled many organisations to become extremely efficient.

Describe, using examples, five aspects of body-language we use to communicate non-verbally

FACIAL EXPRESSION, VOICE, MANNERISMS, POSTURE & DRESS. Body language often communicates our real feelings vividly. e.g. blushing, perspiring, crying or avoiding eye contact.

Describe, using examples, five behaviours of an effective listener;

FINDS AREAS OF INTEREST- looking for opportunities, new learning. LISTENS ACTIVELY- asking questions, paraphrasing what is said. RESIST DISTRACTIONS- Fights or avoids distractions; tolerates bad habits; knows how to concentrate. CAPITALISE ON THE FACT THAT THOUGHT IS FASTER THAN SPEECH- Challenges, anticipates,mentally summarises; weighs the evidence; listens between the lines to tone of voice. BE RESPONSIVE- Nods; shows interest, give and take, positive feedback.

Describe, using examples, the five stages of team development;

FORMING: orientation, break the ice, uncertainty, leader: facilitate social interchanges, people usually think what is expected of m? whats acceptable? will I fit in? STORMING: people classify their roles and whats expected of them, conflict, disagreement, leader: encourage participation, surface differences NORMING: things start falling into place, establishment of order and cohesion, leader: help clarify team roles, norms, values PERFORMING: cooperation, problem solving, leader: facilitate task accomplishment ADJOURNING: task completion, leader: big closure, signify completion.

Using Adam's equity theory, explain how a person might choose to behave if his/her pay-rise was lower than her/his office colleague;

Focuses on individuals' perceptions of how fairly they are treated compared with others. The theory proposes that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance. Percieved inequity creates tensions within individuals that motivate them to bring equity into balance. They might reduce their level of work effort or increase their absenteeism. They might request a salary increase or a bigger office. If they are unable to change outputs or outcomes they may artificially increase the status attached to their jobs or distort others' percieved rewards to bring equity to balance. They may even leave their job.

Describe, using examples, the three characteristics of authority;

Formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decions, issue orders and allocate resources to achieve organisationally desired outcomes. AUTHORITY IS VESTED IN ORGANISATIONAL POSITIONS, NOT PEOPLE- Mangers have authority because of the posiiton they hold, and other people who hold the same positions have the same authority. AUTHORITY IS ACCEPTED BY EMPLOYEES- Employees comply because they believe that managers have the legitimate right to issue orders. FLOWS DOWN A VERTICAL HIERARCHY-positions at the top of the hierarchy are vested with more formal authority than are positions at the bottom.

Describe, using examples, the difference between a vertical functional and a divisional organisational structure;

Hows tasks are grouped. VERTICAL FUNCTIONAL- similar skills, expertise and resource use. DIVISONAL ORGANISATIONAL-similar organisational outputs. People are grouped by common skills and resources. eg. In a functional structure, all engineers are grouped together and work on all products. In a divisonal structure, seperate engineering departments are established within each divison. Each department is smaller and focuses on a single product line. Departments are duplicated across product lines. A major difference is that the chain of command from each function converges lower in hierarchy. In an organisation with a divisional structure, differences of opinion among research and development, marketing, manufacturing and finance would be resolved at the divisional level rather than by a CEO. Encouraging decentralisation(distributing powers or functions of authority).

Describe, using examples, the differences between Herzberg's motivating and hygiene factors;

Hygiene factors are what dis-satisfies. e.g. working conditions, pay, policies, supervisiors, relationships. However good hygiene factors can remove dissatisfaction. Motivators are what motivates they influence levels of satisfaction. They are high-level needs eg. recognition, responsibilites, work ,growth. achievement. When these are absent workers are neutral towards work, but when present workers are highly motivated and satisfied.

Describe, giving examples, four training methods used in organisations;

INDUCTION(orientation)- entry point training. Company, get told specific role. ON THE JOB TRAINING- An experienced employee is asked to take a new employee 'under his or her wing' and shoe the newcomer how to perform job duties-this is cheap for the company. MENTORING- An experienced employee guides and supports a new comer or less experienced employee. COACHING-method of directing,instructing, and training a person with the goal to develop specific management skills. Coaching applies to higher level managers who want to develop their personal competencies. eg. a coach might observe a senior executive in action and provide feedback about how the executive can improve his or her interaction skills.

Describe, using examples, four individual barriers to communication;

INTERPERSONAL DYNAMICS- includes problems with emotions and perceptions held by employees e.g. rigid perceptual labelling or categorising of others prevents modification or alteration of opinions. CHANNEL SELECTION- This can be a problem if the wrong channel is selected. eg. when a message is emotional, it is better to transmit it face-to-face rather than writing. On the other hand writing works best for routine messages but lacks the capacity for rapid feedback and multiple cues needed for different messages. SEMANTICS- meaning of words and how they are used e.g. a word such as effectiveness may mean achieving high production to a factory superintendent and emplyee satisfaction to a human resources staff specialist. INCONSISTENT CUES- confuse reciever. e.g If ones facial expression does not reflect one's words, the communication will contain noise and uncertainty.

Describe, using examples, the three key roles of management identified by Henry Mintzberg;

INTERPERSONAL(managing through people), INFORMATIONAL(managing through information), DECISIONAL(managing through action)

Discuss the differences between the 'new social contract' and the 'old social contract' perspectives for both employers and employees;

In the old social contract organisation and employe, the employee could contribute ability, education, loyalty, and commitment and expect in return that the company would provide wages and benefits, work, advancement, and training throughout the employee's working life. In the new contract the employee recieves employability, personal responsibility, partner in business improvement, learning and the employer recieves: continuous learning, lateral career, creative development opportunities, challenging assignments, info and resources. In addition an important challenge for HRM is revising performance evaluation, compensation, and reward practices to be compatible with the new social contract.

Describe, using examples, the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards;

Intrinsic rewards are the satisfactions a person recieves in the process of performing a particular action. The completion of a complex task may bestow a pleasant feeling of accomplishment, or solving a problem that benefits others may fulfil a personal mission. e.g. someone sells encyclopedias for the reward of helping children read well. Extrinsic rewards are given by another person, typically a manager, and include promotions and pay increases. They originate externally, as a result of pleasing others. e.g rob who hates his job is motivated by his reward of high pay.

Describe, using examples, the four primary functions of management;

Management is the attainment of organisational goals in an effective and efficient manner through PLANNING, ORGANISING, LEADING AND CONTROLLING organisational resources. Planning is defining goals and deciding tasks and resources. e.g. tv distributions such as warner bros and HBO get together every three weeks to discuss future projects and how they can work together. Thanks to this every divison is involved in promoting major films. Organising is assigning tasks, and group tasks, e.g. Telecom and Air New Zealand have undergone structural reorganisations to accomodate their changing plans. Leading- influencing and motivating, achievement of goals e.g. Rob Fyfe. Controlling- monitoring and adjusting. eg. Wellys hotel staff is briefed on income, rates, staff turnover etc and how this compares to customers so they are able to appreciate the big picture and how they contribute to the overall performance.

Describe, using examples, the difference between "leadership" and "management";

Management power comes from organisational structure, promotes stability, order and problem solving within the structure. Leadership power on the other hand, comes from personal sources that are not as invested in the organisation, such as personal interests, goals and values. Leadership promotes vision, creativity and change in an organisation. ;A manager takes care of where you are; a leader takes you to a new place.' eg. Leaders use their soul, they have more carisma-they are inspiring, courageous, experimental, flexibile and initiate change, less talk down- less rules,as oppose to managers using their mind- rational, consulting, tough-minded, persistent, authoritive, position power and analytical.

Explain, using examples, the basic difference between a manufacturing organisation and a service organization;

Manufacturing organisations are those that produce physical goods, such as cars, video games, tv sets or golf balls. In contrast service organisations produce non-physical outputs, such as medical, educational, communication, or transportation services for customers.

Discuss the role that motivation can play in a worker realising high levels of potential productivity;

Motivation: 'The arousal, direction and persistence of behaviour' Motivation refers to the forces either within or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to purse a certain course of action. Employee motivation affects productivity, and part of a manager's job is to channel motivation towards the accomplishment of organisational goals. The study of motivation helps managers understand what prompts people to initiate action, what influences their choice of action and why they persist in that action over time. People have basic needs - such as need for food, recognition, achievement or monetary gain- which translate into an internal tension that motivates specific behaviour with which to fulfill the need. To the extent that the behaviour is successful, the person is rewarded in the sense that the need is satisfied. The reward also informs the person that the behaviour was appropriate and can be used again in the future.

Define, using examples, the concept of organisation structure;

Organisation Structure: • 'The framework' • How tasks are divided • How resources are deployed • How departments are coordinated • Ie: the organisational skeleton (basically our bones keeping us up) e.g. At Mainfreights in Welly depot, freight comes in at night on trucks. Early morning forklift drivers unload the trucks and sort it ready to be despatched and delivered. The team must coordinate the linehaul unit, the forklift operators, and the delivery drivers to ensure that the organsation runs smoothly.

Discuss, using examples, effective and efficient organisation performance;

Organisation effectiveness is the degree to which the organisation achieves a stated goal. (achievement of goal) It means the organisation succeeds in accomplishing what it tries to do. Organisation efficiency refers to the amount of resources used to achieve an organisational goal. It is based on how much raw materials, money and people are necessary for producing a given volume of output. Efficiency can be calculated as the amount of resources used to produce a product or service.Both can be high in the one organisation e.g. In 2001 Toll TranzLink faced dark days. Staff and management turnover was high while the general spirit of the workforce was low. Customers dissatisfied and financial loss. Intro of Enterprise Management system helped. The system allowed the company to improve its tracking, communications and management resulting in better efficiency and effectiveness.

Describe, using examples, the six dimensions of best practice in organisation management;

PEOPLE: LEADERSHIP(influencing and motivating vs. directing) & PEOPLE MANAGEMENT(people are prepared to got the extra mile. Extra commitment and performance. Treat well- purpose, understanding, development and growth, recognition- doesn't cost much. Engagement is key- people being engaged. CUSTOMER FOCUS PRACTICES- relationships, info., training, delivering value. PEOPLES PRACTICE: QUALITY MANAGEMENT( customer-centric, reduce all forms of waste, process control and improvement & have high levels of staff engagement & INNOVATION(In products, services, management systems, production processes. Corporate values and other aspects. Without innovation a company will not survive. & KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT(New knowledge, acquiring existing knowledge- researching analysing, writing and communticating)

Describe, using examples, the four most common facility layouts used for the actual production of a good or service;

PROCESS- in a manufacturing firm is one which all machines that perform a similar function or task are grouped together. In the machine shop,the lathes perform a similar function and are all located in one section. PRODUCT- machines and tasks are arranged according to the progressive steps in producing a single product. eg. car assembly line- it produces a single product starting from the raw materials to the finished output. CELLULAR- a facilities layout in which machines dedicated to sequences of production are grouped into cells in accordance with group technology principles. eg. In a service organisation,all the people who work on a process, such as insurance claims processing, are organised into cells where they can see and esily communicate with one another. FIXED-POSITION- a facilites layout in which the product remains in one location and the required tasks and equipment are brought to it. The fixed position layout is used to create a product or service that is either large or one of a kind. eg. aircrafts, ships and buildings.

Describe, using examples, the major differences between programmed and non-programmed decisions;

PROGRAMMED: reoccuring decision rules that have been developed and applied often enough for future application. eg. the decision to reorder paper and other office supplies when inventories drop to a certain level is a programmed decision. NON-PROGRAMMED: 'A decision made in response to a situation that is unique, is poorly defined and largely unstructured, and has important consequences for the organisation' Many involve strategic planning, because uncertainty is great and decisions are complex eg. decisions to build a new factory, relocate headquarters to another city.

Describe, using examples, the five sources of power;

Position power: LEGITIMATE- power coming from a formal management position in an organisation and the authority granted to it. eg. once a person has been selected as a supervisor, most workers understand that they are obliged to follow his/her direction with respect to work activities, REWARD-authority to give people rewards eg. pay increases or promotions, COERCIVE-authority to punish or reccomend punishment. eg. If Paul a saleman, does not perform as expected, his supervisor has the coercive power to criticise him, reprimand him, put a negative letter in his file and hurt his chance for a raise. Personal power: EXPERT-Power resulting from a leader's special knowledge or skills. eg. When the leader is a true expert, employees go along with recommendations because of his or her superior knowledge, REFERENT-associate with leadership. They have a charismatic personality, they are a person who inspires you.

Describe, giving examples, three 'primary' and three 'secondary' dimensions of diversity;

Primary dimensions are the core elements through which people shape their self-image and world view. These include age, race, ethnicity, gender, mental or physical abilities, and sexual orientation. Secondary dimensions can be acquired or changed throughout ones lifetime. These tend to have less impact than those of the core but nevertheless affect a person's self-definition and world view and have an impact on how the person is viewed by others. eg. education, religious beliefs, income, work background, military experience, geographical location, parental status. eg. An employee living in public housing my be percieved differently from one who lives in an affluent part of town.

Using the example of making a decision about running a work-related social function, describe the six steps in the managerial decision making process, as indicated in the text;

RECOGNITION OF DECISION REQUIREMENT: Managers confront a decision requirement in the form of either a problem or an opportunity.Running a work related social function could be seen as an opportunity for staff to get to know each other and work better as a team this can. They can do this if a problem has occured if the organisational accomplishment is less than the goals to try and improve staff communication and relationships or as a reward if the potential accomplishement has exceeded current goals. DIAGNOSIS AND ANALYSIS OF CAUSES-once a problem or opportunity has come to a manager's attention, the understanding of the situation should be refined. Managers analyse underlying causal factors associated with the decision situation.DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES-generate possible alternative solutions that will respond to the needs of the situation and correct the underlying causes. SELECTION OF DESIRED ALTERNATIVE-selection of the most promising of several alternative courses of action. IMPLEMENTATION OF CHOSEN ALTERNATIVE- managerial, administrative and persuasive abilities to ensure that the chosen alternative is carried out. EVALUATION AND FEEDBACK- evaluation stage of the decision process, decision makers gather info. that tells them how well the decision was implemented and whether it was effective in achieveing its goals.

Explain, using examples, the difference between a risky and ambiguous decision-making context;

Risk-the decision has clear cut goals and that good info. is available, but the future outcomes associated with each alternative is subject to chance. However enough info. is available to allow the probability of a successful outcome for each alternative to be estimated. e.g. to make restaurant location decisions, McD's can analyse potential customer demographics, traffic patterns, supply logistics, and the local competition and come up with reasonably good forecasts of how successful a restaurant will be in each possible location. AMBIGUITY-goals to be achieved or the problems to be solved are unclear, alternatives are difficult to define, and info. about outcomes is unavailable. eg. this is what students would feel if an instructor created groups, told each group to complete a project, but gave the group no topic, direction or guidelines whatsoever. ('wicked' decision problem)

Explain, using examples, the differences between 'strategic goals', 'tactical goals' and 'operational goals';

STRATEGIC-broad statements of where the organisation wants to be in the future, they pertain to the organisation as a whole rather than to specific divisons or departments. TACTICAL-Define the outcomes that major divisions and departments must achieve in order for the organisation to reach its overall goals. OPERATIONAL- specific, measureable(eg. work teams) results expected from departments, work groups and individuals within the organisation. Precise and measureable (eg. x sales, x units of production)

Explain, using examples, the difference between entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship;

Social Entrepreneurs: 'A leader who is committed to both good business and positive social change' It combines the creativity, business smarts, passion, and hard work of the traditional entrepreneur with a mission to change the world for the better. They have a primary goal of improving society rather than maximising profits, but they also emphasise solid business results, high perfomance standards, and accountability for results. e.g. TradeAid- a non-profit society that operates and sources products from disadvantaged producers in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Social entrepreneurship is a type of business entrepreeur. Entrepreneurship is the process of initiating a business venture, organising the necessary resources, and assuming the associated risks and rewards.

Explain, using examples, the three pillars of sustainable development;

Sustainable development practices manage technology and SOCIAL organisation to make balanced and equitable progress on ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL and SOCIAL needs so that meeting these needs in the present does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. ENVIRONMENTAL- they need to avoid or minimise the environmental impact of physical spaces and resources. SOCIAL outcomes-impact on the communities in which they operate. e.g. customers, employees and their families. Impact on the communities they connect with in some way eg. suppliers.ECONOMIC/FINANICAL outcomes-a sustainable and viable business. Internal- profit and funding. External-adding value to others. EXAMPLE- for Orokonui Ecosanctuary. Enviro-restore and enhance. Physical-catalyst for infrastructure improvements(solar electricity, safe ater supply, transportation), recovery of native flora and fauna.Social-connecting different stakeholders, education, relationships to trust, hire local volunteers. Economic-sponsors, visitors, sales, revenue from cafe, shop and visitor centre. 'need to put people and the environment before profit'.

Describe, using examples, four causes of stress in the workplace;

TASK DEMANDS are stressors that come from the task required of a person holding a specific job. Some decisions can be very stressful such as those under time pressure, those that must be made with incomplete info, over work and consequences. PHYSICAL DEMANDS are associated with the setting in which the individual works.Some people may have little space, bad heating, not much air eg. in a badly designed office. ROLE DEMANDS are challenges associated with a role - that is, the set of behaviours expected of a person because of that persons position in the group. Some people encounter role ambiguity- not really sure what is expected of them eg. is it my role to take the lead, make a decision. Uncertainty. Role conflict- when an individual percieves incompatible demands from others. e.g. nursing- attend to a patient- ready to discharge can they go home and look after themselves?- conflict with pressure, if they stay will there be enough beds? INTERPERSONAL DEMANDS associated with relationships in the organisation. Inter-personal conflict.

Describe, using examples, the three types of management skills;

TECHNICAL: Task specific e.g. how do you actually bake cookies(the method). HUMAN: Relationships, work with, work through, groups and teams. e.g. ANZ relies heavily on the quality of its people for success. CONCEPTUAL: Big picture, relationships betweeen the parts. Bill Gates at microsoft deligates to many strong managers, his goals are clearly stated and effectively communicated throughout the company.

Describe, using examples, the six dimensions of the organisation's General Environment;

The general environment is the outer layer of the environment- the dimensions that influence the organisation over time but are not involved in day-to-day transactions with it. INTERNATIONAL-consists of events originating in foreign countries, as well as opportunities for local organisations in other countries. eg. the high-quality, lowpriced cars from Japan have permanently changed the NZ car industry. Many companies have parts supplied from china because of low-priced labour. TECHNOLOGICAL-includes scientific and technological advancements in a specific industry as well as in society at large.eg. amazing breakthroughs are occuring in fields such as internet technologies and biotech coming together to 'telemedicine' with applications accelerating the methods of applications, treatments and cures. SOCIO-CULTURAL- represents the demographic characteristics as well as the norms, customs, values and the general population. Impt characteristics- geographical distribution, age, pop. density and education levels. e.g. NZ will continue to recieve immigrants , largely from asia. ECONOMIC-represents the general economic health of the country or region in which the organisation operates. eg. unemployment rate and interest rates. LEGAL-POLITICAL- includes govt. regulations at the local and national levels, as well as political activities designed to influence organisation behaviour eg. The NZ political system encourages capitalism, and the govt. tries not to over-regulate business however govt. laws do specify some rules of the game. NATURAL-all elements that occur naturally eg. natural resources- water, air, climate also plants, animals, rocks, landscapes. eg. natural disasters in other countries could affect cabs eg. Japan

Describe, giving examples, five types of questions that are inappropriate or illegal to ask in an interview context;

The origin of applicant's name, applicants ancestry/ethnicity, race or colour of skin, if applicant has any physical or mental defects, if applicant has ever filed workers' compensation claim, applicants age, when applicant graduated from high school, applicants religious affiliation, what religious holidays applicant observes, hobbies, if applicant has ever been arrested, childcare arrangements

Describe, using examples, the factors that should shape an organisation's structure;

The structure depends on a variety of contingencies. The right structue is designed to 'fit' the contingency factors of strategy, environment, and production technology. These areas are changing quite dramatically for most organisations, creating a need for stronger horizontal coordination. STRATEGY-competitive strategy e.g. cost leadership(eg the cheapest pak n save) vs differientiation(eg. sistema- something they offer, others don't, advantage with quality and customers are prepared to pay more. ENVIRONMENT & TECHNOLOGY eg changes in products and technology. Certainty/stability<->uncertainty/instability. The terms mechanistic and organic can be used to explain structural responses to the external environment. When the enviro is stable the org. uses the mechanistic system: vertical, centralised, highly specialied, clear hierarchy eg. bringing a new paper into uni takes about 2 years. When the enviro is unstable use organic system: horizontal, decentralised, looser, free flowing eg. Gaming-change is happening over night.

Describe, using examples, the four dimensions of the organisation's Task Environment;

The task environment includes those sectors that have a direct working relationship with the organisation. CUSTOMERs-People and organisations in the environement who acquire goods or services from the organisation. COMPETITORS- other organisations in the same industry or type of business that provide goods or services to the same set of customers. eg. Subways for taxis(not just other taxi companies) SUPPLIERS-Provide the raw materials the organisation uses to produce its output. e.g. a small uni may utilise hundreds of suppliers for paper,pencils, cafeteria, computers, electricity etc. LABOUR MARKET- represents people in the environment who can be hired to work for the organisation. Current and potential employees.

Compare & contrast McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about workers;

Theory X(classical approach)- workers don't really like to work and need to be told. They will avoid it if possible therefore most people must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment to get them to put forward effort towards the achievement of organisational objectives. They want security above all, they have little ambition, prefer to be directed and avoid responsibily. Theory Y(humanistic perspective)- assume people like to work and have self-direction. External control and threat of punishment are not the only things bringing effort towards to organisations objectives, the person has self-control and is committed. Seeks responsibility and learns under proper conditions. Have a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in solving problems Under modern industral life the potentialities of workers are only parlty utilised.

Describe, using examples, potential perceptual distortions that can lead to errors in perceptual judgement;

These can arise from inaccuracies in any part of the perception process.Managers who recognise these perceptual distortions can better adjust their perceptions to more closely match objective reality. STEREOTYPING: assign an individual to a group or category e.g. female, male, elderly, white, diabled and attritube widely held generalisations about the group or individual) e.g. if someone in a wheelchair is assigned to 'physically disabled'- may include the generalisation that this person is less able than other co-workers however this persons inability to walk should not be seen as an indicative of lesser ability- could offend., THE HALO EFFECT when a perceiver develops an overall impression of a person or situation based on one attribute, either favourable or unfavourable. Can play a significant role in performance appraisal eg. person has an outstanding attendance record- may be assessed as responsible, productive and industrious. PROJECTION- tendency of percievers to see their own personal traits in other people-they project their own needs, feelings, values and attitudes in their judgement of others. e.g. a manager who is achievement-orientated may assume that her employees are as well. PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE- Get info but don't really want to hear it. People develop blind spots in the perceptual process so that negative sensory data do not hurt them. e.g. friend says your drinking to much and you say no, no don't be silly. What we can't take.

Describe, using examples, the elements of the communication process;

Two essential elements in every communication situation are the sender and the receiver. The sender ENCODES the idea by selecting symbols with which to compose a message. The MESSAGE is the tangible formulation of the idea that is sent to the reciever. The message is sent through a CHANNEL(communication carrier). This channel can be a formal report, telephone call or face to face meeting. A reciever DECODES the symbols to interpret the meaning of the message. Finally feeback occurs when the reciever responds to the sender's communication with a return message.

Explain, using examples, utilitarian, individualism, moral-rights, and justice approaches for ethical decision-making;

UTILITARIAN- moral approach creates the greatest good for the greatest number. Action based on consequences. eg. tobacco consumption on the job can affect the entire workplace as this behaviour can affect the entire workplace.eg, ban the use of mobile phones when driving. Ethical cause of action is the one resulting in the greatest net 'utility' for the most possible people. INDIVIDUALISM-Actions are ethical when they promote individual's best long term interests, which lead to the greater good. This leads to honesty and integrity (virtue ethics). Closest to free choice. MORAL RIGHTS-An ethically correct decision is one that best maintains the rights of the people affected by it. An eg. of some moral rights that can be considered during decision making- The right to free consent- individuals are to be treated only as they knowingly and freely consent to be treated. The right to privacy-individuals can choose to do as they please away from work and have control of info about their personal life. The right to free speech. JUSTICE APPROACHES-standards of equity, fairness and impartiality. Distributive-socially just alllocation of benefits and burdens in society; i.e. equal pay at work. Procedural-rules clearly stated and consistently and impartially enforced. Compensatory- compensation for wrongs or harms that have been done by party involved; individuals be justly compensated for effort they have expended.

Describe, using examples: two types of upward organisational communication; two types of downward organisational communication; and two types of horizontal organisational communication;

Upward communication includes messages that flow from the lower to the higher levels in the organisation's hierarchy. PROBLEMS AND EXPECTATIONS- these messgaes describe problems with and exceptions to routin performance in order to make senior managers aware of difficulties eg. The printer has been out of operation for two days, and it will be at least a week before a new one arrives. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT- these messages are ideas for improving task related procedures to increase quality or efficiency eg I think we should eliminate steo 2 because it eliminates time and produces no results. Downward communication- refers to the messages and info. sent from top management to employees in a downward direction. IMPLEMENTATIONS OF GOALS AND STRATEGIES- provides info about specific targets and expected behaviour. PROCEDURES AND PRACTICES: These are messages defining the organisations policies, rules, regulations, benefits and structual arrangements. eg after 90 days of employment you can enrol in our company-sponsored saving plan. Horizontal communication is the lateral or diagonal exchange of messages among peers or co-workers. INTRADEPARTMENTAL PROBLEM SOLVING: these messages take place between members of the same department and concern task accomplishment eg. can you help us figure out this expense report form. INTERDEPARTMENTAL COORDINATION- Facilitate the accomplishment of joint projects or tasks. eg. can you please contact... it looks like we cant meet their requirements.

Define the terms 'vertical team', 'horizontal team', 'task force', and 'virtual team';

Vertical teams- has a manager and his or her employees in a formal chain of demand. Horizontal teams- composed of employees from the same hierachial level but from different areas of expertise. Task force- a temporary team or committee formed to solve a specific short-term problem involving several departments. Virtual teams- A team that uses computer technology and groupware so that geographically distant members can collaborate on projects and reach common goals.

Explain the impact of the Hawthorne Studies on management thinking about employee productivity;

e.g. lighting levels; periods of rest; work groups. Whatever the lighting was the levels of productivity were increased. No logic to rest productivity kept increasing. Conclusions: puzzled, emotional factors impt: communication, feelings, work groups set norms and standards of production. Research later challenged. IMPACT: Major shift in thinking about employee productivity to include human relationships with managers and peers- output increased sharply when managers treated them in a positive manner. Money was probably the best explanation for increases in output. E.g. humans as resources: Productivity: allows workers to use/ offer their full potential. The belief that human relations is the best approach to productivity persists today.