MAP BLOCK 2 REVIEW Q'S

20.4 (C) Which cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity?

B cells

19.9 (C) Explain the function of baroreceptor relflexes

Baroreceptor reflexes respond to changes in blood pressure.

19.1 (A) Describe the pulmonary circuit

Carries blood to and from the gas exchange surface of the lungs

20.2 (B) What is the function of overlapping endothelial cells in lymphatic capillaries?

Act as one-way valves that permit the entry of fluids and solutes, but prevent their return their return to the intercellular spaces.

19.8 (B) Define edema

An abnormal accusation of interstitial fluid in peripheral tissues

19.13 (A) Identify the compensatory mechanisms that respond to blood loss

An increase in cardiac output, a mobilization of venous blood reservoir, peripheral vasoconstriction, and the release of hormones that promote the retention of fluids and the maturation of erythrocytes

20.11 (B) How do NK cells detect cancer cells?

NK cells recognize unusual proteins, called tumor-specific antigens, on the plasma membranes of cancer cells. When these antigens are detected, the NK cells then destroy the abnormal cells.

19.17 (B) A blockage of which branch of the aortic arch would interfere with blood flow to the left arm?

The left subclavian artery

19.2 (B) Describe a capillary

The only blood vessels whose walls permit exchange between blood and the surrounding interstitial fluids; walls are thin, so diffusion distances are short; exchange can occur quickly and easily

19.20 (C) Grace is in an automobile accident, and her celiac trunk is ruptured. Which organs will be affected most directly by this injury?

The stomach, inferior portion of the esophagus, spleen, liver, gallbladder, and proximal portion of the small intestine

19.18 (A) Identify the branches of the external carotid artery

The superficial temporal, maxillary, occipital, facial, lingual and external carotid arteries

19.16 (B) Name the two largest veins that collect blood from the systemic circuit

The superior and inferior vena cava

19.21 (B) Identify the three veins that merge to form the hepatic portal vein

The superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric, and the splenic veins

19.23 (B) Trace the path of a drop of blood from the right forearm to the right atrium

right forearm -> right brachial -> right axillary -> right subclavian -> right brachiocephalic -> superior vena cava -> right atrium

19.7 (A) Define blood flow, and describe its relationship to blood pressure and peripheral resistance

The volume of blood flowing per unit of time through a vessel or group of vessels; directly proportionate to arterial pressure and inversely proportionate to peripheral resistance

19.14 (B) What is the function of hemangioblasts?

They remodel blood islands first into capillary networks and then into larger arterial and venous networks

19.11 (B) What is the function of chemoreceptor reflexes?

They respond to decreasing pH and oxygen levels

19.21 (A) List the unpaired branches of the abdominal aorta that supply blood to visceral organs

celiac trunk, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric artery

20.2 (C) What structure prevents the back flow of lymph in some lymphatic vessels?

lymphatic valves

19.23 (A) Trace the path of a drop of blood from the left ventricle to the right hip joint

Left ventricle -> ascending aorta -> aortic arch -> thoracic aorta -> right common iliac -> right external iliac -> right femoral -> right deep femoral -> right hip joint

19.20 (B) Identify the major branches of the inferior vena cava

Lumbar, gonadal, hepatic, renal, adrenal, and phrenic veins

20.1 (A) What is the difference between a lymphocyte and lymph?

Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system. These cells respond to antigens, abnormal body cells, and foreign proteins such as toxins released by some bacteria. Lymph is the interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessel

20.1 (B) List the components of the lymphatic system

Lymphocytes, lymph, lymphatic vessels, primary lymphoid organs and tissues, and secondary lymphoid organs and tissues

20.5 (A)Name the lymphoid tissue that protects epithelia lining the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

20.19 (A) List the ways that antigen-antibody complexes can destroy target antigens

Neutralization, prevention of pathogen adhesion, activation of complement, opsonization, attraction of phagocytes, stimulation of inflammation and precipitation and agglutination

21.3 (B) Trace the pathway of air through the upper respiratory system

Nostrils -> nasal vestibule -> superior, middle, and inferior meatuses -> choanae -> nasopharynx -> oropharynx -> laryngopharynx

19.19 (A) Name the three branches of the internal carotid artery

Ophthalmic, anterior cerebral, and middle cerebral arteries

21.4 (A) Identify the paired and unpaired cartilages that compose the larynx

Paired: arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform Unpaired: thyroid, cricoid and epiglottis

20.10 (B) Define chemotaxis

Phagocyte movement in response to chemical stimuli

21.4 (C) Distinguish between phonation and articulation

Phonation is the production of sound and is one component of speech; articulation is the modification of sound by the tongue, teeth and lips for clear speech

20.21 (B) Which cells produce antibodies?

Plasma cells

20.4 (B) What tissues are involved in lymphopoiesis?

Red bone marrow, thymus, and peripheral lymphoid tissues

19.6 (B) Explain the equation R alpha 1/r^4

Resistance (R) is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the vessel radius (r). This means a small change in vessel diameter results in a large change in resistance

21.2 (B) What membrane lines the conducting portion of the respiratory tract?

Respiratory mucosa

19.18 (B) Name the arterial structure in the neck region that contains baroreceptors

The carotid sinus

20.11 (C) If NK cells are engaged in immune surveillance, how do cancer cells spread?

The cells can mutate such that either they do not display tumor-specific antigens, or they secrete chemicals that can destroy NK cells. This ability to escape detection is called immunological escape

19.21 (C) Identify two veins that carry blood away from the stomach

The left and right gastro-epiploic veins

21.6 (D) Name the lobes and fissures of each lung

The left lung is divided into a superior lobe and an inferior lobe by the oblique fissure; in the right lung, the horizontal fissure separates the superior lobe from the middle lobe, while the oblique fissure separates the superior and middle lobes from the inferior lobe

21.16 (B) Which brainstorm centers generate the respiratory pace?

The medulla oblongata

21.9 (B) What physical changes affect the volume of the lungs?

The movements of the diaphragm and ribs

21.3 (A) List the structures of the upper respiratory system

The nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx

21.11 (A) Define respiratory rate

The number of breaths taken each minute

21.17 (C) Which chemical factors in blood or cerebral spinal fluid stimulate the respiratory centers?

The pH, Po2, and Pco2

20.17 (B) Define sensitization

The process by which a B cell prepares to undergo activation after encountering a specific antigen. During sensitization, the specific antigens bout to membrane antibodies are brought into the cell by endocytosis, where the antigens then become bound to class II MHC proteins. Together, they then appear at the cells surface

20.19 (B) Define opsonization

The process by which the coating of pathogens with antibodies and complement proteins makes the pathogens more susceptible to phagocytosis

19.1 (B) Describe the systemic circuit

Transports blood to and from the rest of the body

19.24 (B) Identify the six structures that are vital to fetal circulation but cease to function at birth, and describe what becomes of these structures

Two umbilical arteries, an umbilical vein, the ductus venous (the vessels and ductus venous persist throughout life as fibrous cords), the foramen ovale (closes and persists as the fossa ovalis), and the ductus arteriousus (persists as the ligamentum arteriosum).

20.14 (B) Which type of immunity develops when a child is given the polio vaccine?

artificially required active immunity

21.13 (C) Explain the relationship among BPG, oxygen and hemoglobin

A compound generated by RBCs during glycolysis that decreases hemoglobins affinity for oxygen. For any partial pressure of oxygen, of the concentration of BPG increases, the amount of oxygen released by hemoglobin will increase.

20.13 (A) Describe inflammation

A localized response to injury in the body. Its four cardinal signs are redness, heat, swelling and pain.

19.12 (A) Describe the respiratory pump

A mechanism by which a reduction of pressure in the thoracic cavity during inhalation assists venous return to the heart

20.6 (B) Describe the gross anatomy of the thymus

A pink, grainy organ ranging weight from 40 g at puberty to less than 12 g at the age of 50. A capsule covers the thymus and divides it into 2 lobes, and fibrous partitions called septa divide the lobes into lobules

20.15 (B) What is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)?

A portion of chromosome 6 containing genes that control the synthesis of membrane glycoproteins

21.15 (B) Identify the three chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPDs)

Asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema

21.9 (A) Define Boyle's law

At a constant temperature, the pressure of gas is inversely proportionate to its volume

19.22 (A) Name the first two branches of the common iliac artery

Internal iliac artery and the external iliac artery

19.9 (B) Describe auto regulation as it relates to cardio vascular function

Involves local factors changing the blood flow within capillary beds in response to chemical changes in interstitial fluids

19.5 (C) Why is it beneficial from capillary pressure to be very low?

It allows time for diffusion between the capillaries and the surrounding interstitial fluid

21.2 (C) Why can cystic fibrosis become lethal?

It causes the production of dense mucus that restricts respiratory passages and accumulates in the lungs. Harmful bacterial infection of the lungs may also develop, leading to death

20.18 (A) Describe the structure of an antibody

It consists of two parallel pairs of polypeptide chains: a pair of long, heavy chains and a pair of short, light chains. Each chain contains both constant segments and variable segments. The constant segments of the antibody molecule; the free tips of each of the two variable segments from the antigen-binding sites.

20.15 (A) Describe antigen presentation

It occurs when an antigen-glycoprotein, or antigen-MHC protein, combination capable of activating T cells appears in a plasma membrane. T cells sensitive to this antigens are activated if they contact the antigen on the plasma membrane of the antigen-presenting cell

21.3 (C) Why is the vascularization of the nasal cavity important?

It radiates body heat, so inhaled air is warmed before it leaves the nasal cavity. The heat also evaporates moisture from the epithelium to humidify the incoming air

20.17 (A) Explain the function of cytokines secreted by helper T cells

It stimulates both cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity

21.12 (B) What is the significance of Henry's Law to the process of respiration?

It underlies the diffusion of gas between capillaries and alveoli, and between capillaries and interstitial fluid

21.14 (C) How would blockage of the trachea affect blood pH

It would interfere with the body's ability to take in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Because most CO2 is transported in the blood as bicarbonate, a dissociation of carbonic acid, an inability to eliminate CO2 would result in a build up of excess hydrogen ions, which would decrease blood pH

20.18 (B) Define antigenic determinant site

It's a part of a antigen molecule to which an antibody molecule binds

19.9 (B) Describe the structure of the cerebral arterial circle

It's a ring-shaped anastomosis that encircles the infundibulum of the pituitary gland. Creates an alternative pathway in the cerebral circulation, so that if blood flow is interrupted in one area, other blood vessels can continue to perfuse the entire brain with blood

21.2 (A) Define respiratory defense system

It's a series of filtration mechanisms that prevent airway contamination by debris and pathogens

21.6 (A) Define bronchopulmonary circuit

It's a specific region of a lung suppled by a segmental bronchus

20.22 (C) Provide a plausible explanation for the increased incidence of cancer in the elderly

It's caused by a decline in immune surveillance which results in reduced elimination of tumor cells as they arise

21.14 (B) Describe the forces that drive oxygen and carbon dioxide transport between the blood and peripheral tissues

It's driven by differences in partial pressures, oxygen enters the blood at the lungs, and leaves in the peripheral tissues ; similar forces drive carbon dioxide into the blood at the tissues and into the alveoli of the lungs

21.7 (B) Describe the structure of the blood air barrier

It's made up of the fused basement membranes of the alveolar epithelium and capillary epithelium. Because it is very thin and oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid soluble, diffusion occurs rapidly across the membrane

21.3 (B) Describe the structures of the glottis

It's the "voice box"of the larynx. It is made up of the vocal folds and the rim glottidis

20.2 (D) Compare lymphatic capillaires in the small intestine with those found elsewhere

Lacteals transport lipids. Lymphatic capillaries elsewhere are associated with blood capillary networks. Lymphatic capillaries are not found in the cornea

19.15 (B) Briefly describe general patterns of blood vessel organization

(1) The peripheral distributions of arteries and veins on the body's left and right sides are generally identical, except near the heart, where the largest vessels connect connect to the atria and ventricles; (2) a single vessel may have several names as it crosses specific anatomical boundaries, making accurate anatomical descriptions possible; (3) tissues and organs are usually serviced by several veins and arteries.

20.7 (A) What are the functions of the spleen

(1) removing abnormal blood cells and other blood components by phagocytosis (2) storing iron recycled from the red blood cells (3) initiating immune responses by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in the bloodstream

19.6 (C) Which would reduce peripheral resistance: an increase in vessel length or an increase in vessel diameter?

An increase in vessel diameter would reduce the peripheral resistance

19.22 (B) The plantar venous arch carries blood to which three veins?

Anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and fibular veins

19.9 (A) Define tissue perfusion

Blood flow to tissues that is sufficient to deliver adequate oxygen and nutrients

19.7 (B) In a healthy person, where is blood pressure greater: in the aorta or in the inferior vena cava?

Blood pressure is greater in the aorta than the inferior vena cava. If blood pressure were higher in the inferior vena cava, the blood would flow in the opposite direction

19.13 (C) Describe circulatory shock, progressive shock and irreversible shock

Circulatory shock occurs when blood loss exceeds about 35% of the total blood volume. Circulatory shock involves a series of positive feedback loops that are initiated after homeostasis has been disrupted. Progressive shock is the next stage after circulatory shock. It, too, is a series of positive feedback loops that accelerate tissue damage. Irreversible shock is the fatal stage that occurs if the positive feedback loops initiated during progressive shock are not broken.

19.24 (A) Describe the pattern of fetal blood flow to and from the placenta

Deoxygenated blood flows from the fetus to the placenta through a pair of umbilical arteries, and oxygenated blood returns from the placenta in a single umbilical vein. The umbilical vein drains into the ductus venous within the fetal liver

19.1 (D) Distinguish among efferent vessels, afferent vessels, and exchange vessels

Efferent vessels (arteries): carries blood away from the heart Afferent vessels (veins): carries blood towards the heart Exchange vessels (capillaries): interconnect the smallest arteries and smallest veins; all the exchange of nutrients, dissolved gases, and wastes between blood and the surrounding interstitial fluid

19.8 (A) Under what general conditions would fluid move into a capillary?

Fluid moves into a capillary whenever BCOP is greater than CHP

19.5 (A) Neural and endocrine regulatory mechanisms influence which factors?

Heart rate, stroke volume, peripheral resistance, and venous pressure.

19.17 (C) Whenever Thor gets angry, a large vein bulges in the lateral region of his neck. Which vein is this?

His external jugular vein

20.6 (A) Where is the thymus located?

In the anterior mediastinum, posterior to the sternum

19.11 (A) Where are the chemoreceptors located?

In the carotid bodies, int eh aortic bodies, and on the ventrolateral surfaces of the medulla oblongata

20.9 (A) How does the integumentary system protect the body?

It provides a physical barrier that is the first line of defense in preventing pathogens and toxins from entering body tissues. Skin secretions flush the surface, hair protects against physical abrasion, and multiple layers of the skin's epithelium create an interlocking barrier

19.11 (C) What effect does an increase in the respiratory rate have on CO2 levels?

It reduced CO2 levels

19.22 (C) A blood clot that blocks the popliteal vein would interfere wot blood flow in which other veins?

It would interfere with blood flow to in the tibial and fibular veins and the small saphenous vein

20.10 (A) Identify the types of phagocytes in the body, and differentiate between fixed macrophages and free macrophages

Neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages. Fixed macrophages are scattered throughout connective tissues and do not move; free macrophages are mobile and reach injury sites by migrating through adjacent tissues or traveling in the blood stream

19.1 (C) Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the systemic circuit?

Right atrium

19.4 (C) Describe the distribution of total blood volume in the body

Systemic venous system 67% Pulmonary circuit 9% Heart 7% Systemic arterial system 13% Systemic capillaries 7%

20.4 (A) Identify the three main classes of lymphocytes

T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells

19.3 (B) At what sites in the body are fenestrated capillaries located?

The choroid plexuses of the brain, capillaries of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, and the absorptive areas of the intestinal tract and at the filtration sites in the kidneys

20.11 (A) Define immune surveillance

The constant monitoring of normal tissues by NK cells sensitive to abnormal antigens on the surface of cells

19.16 (C) Besides containing valves, cite a major difference between the arterial and venous systems

The existence of dual (superficial and deep) venous drainage in the neck and limbs

19.18 (C) Identify the veins that combine to form the brachiocephalic vein

The external jugular, internal jugular, vertebral and subclavian veins

19.20 (A) Which vessels collects most of the venous blood inferior to the diaphragm?

The inferior vena cava

19.15 (A) Compare the oxygen content in the two circulatory circuits

The pulmonary and Systemic circuits. The pulmonary circuit carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium. The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium

19.17 (A) Name the two arteries formed by the division go the brachiocephalic trunk

The right common carotid and right subclavian arteries

19.21 (D) Describe the function of the hepatic portal system, and name its primary vessels

To carry blood with absorbed nutrients from the digestive organs to the liver for processing. The primary vessel of the hepatic portal system is the hepatic portal vein

20.5 (B) Define tonsil, and name the five tonsils

Tonsils are large lymphoid nodules in the walls go the pharynx. The five tonsils are the right and left palatine, the pharyngeal (Adenoid), and a pair of lingual tonsils

19.7 (C) Calculate the mean arterial pressure for a person whose blood pressure is 125/70

Using the formula MAP + diastolic pressure + (pulse pressure)/ 3, MAP equals 70 + (125 - 70)/3 = 88.3 mm Hg

19.6 (A) List the factors that contribute to total peripheral resistance

Vasular resistance, vessel length, vessel luminal diameter, viscosity and turbulence

19.4 (A) Why are valves located in veins but not in arteries

Veins have the counter the force of gravity when pumping blood back towards the heart, so they need valves to prevent back flow.

19.24 (C) Compare a ventricular septal defects with tetralogy of Fallot

Ventricular septal defects are abnormal openings between the left and right ventricles. Tetralogy of Fallot is includes a ventricular septal defect and three other heart defects: a narrowing of the pulmonary trunk, a displaced aorta, and an enlarged right ventricle with corresponding thickened right and left ventricles.

19.4 (D) What factors are involved in the formation of varicose veins?

When the walls of veins near valves weaken or become stretched and distorted, the valves may no longer work properly, which causes blood to pool in places like the thighs

19.4 (B) How is blood pressure maintained in veins to counter the force of gravity?

With valves, and the "musclo-skeletal pump;" the contraction of surround skeletal muscles squeezes blood towards the heart, and opens/ closes valves

19.10 (B) How does the kidney respond to vasoconstriction of the renal artery?

Would decrease both blood flow and blood pressure to the kidney. In response, the kidney would release EPO and renin. EPO increases RBCs, which increases blood volume and renin increases the levels of angiotensin II, which would increase blood pressure and volume

20.5 (C) Trace the path of lymph through a lymph node, beginning at the afferent lymphatics

afferent lymphatics -> sub scapular space -> cortex -> paracortex -> medullary sinus -> efferent lymphatics

19.14 (A) What are blood islands, and from which cells do they form?

Aggregations of embryonic cells scattered within the yolk sac that form blood vessels and blood cells. During embryonic development, these islands give rise to hematopoietic stem cells and hemangioblasts

20.20 (C) What is anaphylaxis?

An immune response to a circulating antigen that stimulates mast cells throughout the body to release chemicals that prompt the inflammatory response

19.8 (C) Identify the conditions that wold shift the balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces

Any condition that affects either blood pressure or osmotic pressures in the blood or tissues will shift the balance between hydrostatic and osmotic forces

19.16 (A) Identify the largest artery in the body

Aorta

21.16 (A) Name the paired central nervous system nuclei that adjust the pace of respiration

Apneustic centers and pmeumotaxic centers of the pons

19.5 (B) Which is greater: arterial or venous pressure?

Arterial pressure because blood must be pushed a greater distance and through smaller and smaller arteries

19.2 (A) List the five general classes of blood vessels

Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venues, and veins

20.19 (C) Which cells are involved in inflammation?

Basophils and mast cells

21.13 (B) During exercise, hemoglobin releases more oxygen to active skeletal muscles than it does when those muscles are at rest. Why?

Because of both a decreased pH and increased temperature cause hemoglobin to release more oxygen

21.14 (A) Identify 3 ways that carbon dioxide is transported in the bloodstream

By being dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions in the plasma

20.8 (B) How does innate immunity protect us from disease?

By using physical barriers such as skin, phagocytes that engulf pathogens, immune surveillance of abnormal cells, interferons to defend from viruses, complement to assist antibodies, inflammation to limit the spread of an infection, and fever

20.21 (A) Which T cells contain CD8 markers? CD4 markers?

CD8 cells are found of cytotoxic T cells, memory Tc cells, and regulatory T cells; CD4 cells are found on all helper T cells

21.18 (A) Are chemoreceptors more sensitive to blood CO2 levels or blood O2 levels?

CO2

19.12 (B) Describe the changes in cardiac output and blood flow during exercise

Cardiac out put increases and blood flow to skeletal muscles increases at the expense of blood flow to less essential organs. Unless compensatory vasoconstriction occurs in the "less essential" organs, vasodilation would cause a potentially dangerous decrease in blood pressure and blood flow throughout the body

20.15 (D) What types of immunity are stimulated by antigen presentation?

Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity

21.15 (C) Compare chronic bronchitis with emphysema

Chronic bronchitis is long-term inflammation of the mucous membranes in the bronchial tubes; emphysema is a condition in which the alveolar surfaces of the lungs are destroyed and alveoli merge, which reduces respiratory surface area and oxygen absorption, causing breathlessness. People who have chronic bronchitis are sometimes called "blue boaters"; those with emphysema are called "pink puffers"

20.15 (C) Where are class I MHC proteins and class II MHC proteins found?

Class I MHC proteins are in the plasma membranes of all nucleated body cells. Class II MHC proteins are only in the plasma membranes of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and lymphocytes

21.15 (A) Describe compliance and resistance

Compliance is the ease with which the lungs expand and recoil. Resistance is an indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate the lungs

20.22 (A) Define autoimmune disorders

Conditions that result from the production of antibodies directed against normal antigens in the body

19.3 (A) Identify the two types of capillaries with a complete endothelium.

Continuous capillaries (most common, found in the CNS & thymus; allow the diffusion of water, small solutes and lipid soluble materials) & fenestrated capillaries (have "windows" that permit the rapid exchange go water and solutes as large as small peptides between blood and interstitial fluid)

20.21 (C) Which cells can be activated by direct contact with virus-infected cells?

Cytotoxic T cells

20.16 (B) Identify the three major types of T cells activated by class I MHC proteins

Cytotoxic T cells, memory Tc cells, and regulatory T cells

19.10 (A) Identify the hormones responsible for short-term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and blood volume

Epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medullae provide short-term regulation of decreasing blood pressure and blood volume

20.6 (C) Which cells maintain the blood thymus barrier?

Epithelial reticular cells

19.10 (C) Describe the roles of natriuretic peptides.

Excessive stretching of the right atrium causes the release of ANP and the excessive stretching of the ventricles causes the release of BNP. Both decrease blood volume and blood pressure.

21.8 (A) Define external respiration, gas diffusion, and internal respiration

External respiration is all the process involved un the exchange of O2 with CO2 between the blood, lungs, and the external environment. Gas diffusion is the movement of O2 and CO2 across the blood barrier between alveolar capillaries and the capillary walls between blood and other tissues

21.13 (A) Define oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin with oxygen bound to it

20.17 (C) If you observed a higher-than-normal number of plasma cells in a sample of lymph, would you expect antibody levels in the blood to be higher or lower than normal?

Higher-than-normal

20.20 (B) Which chemicals do mast cells and basophils release when stimulated in an allergic reaction?

Histamines, leukotrienes, and other chemicals that cause pain and inflammation

21.18 (B) Define hypercapnia and hypocapnia

Hypercapnia is an increase in the Pco2 of arterial blood above normal range. Hypocapnia is an abnormally low arterial Pco2

21.8 (B) How are hypoxia and anoxia different?

Hypoxia is low tissue oxygen levels. Anoxia is the complete cut off of oxygen supply

21.12 (A)Define Dalton's Law

In a mixture of gases, the individual gases expert pressure proportional to their abundance in the mixture

21.1 (A) Where does gas exchange occur between air and the lungs occur?

In the alveoli

20.12 (C) What is the effect of histamine release?

Increases local inflammation, thereby accelerating blood flow to the region

20.8 (C) A child falls of their bike and skins her knee. Which form of immunity will activated immediately?

Innate immunity

20.8 (A) Distinguish between innate immunity and adaptive immunity

Innate immunity is nonspecific and does not distinguish one type of threat from another. Adaptive immunity is specific and protects again particular threats

19.15 (C) Trace a drop of blood through the lungs, beginning at the right ventricle and ending at the left atrium

Right ventricle -> pulmonary trunk -> right and left pulmonary arteries -> pulmonary arterioles -> alveoli -> pulmonary venules -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium

19.13 (B) Name the immediate and long-term problems related to hemorrhage

Short-term: maintain adequate blood flow Long-term: problem is to restore normal blood volume

21.11 (C) Which ventilates alveoli more effectively: slow, deep breaths or rapid, shallow breaths? Explain why.

Slow, deep breaths because a smaller volume of each breath is spent moving air into and out of the anatomic dead space of the lungs

20.12 (A) Define interferons

Small proteins that are released by activated lymphocytes, macrophages, and cells infected with viruses; they trigger the production of antiviral proteins that interfere with viral replication within tissue cells

20.14 (A) Which two cells coordinate adaptive immunity?

T and B cells

21.12 (C) Explain the decrease in Po2 from the pulmonary venues to the blood arriving in the peripheral capillaries of the systemic circuit

The Po2 decrease from 100 mm Hg to 95 mmHg in the pulmonary veins as it mixes with surrounding blood from pillories surrounding the conducting passageways. The blood arriving at the peripheral capillaries has a Po2 of 95 mm Hg

20.3 (C) Explain lymphedema

The accumulation of interstitial fluids that results from blocked lymphatic drainage. If the condition persists, the tissues lose their elasticity and the swelling becomes permanent

21.7 (C) What would happen to the alveoli if surfactant were not produced?

The alveoli would collapse because of the normally high surface tension in the thin layer of water coating the alveolar surfaces

21.1 (B) Distinguish between the conducting portion and respiratory portion of the respiratory tract

The conducting portion begins at the nasal cavity and extends through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles. The respiratory portion includes the bronchioles and alveoli

21.6 (C) Describe the lung borders and landmarks

The curving anterior and inferior borders of each lung follow the contours of the rib cage. The apex of each lung extends superiorly to the first rib, and the base of each lung rests on the superior surface of the diaphragm

21.10 (A) Identify the primary inspiratory muscles

The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

19.19 (C) Name the veins that drain the dural sinuses of the brain

The internal jugular veins

21.9 (C) What pressures determine the direction of airflow within the respiratory tract?

The intrapulmonary pressure and the atmospheric pressure. Air moves from the area of higher pressure to the area of lower pressure

20.7 (B) Describe the red pulp and white pulp found in the spleen

The red pulp contains large numbers of RBCs; white pulp resembles lymphoid nodules and contains lymphocytes

21.11 (B) How does the respiratory minute volume differ from alveolar ventilation?

The respiratory minute volume is the amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory tract each minute, whereas the alveolar ventilation is the amount of air reaching the alveolar each minute. Because some of the air never reaches the alveolar but remains in the anatomic dead space, alveolar ventilation is lower than respiratory minute volume

21.6 (B) Describe the location of the lungs within the thoracic cavity

The right and left lungs are surrounded by the right and left pleural cavities, respectively

20.3 (B) Name the two large lymphatic vessels into which lymphatic trunks empty

The right jugular, right subclavian, and right bronchiomediastinal trunks

20.3 (A)Describe the drainage of the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct

The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right side of the body superior to the diaphragm; the thoracic duct collects lymph fro, the body inferior to the diaphragm and from the left side of the body superior to the diaphragm

21.5 (A) Compare the two main bronchi

The right main bronchus is larger in diameter than the left main bronchus, and it descends toward the lung at a steeper angle than the left primary bronchus

20.18 (C) Which would be more affected by a lack of memory B cells and memory T cells: the primary response or the secondary response?

The secondary response because memory cells are produced during the initial response to an antigen

21.5 (B) What function do the C-shaped tracheal cartilages allow?

They allow room for the esophagus to expand when food or liquids are swallowed

20.16 (A) Describe CD markers

They are a class of membrane proteins. CD is short for "cluster of differentiation." T cell plasma membranes contain CD proteins. T cells with CD8 markers respond o to antigens presented by class I MHC proteins. CD4 markers respond to antigens presented by class II MHC

20.20 (A) Describe hypersensitivities

They are an excessive immune response to an allergen, which is an antigen that triggers an allergic reaction

20.22 (B) Describe immunodeficiency diseases

They are caused by inadequate immune responses.

21.7 (A) Define pulmonary lobule

They are the smallest subdivisions of the lungs; branches of the pulmonary arteries, veins, and segmental bronchi supply each lobule

20.13 (B) What effects do pyrogens have in the body?

They increase body temperature which can mobilize defenses, accelerate repairs, and inhibit pathogens

20.12 (B) Briefly explain the role of complement proteins

They interact with each other un chain reactions that ultimately produce activated forms that target bacterial cells walls and plasma membranes, stimulate inflammation, attract phagocytes, or enhance phagocytosis

20.16 (C) How do abnormal antigens attached to class I MHC proteins imitate an immune response?

They're displayed on the surface of the cell's plasma membrane. The recognization of such abnormal antigens by CD8 T cells initiates an immune response

21.18 (C) Johnny is angry, so he tells his mom that he will hold his breath until he turns blue and dies. Explain whether this will likely happen

This is unlikely to happen. When Johnny holds his breath, CO2 levels in his blood increase, causing increased stimulation of the inspiratory centers, forcing him to breathe again

21.10 (C) Name the various measurable pulmonary volumes

Tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and the inspiratory reserve volume

20.7 (C) Beginning at the trabecular arteries, tase the path of blood through the speen

Trabecular arteries -> central arteries -> reticular tissues of red pulp -> sinusoids -> trabecular veins

21.5 (C) Trace the pathway of airflow along the passages of the lower respiratory tract

Trachea -> main bronchi -> lobar bronchi -> segmental bronchi -> terminal bronchioles -> pulmonary lobule

20.2 (A) What is the function of the lymphatic vessels?

Transport lymph from peripheral tissues to the venous system

20.13 (C) A rise in the level of interferons in the body suggests what kind of infection?

Viral infection

21.10 (B) When do the accessory respiratory muscles become active?

When the primary respiratory muscles are unable to move enough air to meet the oxygen demands of the tissues