Marriage and Families Exam 1
Gender Socialization Theory
- Socially constructed norms shape gender expression - what jobs are we socialized to want to do and be good at?
The Depression
- high unemployment and economic hardship - children taking on adult roles within the family home -postponement of marriage and childbearing - development of public programs like Social Security, the benefits of which go primarily to whites in breadwinner-homemaker marriages (rather than single mothers for any reason but widowhood)
Institutional arena
a social space in which relations between people in common positions and governed by accepted rules of interaction (e.g. shoulds and shouldn'ts)
Since the 1990s, more __________ education and less ____________ education
abstinence, contraception
sociologists use . . .
abstract theoretical concepts and causal propositions. . .to study concrete observations from systematic research studies.
theoretical concept
an (abstract) idea that is thought through, carefully defined, and made explicit in a theory
higher rates of intermarriage_________
are a sign of less social distance and fewer perceived differences between groups
what patterns do we see in the data? consensus or structural functionalism perspective
even in the post-war era when breadwinner-homemaker families were the most common, there were many (often hidden) conflicts in such families. after a transition period during the 1970's and 1980's, people in dual-earner marriages today have a higher average level of satisfaction that people in breadwinner-homemaker marriages. this doesn't mean that no B-H families are successful, but it should bet us to question whether it's the only or even the best form of family structure
according to the interactionist approach, gender differences within families exist primarily because of
everyday behavior that reinforces gender distinctions
bias
exists when we are not objective in out thinking/ when we do not think critically about our observations, assumptions, and beliefs/ when we do not question our "common sense" or the "conventional wisdom"
consensus perspective
families succeed when the husband can concentrate on work outside the home (instrumental leadership) while the wife focuses more on taking care of the home and family (excessive leadership)
according to modernity theory, which is a characteristic of the "late modern" (or "second modernity") period?
family ties are created by individuals deliberately and by choice
most of the wage gap is because men and women work in different jobs (that are differently paid).
full time, full year employed women make 83% of what full time, full year employed men make
the scientific method as an ongoing process
gather data to test prediction -> develop general theories -> make observations -> think of interesting questions -> formulate hypothesis -> develop testable predictions -> gather data to test predictions -> refine, alter, expand, or reject hypothesis -> develop testable predictions
compulsory heterosexuality
heterosexuality is assumed and enforced by social norms and sometimes laws
what do sociologists study?
human society social organizations social patterns
theory: the conflict perspective sees society as characterized by opposition and conflict - primarily because of class and power inequalities. this opposition and conflict drive social change
hypothesis: male breadwinner-female homemaker families will be more likely than other forms of the family to have conflicts and instability because the benefits of the family structure flow upward rather than inward. capitalists benefit but spousal relationships suffer.
Theory :the consensus or structural functionalism perspective sees society as a set of social institutions, all of which serve a purpose for social order
hypothesis: male breadwinner-female homemaker families will be more successful than other family forms because families need a female expressive leader and a male instrumental leader in order to be successful. Successful stable families are necessary for social order.
explanation: what sociological causes have researchers found? --------> description: what racialized family patterns can we observe today?
racist policies (e.g. post-WWII housing policies) -> structural inequalities added to what already existed (e.g. residential segregation , wealthier white suburbs, poorer inner cities) -> race-neutral policies and trends (e.g. fair housing act, deindustrialization) -> continuing structural inequalities (e.g. differential home values, employment, education, incarceration) -> racialized family patterns (e.g. family wealth, family structure, marriage rates)
marriage - more ________ and more _______________________
sex, satisfying sex
The Thomas Theorem
situations perceived as real are real in their consequences; we've treated race as real for a very long time and that has real consequences
what people in any society consider "traditional" is a ____________, often aimed at going back to a ___________ time when families are perceived to be better than they are today
social construction, mythical
What is a sociological problem?
things that people in society consider problematic ordinary, everyday routines in social life How things in society work social order social change
we all have agency
those decisions and our actual ability to act on them are influenced by the social context in which we live
In a sociological sense, what does it mean to "make the familiar strange?"
to question what we take for granted to be true, including what we consider common sense
private family
two or more individuals who maintain an intimate relationship that they expect will last indefinitely - or, in the case of a parent and child, until the child reaches adulthood - and who usually live in the same household and pool their incomes and household labor
The early decades of the 20th century (1900s)
- increased prosperity and a rise in individualism alongside Jim Crow segregation and racial terrorism in the South and residential segregation plus significant discrimination in the North - goal of a family wage that would allow a man to support a family based on his wages alone - an era of public concern about the family - premarital sex, infidelity/prostitutions (and concerns about disease), divorce - increase focus on the private function of the family (and the first sexual revolution)
image we have of the 1950s masks a lot of variation:
- lower-classes, immigrants, racial/ethnic minorities: more reliance on extended family, dual-earner families, older children and adolescents contributing to the family income - gender: rates of married women's employment continued to rise after the war, single mother families without a male breadwinner struggled to get by - real problems in families: alcoholism, infidelity, juvenile delinquency, domestic violence, etc.
Emerging Modern Family: (1820-1900)
- market: industrial revolution (wage-based economy, urbanization) - enlightenment philosophies (self-interest, happiness) - the cult of true womanhood (women as moral and pure) - state (standard of female faithfulness/male providers, some care for widows and orphans, laws against interracial marriage) - Indian removal act (1835), slavery followed by sharecropping (1865), Chinese labor immigration (1852-1882), Mexican-American war (1848)
True or False: sociologists don't care about individuals at all
False
exchange theory
The division of labor at home is a bargaining relationship. men usually earn more, they hold a stronger bargaining position at the start of the relationship. and if women earn less money, they may accept an arrangement in which they take on the more onerous and time-consuming household tasks. it's and exchange relationship, but that does not mean an equal one.
Emerging Modern Family: (1820-1900): Races
- African American: family "revival", severe poverty, reliance on extended kin - Chinese: split families (wives and children in China, Fathers in the U.S.) - Mexican American: mostly poor farm families, familism - American Indians: really just trying to hold things together as best they could
what is happening (social patterns)?
- For example: gendered social patterns related to the family (work-family conflict, sexuality, etc.) - For example, patterns of sexual identification, desire, and behavior
why should we care? what are the important consequences?
- What patterns in family life seem to have positive consequences for individuals, families, and society? - What patterns in family life seem to have negative consequences for individuals, families, and society? - How knowing the answers to these questions - and the social causes of the patterns - help us move toward more positive consequences for more people, families, and society?
The gini index
- a measure of inequality in which 0 represents complete equality and 1 represents complete inequality - 0.00 would mean everyone has the same income -1.00 would mean one family has all the income
who "counts" as poor
- absolute poverty - the poverty line (or threshold) - economy food plan x3 - food prices have increased less than housing and other costs - government benefits are not accounted for - the cost of living caries from place to place
consensus theory: social class as a ladder
- believe inequality serves a beneficial and necessary function in society - they argue that a pattern of unequal rewards creates incentives for people to seek the extensive training required for difficult and important work
Emerging Modern Family: (1820-1900): European family ideals
- compromise between patriarchal and egalitarians/companionate marriage - separate spheres (men at work/economically-dependent women at home) courtship as a compromise between spousal choice and parental authority - fewer children born later (development of better contraception/condoms, lower child mortality rates) - parent-child relations increasingly about affection instead of children as economic asset - raising children required more resources
The reversal of existing family trends in the late 1940s and 1950s (after world war 2)?
- early marriage and childbearing - rising fertility/ more children per family - nuclear breadwinner-homemaker family the norm - low divorce rates
Which of the following is an example of social construction?
- gender, including our beliefs about how boys and girls are different from each other - ideals of parenting, including our conceptions about what makes for a good parent - conception of family, including our ideas of who "counts" as family
why has this been happening since the early 1900s?
- market: middle class-women gain independence through labor market participation, more need for college education and two adult earners -state: for a while, state programs like Aid to Families with Dependent Children ("welfare") increase the independence of poor women, during the 1980s, all start support becomes less generous (e.g. welfare, student aid, home loans, etc.) but still . . .better than nothing -increasing cultural value placed on individualism including the degree to which love is seen as the proper basis for marriage - second sexual revolution/development of better forms of birth control - increase life expectancy
World War 2 (1939-1945)
- men - and a significant number of women too- serving in the war - formation of marriages that didn't really begin until after the war - women, including married women of all races, moving into the workforce
What's been happening since the early 1900s?
- pre-1950s trends return and amplify (marriage age up, fertility rates down, divorce rates up) - more dual-earner families, more single parent families (divorce and unmarried childbearing), more cohabiting couples, more (out) same-sex couples - later transition into adulthood - more intensive expectations of spouses and parents - more generation alive at the same time
Colonial America: Europeans (before 1820 pre-industrialization, Early American project (mostly local political authority), slave-based economy)
- public marriage - male authority (wives and children as economic and political dependents with no legal existence of their own) - patrilineal descent - centrality of religion - large families - high child mortality - children as "little adult" workers (often in homes of other families) - nuclear family households with boarders or servants - oldest son as inheritor of land and/or family business, youngest daughter as caretaker of aging parent -day-to-day lives of elite families and lives of lower status, less advantaged families were quite different
Colonial America: African Americans (before 1820 pre-industrialization, Early American project (mostly local political authority), slave-based economy)
- race-based generational lifetime slavery (contrast from indentured servants from Europe) - African traditions combined with adaptations to slavery - loss of linage - constant threat of family separation - marriages not legally recognized - children as property of slave owner - most enslaved people married and most children lived with both parents (hope tempered with constant threat of separation and lack of control over family life)
conflict theory: social class as categories
- see inequality as the result of economic exploitation - exploitation: the process by which the labor of some produced wealth that is controlled by others - they believe that in a capitalist society, social classes are distinct categories defined by their ownership (or lack of ownership) of capital - classes are not natural phenomena; they are defined by their relationship to each other -- capitalists and workers exist only in relation to each other
What social factors help to explain this family era?
- strong economy - cultural emphasis on home and family - government programs like the G.I. Bill and low-interest 30-year FHA home loans, very few of which went to anyone not considered white
a biosocial approach to gender:
- studies show that males and females are more alike than they are different - example of maximizing differences: most people who have cosmetic surgery have procedures that enhance the difference between the sexes (e.g. men get breast reductions while women get breast augmentation) - the differences we see between men and women reflect the social organization more so than biology per se
Colonial America: American Indians (before 1820 pre-industrialization, Early American project (mostly local political authority), slave-based economy)
- the family as social structure (both biological and non-biological) - often matrilineal descent - monogamous marriage less central than other family ties - gendered division of labor (male hunters/ female farmers and rearers of children)
what is wrong about the belief that breadwinner-homemaker is the traditional family model of the family?
- up until the last 100 years the B-H was not a traditional family - B-H was pretty much only attainable by wealthier families
doing gender
- when people perform tasks based upon the gender assigned to them by society and, in turn, themselves - what jobs might we choose in order to present ourselves as we feel like we should?
what explains the differences we observe between men and women?
1. gender as something we learn (gender socialization as a lifelong process) 2. gender as something we so at the risk of gender assessment from those with whom we interact; we create gender through everyday interactions (symbolic interactionism) 3. gender as built into social organization; think occupational segregation and differential pay plus the roles we associate with men and women
gender integration of fields stalled in the-
1980s
women have earned more bachelor degrees than since _____ but make an average of ________ less than men with a bachelor degree)
1982, $21,000
how much is enough?
The numbers shown in the animation("16.5 million" people living in Married-Couple Families, "12.4 million" people living as Unrelated Individuals, "34%" of Unmarried Female-headed Families, and"8%" of Married-Couple Families) are all slightly different in the 3rd edition's details. The statistics for the ones listed above are now "12.3 million", "12.7million", "30%", and "6%" respectively.
what is happening (social causes)?
What aspects of social organization - social structure and culture- shapes the patterns that we can observe? - How can we explain variation in patterns over time and space? - Note that each of the theoretical perspectives directs our attention toward certain kinds of social factors
Cohen's definition of race
a group of people believed to share common descent, based on perceived innate physical similarities
Cohen's definition of ethnicity
a group of people with a common cultural identification, based on a combination of language, religion, ancestral origin, or traditional practices
Using ____ helps ensure that research results are not skewed by who is included or excluded in a survey or interview
a random sample
conflict perspective
benefits employer. when wives work at home without pay, they take care of men (and raise the next generation of workers) so that employers don't have to pay them as much.
what patterns do we see in the data? conflict perspective
breadwinner-homemaker families didn't exist until we moved to a labor market (capitalist) economy. the conflict in such families often stemmed from power and resource differentials within the family and the absence of male breadwinner from family involvement. the wealthier of such families relied on the labor of other families who could not afford the B-H model (e.g. maids and nannies). Again, dual-earner families today have higher relationship satisfaction than breadwinner-homemaker families. this doesn't mean that B-H is always "bad", but again, it should get us to question whether it is the only or even the best from of family structure
After the fair Housing Act made it illegal to ar people of color from suburbs, white people feared that they bring the value of the house down_______________
but that only happened when white people choose to leave because of that fear
Chinese citizens______
cannot buy property in Texas
contemporary feminism
in poor and minority communities, men and women often need to come together to unite with a common purpose, which may mean living in "traditional" family structures the feminists have criticized. conflict might be set aside for the sake of community resilience and survival
gender built into social organization
in what ways does the organization of the labor market and pay reflect beliefs about gender and the worth of gendered characteristics?
perspective:
lack of understanding of the past and other contexts obscures our understand of families in our own current contexts
teens- ______ sex, ________ condoms (comprehensive sex education has the best results)
less, more - but more porn, fewer condoms
children living with a single parent (often their mothers) skewed toward the _______ incomes and ___________
lower, poverty
children living with married parents are ______ likely to have more family income
more
later marriage ->
more premartial sex
public family
one adult, or two adults who are related by marriage, partnership, or shared parenthood, who is/are taking care of dependents, and the dependents themselves
how individuals interact with society and vise versa
society -> culture-> social institutions -> organizations -> groups -> statuses -> relationships -> individuals
What are the two dominant institutional arenas that the family interacts with.
state and market
racialization
the formation of a new racial identity, in which ideological boundaries of difference are drawn around a formerly unnoticed and unconnected group of people (Omi and Winant 1994); "Hispanic" as a relatively recently created group (1960s) that is treated very much as a race
Racialized social system
the idea that society is organized along racial lines and that economic, political, social, and even psychological rewards differ according to one's placement in a racial hierarchy. once established, the system of racial hierarchy takes on a life of its own
social mobility
the movement, up or down, between social classes
correct definition of culture
the rules of the game that we are all expected to play
What is sociology?
the study of human society
Theoretical propositions
theoretical statement about relationships among theoretical constructs (e.g. X -> Y)