MCAT- MAIN
minority group
"any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination."
need for achievement (nAch) (by David McClelland)
-a need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones
locus of control
-a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment -see internal locus vs external locus
succinate dehydrogenase
-a step in the TCA cycle, but the enzyme is a transmembrane enzyme found in the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Electron transport chain -succinate is oxidized to fumarate -FAD becomes FADH2
evolutionary stable strategy
-a strategy that, once adopted, will use natural selective pressure to prevent alternate strategies from arising -the strategies are thus passed on as inheritable traits within a population
cultural deviance theory
-a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime -when poor and uneducated people moved to neighborhoods in the city, while wealthy people left to the suburbs, crime increased
cytochrome oxidase
-cytochromes a and a3 make up cytochrome oxidase. -Through a series of redox reactions, cytochrome oxidase gets oxidized as oxygen, becomes reduced, and forms water.
sarcoplasm
-cytoplasm of a muscle cell -located just outside of the SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
Kholberg's stages of moral development
1. Pre conventional- I- Obedience and punishment II- instrumental relativist 2. Conventional- III- good boy/ nice girl IV-law and order 3. Post conventional- Social Contract v- social contract VI- universal human ethics
secretion brief function
A few substances (e.g., organic acids, organic bases, K+ ) are secreted from peritubular capillary blood into tubular fluid. Thus, in addition to filtration, secretion provides a mechanism for excreting substances in the urine
Why is Na+ important?
Consider that Na+ is the major cation of the ECF compartment, which consists of plasma and interstitial fluid. The amount of Na+ in ECF determines the ECF volume, which in turn determines plasma volume, blood volume, and blood pressure
pyloric glands
Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone.
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.(talking)
2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase
Converts 2 conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position, where it will undergo the same rearrangement as monounsaturated fatty acids -uses NADPH
how is creatine phosphate useful for muscles ?
Creatine phosphate is created by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to creatine during times of rest. This reaction can then be reversed during muscle use to quickly generate ATP from ADP:
cultural relativism
Cultural relativism is the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture
what do cultural syndromes do ?
Cultural syndromes influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced.
culture
Culture describes the beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people
cyanohydrin formation
Cyanide functions as a nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon and generating a cyanohydrin.
Death instincts (Thanatos)
Death instincts, referred to as Thanatos, represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction. Thanatos was proposed by Freud as a response to his observations of victims of trauma reenacting or focusing on their traumatic experiences.
debranching enzyme
Debranching enzyme is a two-enzyme complex that deconstructs the branches in glycogen that has been exposed to glycogen phosphorylase remember branches are the 1,6 glycosidic bonds
dehydrogenases
Dehydrogenases transfer a hydride ion (H- ) to an electron acceptor, usually NAD+ or FAD
what are the benefits of having social support ?
-decrease stress, anxiety and depression -low social support is associated with higher drug use, alcohol, suicidal ideation and other -improvement to physical health (less likely to get cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer)
What stimulates the release of ADH?
-dehydration -high blood osmolarity -high blood pressure (all similar)
conflict theory's view on culture
-inherently unequal based on power differentials based on gender, race and age. -cultural norms benefit some people but hurt others -some norms are practiced at the expense of others
what does the brain needs to do to be able to manipulate information in working memory ?
-integrate short-term memory, attention and executive function, -the frontal and parietal lobes are thus involved in addition to the hippocampus
what are the two types of digestion that occur in the body ?
-intracellular (breakdown of glucose and fatty acids to make energy) -extracellular digestion, the extraction of glucose and fatty acids and amino acids from food in the gastrointestinal tract
smooth muscle function
-involuntary movements of internal organs -respiratory, digestive tract, bladder, uterus, blood vessel walls and in many other locations
Dishabituation
-is temporary and always refers to changes in response to the original stimulus (the one we are habituated to), not the new one -Dishabituation is often noted when, late in the habituation of a stimulus, a second stimulus is presented. The second stimulus interrupts the habituation process and thereby causes an increase in response to the original stimulus
conflict theory's view on stratification
-it benefits some people, not all society -perpetuates inequality -how can a rich society have some many poor members? -Capitalists own the means of production, and a system is in place to make business owners rich and keep workers poor -inspired by Karl Marx
through which major blood vessel does blood enter the kidney ?
-it enters via the renal artery
interstitial fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma. why ?
-it has the same composition as plasma, without the plasma proteins and no red blood cells
symbolic interactionism's views on stratification
-it is because of stratification that people tend to live, work and associated with others like themselves (people who share same background, income, education or race) -people's appearances reflect their social standing (housing, clothing and transportation)
what move acetyl-CoA from mitochondria to cytosol ?
-it is converted into citrate (citrate accumulation inhibits TCA cycle) -citrate shuttles moves citrate to cytosol citrate become acetyl-COA and OAA again -acetyl-CoA start fatty acid synthesis
attribution theory
-it is human nature to try and understand why people behave the way they do -attribution theory focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
what is noteworthy about aldol addition?
-it results in the formation of a new C-C bond -A reaction in which an aldehyde or ketone acts as both the electrophile and nucleophile
how can we explain that 'proximity' leads to attraction ?
-it's easier and less demanding to have conversation with someone who is close than someone who is far -familiarity or exposure effect
what are the three main goals of the kidney in the grand scheme of things ?
-keep what the body needs -lose what it doesn't need -concentrate the urine to conserve water
what are the predominant cells of the skin ?
-keratinocytes, produce keratin -produced in the stratum basale
what theories of deviance fall under symbolic interactionism ?
-labeling theory -differential association theory -social disorganization theory -control theory
hydration reaction (base catalyzed)
-lead to the formation of a hydrate -very unfavorable and would require le Chatelier's principle to favor the product
what is the difference between a mirror and a lens ?
-lenses refract light while mirrors reflect it. -in lenses, the light is refracted twice as it passes from air to lens and from lens back to air
kinetic enolate
-less substituted enolate -formed quickly and less stable -higher in energy -removal of a acidic alpha hydrogen
Instincts are the propelling aspects of Freud's dynamic theory of personality and fall into two types:
-life instincts -death instincts
hormonal trajectory from low blood pressure to aldosterone release
-low BP -Renin released -Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to angiotensin I -angiotensin I converted to angiotensin II by ACE -angiotensin II -> adrenal cortex -> aldosterone
GLUT 2
-low affinity glucose transporter -found on *hepatocytes and pancreatic cells* -used for glucose storage in the liver -high Km
modernization theory
-low-income countries are affected by their lack of industrialization and can improve their global economic standing through: -adjusting cultural values and attitudes to work -industrialization and other forms of economic growth
function of albumin
-maintains plasma oncotic pressure - also serves as a carrier for many drugs and hormones, and clotting factors used during blood coagulation.
how can one increase the capacity of short-term memory ?
-maintenance rehearsal -chunking
Gilligan's theory of moral development
-males base morality on individual rights and justice -while women base morality on care and responsibility, they consider people's reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong
complex ion biological applications (cite the general)
-many active sites of proteins utilize complex ion binding and transition metal complexes to carry out their function. -iron of hemoglobin binds O2, CO2, or CO -coenzymes (vitamins) and cofactors also contain complex transition metals. transition metals allow them to bind other ligands that can assist them with electron transfer. -chelation
muscle
-many hundred or thousands of muscle fibers bundled together and wrapped in connective tissue covering
Korsakoff's syndrome
-memory loss disease caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain -confabulation -retrograde and anterograde amnesia
thermodynamic enolate
-more substituted double bond -formed slowly but more stable -higher activation energy -more thermodynamically stable and less energetic
gastric mucosa
-mucosa that lines the stomach, thick layer of mucus -secreted by the epithelial cells -made og glycoprotein
types of cells in the gastric glands
-mucous cells -chief cells -parietal cells
What is the sarcolemma?
-muscle cell membrane -capable of propagating an action potential and can distribute the action potential to all sarcomeres in a muscle
role of glycogen in skeletal muscles
-muscle glycogen is broken down to provide glucose to the muscle during vigorous exercise. -muscle glycogen is stored as an energy reserve for muscle contraction
location of the stomach ?
-muscular organ -upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity
what are two ways that muscles employ to make energy reserves ?
-myoglobin -creatine phosphate
what is the role of ADP in muscle contraction ?
-myosin head bound to ADP can bind the myosin-binding site on the actin filament
how is alertness maintained neurologically ?
-neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain -fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a structure in the brain stem, to keep the cortex awake and alert
glutathione
-neutralizes superoxide radicals O2* formed from H2O2 -reducing agent that can help reverse radical formation before damage is done to the cell
mores
-norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance -some are legally protected, other lead to moral public indignation
aldol addition then aldol condensation full mechanism
-notice how the aldol condensation (part 2) is like an E1 reaction. there is removal of -H, loss of LG and formation of C=C double bond
titration curve of a weak acid by a strong base
-notice how the starting pH is a bit higher than it was for the strong acid because the weak acid doesn't dissociate as much in the water. -less sudden rise at the equivalence point -equivalence point above seven (because there is a weak acid and strong base)
phenotypic benefits
-observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex -these traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring. -strong arms means more likely to protect, nurturing person means he's more likely to take care of offsprings
de novo synthesis of cholesterol
-occurs in the liver -driven by acetyl-CoA and ATP -rate-limiting enzymes: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase. -synthesis of mevalonic acid is the rate-limiting step catalyzed by HMG CoA reductase -NADPH is used as reducing equivalent
back stage self
-when we "let down our guard" and be ourselves. E.g. how we act at home vs. work. -where the actor is not being observed by an audience and is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image without having to worry about ruining his performance.
boiling point elevation equation
-where ΔTb is the increase in boiling point, - i is the van't Hoff factor, -Kb is a proportionality constant characteristic of a particular solvent (which will be provided on Test Day), -m is the molality of the solution
Two factors of reinforcement schedules
-whether the schedule is fixed or variable -whether it is based on ration or interval
example of stereotype threat
-white males in sports -women driving -homosexuals' couple providing healthcare
ester suffix
-yl -oate where -yl is for the -OR group -oate is for the parent chain
Absorption in the GI tract
. Absorption involves the transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues and cells
why doe we oxidize succinate using FAD and not NAD+ ?
. FAD is the electron acceptor in this reaction because the reducing power of succinate is not great enough to reduce NAD+
if a persons's behavior varies in different scenarios:
. If a person's behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it.
given that the dissolution of a gas in a solvent is exothermic. what does le chatelier tells us about how to increase the solubility of a gas in liquid ?
. Le Châtelier's principle tells us this is the reason that lowering the temperature of a liquid favors solubility of a gas in the liquid.
behavioral attitude component
. The behavioral component of attitude is the way a person acts with respect to something.
how many protons are pumped from complex II ?
0
10^-0.5
0.31622776601
the sum of the mole fraction in a system is equal to:
1
what is the mole fraction of a pure solvent ?
1
nucleation of smooth muscles ?
1 nuclei per cell
Projection
-psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others -Projection is the defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. I hate my parents might, for example, turn into My parents hate me.
what are the ways emotional expressions can be managed ?
-stimulating feelings one does not actually feel -qualifying, amplifying, or deamplifying feelings -by masking an emotion with another emotion -by neutralizing any emotional expression whatsoever
what are the three theories under functionalism that tackle deviance in society ?
-strain theory -social disorganization theory -cultural deviance theory
basal ganglia
-structures in the forebrain that help to control movement -makes our movement smooth and our posture steady -receives information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and the spinal cord
Abraham Maslow personality theory
-studied Einstein, Beethoven (people he thought were self-actualizers) -he identified common characterisitcs of these people -self-actualized people are more likely than those who are not to have peak experiences
what are the enzymes and cofactors in complex II that allow the reaction to happen?
-succinate dehydrogenase (succinate oxidized to -fumarate, FAD -> FADH2) Fe-S subunit (oxidizes FADH2) -CoQ is then reduced by Fe-S
secondary groups
-superficial, and not intimate -larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited -last for a short period of time, and their ending is not significant (i.e students working on a group project)
the skin is important for thermoregulation. what are the ways your skin can help maintain constant body temperature ?
-sweating (cooling mechanism) -vasodilation (cooling mechanism) -piloerection (warming mechanism) -vasoconstriction (warming mechanism) -shivering (warming mechanism) -insulation by fat (warming mechanism)
what happens during REM sleep ?
-sympathetic nervous system tend to activate (increased heat rate) -memory consolidation -dreams -genitals aroused -
example of negative reinforcement
-taking an aspirin reduces a headache, so the next time you have a headache, you are more likely to take one --the frequency of taking an aspirin next time increases, because you associated with the headache being gone.
keep in mind that, the vertical structures of the nephron: Loop of Henle collecting duct are mainly concerned with _____
-teh volume and concentration of the urine (concentrate the urine, conserve water)
what does the solubility of a compound depend on?
-temperature -the solvent -the gas-phase solute (pressure) -addition of other substances in solution (common ion effect)
fundamental attribution error
-tendency and bias toward making dispositional attribution rather than situational attribution, especially in negative contexts
false consciousness
-term used by Marx -False consciousness is a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person's own best interest. In fact, it is the ideology of the dominant class (here, the bourgeoisie capitalists) that is imposed upon the proletariat.
Principle of Reversibility
-that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition -children understand it at the concrete operational stage
explicit memory
-the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences -can be subdivided into semantic and episodic memory
what are the factors affecting the salience of an identity ?
-the amount of work we have invested in the identity -the rewards and gratification associated with the identity -the amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity
just-world hypothesis
-the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get -karma
Sodium Handling in the Nephron
-the bulk of the Na+ reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule, where two thirds (or 67%) of the filtered load is reabsorbed (water reabsorption occurs as well) -The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle reabsorbs 25% of the filtered load of Na+ (no water reabsorption) -The terminal portions of the nephron (the distal tubule and the collecting ducts) reabsorb approximately 8% of the filtered load
what is the result of the presence of both the aldehyde and the enolate at equilibrium ?
-the carbonyl of the aldehyde is a good electrophile -the enolate is a nucleophile -the enolate will attack the carbonyl carbon of the aldehyde to form an aldol -this is an aldol condensation
Egocentrism (Piaget)
-the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do (i.e I like iron man toys, my sister must like them too, let me get her some) -An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective.
If the small intestine absorbs more water than does the colon. Why is it important that the colon absorbs water?
-the colon primarily concentrates the remaining material to form feces. Too little or too much water absorption can cause diarrhea or constipation, respectively
according to Raoult's law, when you add a solute to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent decreases. What does that suggest about the boiling point ?
-the decrease in in vapor pressure, means that it's harder for the liquid to transition to vapor. thus the boiling point must increase when you add solute to a solvent.
stratum basale
-the deepest layer of the epidermis -contains stem cells that proliferate to form keratinocytes -also contains melanocytes
what segment of the small intestine is responsible for digestion (barely any absorption)?
-the duodenum -the duodenum is responsible for most of the chemical digestion and has some minor involvement in absorption
Lev Vygotsky and cognitive development
-the engine driving cognitive development was the child's internalization of his culture including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols and language -The language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things is dependent on one's cultural background. -with the help of f adults and other children his skills can develop. or it can come from a teacher or watching other child perform the skill
Hawk-Dove game
-the game focuses on access to shared food -each player can either hawk or dove -hawk -> fight until death -dove -> fight at first, but retreat if the fight become too intense
what would happen to filtration, if a kidney stone block the ureter and lead to a buildup of fluid behind the stone ?
-the hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space would increase. It will become higher than the Starling force favoring filtration -and thus there will be no blood filtration
gender identity
-the individual's sense of being male or female -Gender identity describes a person's appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity
what are some ways that the liver can process the content of the blood it receives from the hepatic portal vein ?
-the liver can take up excess glucose to create glycogen and store it -it can store fats as triacylglycerols -the liver can also reverse the process, and produce glucose for the rest of the body by gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
what are some ways the liver clean up the content of the blood it receives from the hepatic portal vein ?
-the liver converts ammonia, a toxic waste product of amino acid metabolism, into urea, which can be excreted by the kidneys. -The liver also detoxifies and metabolizes alcohol and medications. - Some drugs actually require activation by the enzymes of the liver. In addition, some drugs cannot be taken orally because modification of these drugs by the liver renders them inactive
deindividuation
-the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity -drastic changes in behavior due to presence in a group
what are the functions of the gastric mucosa ?
-the lubrication of food masses in order to facilitate movement within the stomach -the formation of a protective layer over the lining epithelium of the stomach cavity.
Bureaucracies have been criticized. bureaucratic systems shift to be ruled by an elite group. even in a democratic system. Why is that ?
-the necessity of a core body of individuals to carry out the day-to-day activities of the organization, -increased need for specialization, -leadership characteristics of certain members of the group. Thus, even a group established with democratic principles and complete egalitarianism will ultimately centralize, placing power in the hands of a few key leaders
what are the three pair of major salivary glands ?
-the parotid -submandibular -sublingual glands
role partner
-the person with whom one is interacting -behaviors and expectations change with the person with whom one is interacting
so, if the amygdala is activated, one is aggressive. what other parts of the brain can also input into aggression ?
-the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain responsible for higher-order cognition can way in to make a rational decision (hold off from punching someone, or yeah actually punch him)
brush border enzymes
-the presence of chyme in the duodenum causes the release of brush-order enzymes -these include: disaccharidases (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, sucrase) -peptidases (including dipeptidase).mal -they break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers
what stimulates the salivary glands ?
-the presence of food in the oral cavity -signals of food nearby, smell or sight
what makes acetals good protecting groups ?
-the reaction of acetal formation is reversible and can thus be controlled
alpha waves
-the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state but with our eyes closed -slower and more synchronized than beta waves
what happens at The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) ?
-the site of bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt, and water. -It is also the site of secretion for hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonia, and urea
how does the skin help maintain the osmolarity of the body ?
-the skin is relatively impermeable to water. -This prevents not only the entrance of water through the skin but also the loss of water from the tissues
what are the key point of Adler's theory of personality ?
-the striving for superiority drives the personality (selfish -> disorder, unselfish -> enhance personality) -creative-self -family environment is important in molding the person's style of life -fictional finalism
Boiling point definition
-the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external ambient pressure -the temperature at which a substance boils
groupthink
-the tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. -Ethics may be disturbed as pressure is created to conform and remain loyal to the group since nobody else objects this must be a good idea
what does the payoff of the Hawk-Dove strategy depend on ?
-the value of the reward (how much food) and the cost of fighting (injury or no injury, death or no death)
why does it make sense that solvation of solids into liquids is an endothermic process ?
-there is the breaking of the bonds or interactions between solvent molecules in order to make water-solute bonds -water-solute bonds are weaker and less stable -there is a need to input energy in order to allow this process
What do all muscles have in common?
-they are all capable of contraction (rely on calcium ions) -all muscles are innervated
what are the different functions of the kidney ?
-they are excretory organs (remove harmful substances) - they are regulatory (they maintain a constant volume and composition of the body fluid by varying water and solute levels) -they are endocrine organs (they release hormones)
How are water soluble vitamins absorbed?
-they are taken along with water across the endothelial cells of the small intestine and then into the plasma
how are the essential solutes (Na+, amino acid, glucose, etc) reabsorbed in the blood ?
-they enter the Cells of the early proximal tubule through secondary active co-transport or secondary active countertransport (example: Na+-glucose, Na+-amino acid, Na+-phosphate, Na+lactate) -a Na+-K+ ATPase maintain the Na+ gradient -the solute then leave the cells and go into the blood, through facilitated diffusion
mirror neurons function
-they fire when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action -related to empathy and vicarious emotions -they also fire when we experience and emotion or when we see someone else experiencing an emotion
activation of the gastric glands
-they respond to signal from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system, activated by the brain at the sight, smell or taste of food
information processing model, four pillars
-thinking required sensation, encoding and storage of a stimuli -stimuli must be analyzed in the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making -decision made in one situation can be adjusted and used to help solve new problems -problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
George Kelly's Personal Construct Psychology
-thought of the individual as a scientist who devises and tests predictions about behavior of significant people in his or her life -Thus, the anxious person, rather than being the victim of inner conflicts and pent-up energy (as in psychodynamic theory), is one who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in the environment.
meninges
-three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord -the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater -thick connective tissue
peer pressure
-to the social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals -a feeling that you should do something because that is what your friends want
how are the different parts of the esophagus innervated ?
-top of esophagus is under somatic (voluntary control) -the lower part of the esophagus is under autonomic control (involuntary control)
deductive reasoning
-top-down reasoning -starting from a set of general rules and drawing conclusions from the information given
composition of esophagus
-top-third -> skeletal muscle -middle third -> mix of both skeletal and smooth -lower-third -> smooth muscle
how many carbons are lost during TCA ?
-two carbons in the form of CO2 -lost by the oxidation reactions (NAD+ -> NADH) of isocitrate and alpha-ketoglutarate
what are the four Starling pressures?
-two hydrostatic pressures (one in capillary blood and one in interstitial fluid) -two oncotic pressures (one in capillary blood and one in interstitial fluid).
type theory example
-type A vs type B personality -Myer-Briggs
feminist theory
-type of conflict theory that examines inequalities in gender-related issues -argue that in patriarchal societies, males tend to be given more value. women's viewpoints tend to be silenced or marginalized to the point of being discredited or considered invalid
network support
-type of social support that gives a person a sense of belonging -this can be done physically (group hug) , or by gestures like shared experiences, group activities
pyruvate dehydrogenase
-under aerobic conditions converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. - stimulated by insulin - inhibited by acetyl-CoA
Ozonolysis
-use O3 along with DMS -cleave the C=C double bond -forms an aldehyde if either carbons of the double bond have a hydrogen
opposites attract ?
-used to explain the phenomenon of dissimilar people taking a strong or romantic interest in each other -it's not really opposite qualities, it's complementary qualities (i like to nurture, she likes to be nurtured)
reduction of cyanide
-using LiAlH4, cyanide become an amine -using H3O+ and heat, cyanide becomes a carboxylic acid
F1 portion of ATP synthase
-utilizes the energy released as H+ go down their electrochemical gradient to phosphorylate ADP to ATP
VLDL
-very low-density lipoprotein -transports triacylglycerols and fatty acids from liver to tissues -formed in the liver -VLDLs also contain fatty acids that are synthesized from excess glucose or retrieved from chylomicron remnants.
social cognitive theory
-we learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. -not by trial-and-error, but we learn through direct observation, personal factors, and environment -3 factors: behavior, personal factors, and environment are not independent.
how much energy was required to make ATP ?
-when the proton-motive force is dissipated through the F0 portion ΔG°′ = -220 kj/mol, highly exergonic -y change of the reaction, ΔG°′, is a highly exergonic reaction. -This makes sense because phosphorylating ADP to form ATP is an endergonic process. So, by coupling these reactions, the energy harnessed from one reaction can drive another.
πGC, oncotic pressure in glomerular capillaries
is another force opposing filtration. -πGC is determined by the protein concentration of glomerular capillary blood. πGC does not remain constant along the capillary length; rather, it progressively increases as fluid is filtered out of the capillary
rate-limiting enzyme of the citric acid cycle
isocitrate dehydrogenase
what happens after galactose becomes glucose-1-phosphate ?
it can either go into glycolysis or form glycogen
when there is a fluid shift from the ICF to ECF?
it comes from inside the cells -it can come from inside red blood cells
sweat contains more water or solute ?
it contains more water meaning the sweat is hypoosmotic relative to ECF
how does adding solute to a solution affects its freezing point ?
it decreases it (more energy must be removed in order for the solution to freeze)
what does the volume of body fluid compartment depend on ?
it depends on the amount of solute it contains
what happens to the water that leaves the loop of Henle ?
it gets reabsorbed into the the vasta recta
Why is the diluting segment important?
it is the only part of the nephron that can produce filtrate (or urine) that is MORE dilute than blood.. this happens b/c so much salt can be reabsorbed in this segment -the filtrate actually becomes hypotonic compared to the interstitium
does chemical or mechanical digestion takes place in the esophagus ?
no, except for the continued enzymatic activity generated by the enzyme of the oral cavity
How are free fatty acids transported in the blood?
non-covalently bound to albumin.
relational aggression
nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people
Folkways
norms for routine or casual interaction (i.e shaking hands, kissing on the cheek)
unconscious
not within thought; not awake
formation of salts from acid base reactions
note that NaCl is just Na+ and Cl- NH4Cl I just NH4+ and Cl- etc (nothing really shocking here, just know that the products of acid-base rxn can be salts, and they can precipitate)
primary socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity
source monitoring error
occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source (i.e Reagan telling a stroy of a pilot from a movie, he remembered the heroic pilot but forgot the origin of the stroy; also this is the reason why ads work, we forget the source of the information
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group -unlike the "salad bowl," in which each culture retains its individuality, the "melting pot" ideal sees the combination of cultures that results in a new culture entirely.
the enteric nervous system is independent of __
of the brain and spinal cord, although it is heavily regulated by the autonomic nervous system
proactive interference
old information is interfering with new learning
popular culture
popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society. Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the season finale of a television show.
Countercurrent multiplication
process by which a progressively increasing osmotic gradient is formed in the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla as a result of countercurrent flow
secondary socialization
process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society -for example learning how to behave at school , which is different that how would behave at home, or at church -refinements to behavior from primary socialization
Function of fibroblasts
produce collagen and elastin
prokaryotes and introns ?
proks lack the machinery to excise introns. thus is better to introduce cDNA (in which the introns are already excised into the bacteria)
indirect benefits of mate bias
promoting better survival in offspring
what is the main function of the sarcolemma ?
propagation of action potential and distribute the action potential to all sarcomeres in a muscle
propionaldehyde
propanal
propanoic acid
propionic acid
Functional attitudes theory: Ego Defense
protect our self of esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong I was bad at math - so I developed a negative attitude toward the subject
Western Blot ?
protein
clotting factors
proteins in the plasma that serve to activate various parts of the blood clotting process by being transformed from inactive to active forms. Also known as coagulation factors.
Bronsted-Lowry base
proton acceptor
Bronsted-Lowry acid
proton donor
material/tangible support
providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person -making a meal to a friend, or donating money
what are the four areas of personality theories ?
psychoanalytic (psychodynamic), humanistic (phenomenological), type and trait, and behaviorist.
reaction formation
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.
the liver can maintain glucose blood levels through both glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. For how long each ?
During fasting, glycogen reserves drop dramatically in the first 12 hours, during which time gluconeogenesis increases. After 24 hours, it represents the sole source of glucose.
Where is cortisol produced?
adrenal cortex
ACTH stimulates
adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids like cortisol
ACTH
adrenocorticotropic hormone
three components of attitudes
affective, cognitive, behavioral
acinar cells secrete chymotrypsinogen. What converts it to the active form of chymotrypsin ?
after trypsinogen is activated by enteropeptidase to trypsin -trypsin activate chymotrypsinogen to make chymotrypsin
double cross over
aka homologous recombination
what is oe protein made by the liver essential for proper body function ?
albumin
-diol suffix
alcohol with 2 (-OH) groups
aldehydes vs ketones
aldehyde are more reactive
product of aldol condensation
alpha beta unsaturated carbonyl
two particularly important fatty acids
alpha-linolenic acid linoleic acid
striations
alternate dark and light bands found on skeletal and cardiac muscle
when doing ratios, using temperatures, can you use celsius ?
always convert to Kelvins (don' fall into the trick of thinking that because celsius cancels out it will cancel for kelvin. (T1 + 273) / (T2 + 273) != (T1/T2)
glucogenic amino acids
amino acids that can be used to form glucose through gluconeogenesis
alkoxy group
an -OR group
strong acid
an acid that ionizes completely in aqueous solution
Ca2+ is released in response to ____ and binds to _____
an action potential troponin
antidiuretic
an agent that decreases urine production
A flow chart is an example of?
an algorithm
social order
an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, usually not supported with evidence, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning (System 1)
lactase
an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose.
lipoprotein lipase
an enzyme that sits on the outside of cells and breaks apart triglycerides, so that their fatty acids can be removed and taken up by the cell -while HSL works on adipose tissues, LPL works on the metabolism of chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins
total institution
Symbolic interactionist Erving Goffman states that most coercive organizations are total institutions (1961). A total institution is one in which inmates or military soldiers live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization takes place.
What happens in the ascending loop of Henle?
The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to salt but not water; therefore, salt is reabsorbed both passively and actively.
Branching enzyme (glycogenesis)
The branching enzyme is responsible for introducing α-1,6-linked branches into the granule as it grows
looking-glass self
an image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you -we imagine how we must appear to others and then react to this speculation
alter-casting
an impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
expressive leader
an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; -promote emotional strength and health (priest, leader of social homes, social services programs, etc)
attribution
an inference about the cause of a person's behavior
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Calculate the pH of a 1 × 10−8 M solution of HCl
answer is pH = 6.89 (see mcat files if you don't understand how)
from ER to golgi ?
anterograde
ADH
antidiuretic hormone
what is the capacity of the stomach ?
approximately 2 liters
Steady state Osmolarities of ECF and ICF
are equal
lacteal of villi
a lacteal, a lymphatic channel that takes up fats (water-insoluble nutrients) for transport into the lymphatic system
instrumental leader
a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds -maintained in the temporal lobe before it fades
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second -maintained in the occipital lobe before it fades
semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world (i.e Waterloo battle lost by Napoleon was in 1815)
common characteristics of self-actualized people by Maslow
a non hostile sense of humor, originality, creativity, spontaneity, and a need for some privacy
role set
a number of roles attached to a single status Doctors have many role partners: patients, nurses, patients' relatives, other doctors, residents, and hospital administration.
sleep cycle
a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep
Fisherian or runaway selection (mate choice)
a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect or a negative effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time
postabsorptive state
absorption of nutrients from the GI tract is complete, and energy needs must be met by fuels (storage) already in the body -fatty acids are released from adipose tissues and used for energy
how to remember which protein is associated with the thin filament ?
ac(thin) -> thin filament
the collective conscience
according to Durkheim, the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
ethanoic acid
acetic acid
what are the important by-products of beta-oxidation ?
acetyl-CoA (go to TCA cycle, in liver it stimulate gluconeogenesis, make ketone bodies) NADH (can go to ETC to make ATP) FAHD2 (can go to ETC to make ATP)
major enzymes of fatty acid synthesis?
acetyl-CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthase
situational attribution
attributions (external) that relate to feature of surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, peer pressure, family problems etc. (ie. he's probably just had a fight with his mom, he probably just missed the bus, he's just lucky)
cardiac muscles are innervated by ___
autonomic nervous system
smooth muscles are innervated by __
autonomic neurons- parasympathetic, sympathetic or both
behavioral attitude example
avoiding snakes and spending time with one's family
complex IV of the ETC
catalyze the conversion of oxygen to water, a spontaneous reaction that releases energy and pumping 4H+ into the intermembrane space
complex II of the ETC
catalyze the conversion of succinate to fumarate, using succinate dehydrogenase enzyme -producing FADH2 as a byproduct
malate dehydrogenase
catalyze the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate NAD+ reduced to NADH The newly formed oxaloacetate is ready to take part in another turn of the citric acid cycle
primary lactose intolerance
caused by a hereditary deficiency of lactase
what are the three parts of the large intestine ?
cecum, colon, rectum
juxtaglomerular cells
cells of the kidney They are baroreceptors that secrete renin upon sensing a decrease in blood pressure.
acinar cells
cells of the pancreas that secrete digestive enzymes
melanocytes
cells that produce melanin
the most recent development in the brain is the:
cerebral cortex
what can lead to reversal of the normal direction of peristalsis ?
certain factors such as exposure to chemicals, infectious agents, physical stimulation in the posterior pharynx, and even cognitive stimulation, can lead to reversal of peristalsis in the process of emesis (vomiting)
plasticicty
change, formation, weakening or strengthening of connection in the brain
how can the glomerulotubular balance changes ?
changes in ECF volume (the mechanism underlying these changes can be explained by the Starling forces in the peritubular capillaries)
changes in the activity of complex II, would lead to __
changes in proton-motive-force
physical properties
characteristics of processes that don't change the composition of matter, such as melting point, boiling point, solubility, odor, color, and density
a complex ion
charged species consisting of metal ion surrounded by ligands
how does one overcome basic anxiety (Horney) ?
child uses three strategies: -moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security; -moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand; -and moving away, or withdrawing, from people.
CETP
cholesteryl ester transfer protein -catalyzes the transition of IDL to LDL by transferring cholesteryl esters from HDL
Lipoproteins
clusters of lipids associated with proteins that serve as transport vehicles for lipids in the lymph and blood
CoA
coenzyme A; the coenzyme derived from the B vitamin pantothenic acid and central to energy metabolism
group conformity
compliance with a group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to an individual's goals
glycols
compounds containing two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons
uncouplers
compounds that prevent ATP synthesis without affecting the ETC and thus decreasing the efficiency of the ETC/oxidative phosphorylation pathway
lesser curvature
concave medial surface of the stomach
deacetylation of histones
condenses DNA and reduces transcription levels
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers
role conflict
difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles
what are the forms of learning in Learning theory ?
direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, conditioning
isomaltase
disaccharidase/ brush boarder enzyme digests isomaltose into two glucose molecules made in intestinal glands works in the duodenum
Paul Broca
discovered area in the brain (named for him) in the left frontal lobe responsible for language production -the first to discover that impairment to certain part of the brain can affect behavior
androgyny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics -those who can achieve high scores on both masculinity and femininity
dispositional attribution
dispositional attribution (internal) relate to the person's traits, attitudes, personality and behavior (i.e. he's dedicated, he's hard-working, he's lazy)
Type II skeletal muscle
fast, quick bursts on contraction use glycolysis
chylomicrons
fat droplets covered in protein that diffuse into capillaries and lacteals in the small intestine
fatty acid synthesis ____ and ____, while beta-oxidation _____ and ____
fatty acid synthesis reduces and links, while beta-oxidation oxidizes and released
kinetic control
favored at low temp, less steric hindrance, lower transition state, use of strong bulky base
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular (positive or negative) way to objects, people, and events
Where is collagen synthesized?
fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondroblasts
thin filaments of sarcomere
filaments of actin along with two other proteins: troponin and tropomyosin
net secretion
filtered load - excretion rate excretion rate > filtered load
net reabsorption
filtered load - excretion rate filtered load > excretion rate
how do you determine the direction of movement of the electrons given the direction of the magnetic field ?
find the direction of the current the opposite of the direction of the current is the direction of the movement of the electrons
first step in naming a compound
find the longest carbon chain
what is one thing that you most likely need to do, when solving problem that relate to vapor pressure and Raoult ?
find the number of moles of the solvent and the number of moles of the solutes -this will allow you to know the mole fraction
preconventional morality
first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior I)self-interest, obedience (avoiding punishment) II) reciprocity and sharing: I'll scratch your back, you scratch mine.
Hermann van Helmholtz
first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. By actually measuring the speed of nerve impulses in terms of reaction time, Helmholtz is often credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences.
tubular fluid
fluid from the proximal convoluted tubule through the distal convoluted tubule
door-in-the-face compliance
increasing compliance by first asking people to give in to a very large request and then, after they refuse, asking them to give in to a smaller request (i.e. bta3tini l 3elbe kela, 'la2', tayeb 3tini habe wahde, 'ok')
what leads to the release of cortisol in the morning ?
increasing light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. CRF causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release.
trait theorists
individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors
transgender individuals
individuals for which gender identity does not match biological sex
how do you increase the volume of the ECF ?
infusion of isotonic NaCl (increase osmolarity and leads to water flow to ECF)
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase inhibitors
inhibited by its product NADPH
How does cyanide work?
inhibition of cytochrome oxidase in complex IV thus no transfer of electrons
colorism
the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group
Ureter empties into
the bladder
what happens to the nutrients (simple sugars, peptides and amino acids) that pass into the blood ?
the blood carries them to the liver via the hepatic portal vein where they are processed -after that, the blood empties into the inferior vena cava
when writing down electron configuration of an ion, what is very important to account for ?
the fact that an ion is charged, and thus you probably need to add or remove an electron
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
filtrate
the fluid that passes from the blood through the capillary walls of the glomeruli of the kidney which is then sent through the renal tubule
rugae
the folds in the mucosa lining the stomach
how does the formation of a complex ion affects the solubility of a sa;t ?
the formation of a complex ion increases the solubility of a salt in solution
latency stage
the fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things
function of hypodermis
the hypodermis is a layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body. This layer contains fat and fibrous tissue.
the primacy effect
the idea that first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
recency effect
the idea that it is actually the most recent information we have about an individual that is the most important in forming our impressions
functional attitudes theory: Adaptive
the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
the ideal self
the ideal self refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances
nonmaterial cultures
the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society
keep in mind that, the horizontal structures of the nephron: Bowman's capsule proximal convoluted tubule distal convoluted tubule are mainly concerned with ________
the identity of the particles in the urine (keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn't)
hidden curriculum
the informal teaching done by schools
internal anal sphincter
the internal sphincter is under involuntary control (autonomic)
what is the better measure of central tendency for a skewed data ?
the median is better for a skewed data set
what is a good rule of thumb to know which carbon has the highest priority ?
the more oxidized the carbon is, the higher priority it has in the molecule.
According to Horney, what are some example of the neurotic needs ?
the need for affection and approval, the need to exploit others, and the need for self-sufficiency and independence
:No image is formed when
the object is a focal length away
material culture
the object or belongings of a group of people
Reciprocity
the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us -i say something good, you say something good
self-disclosure
the opportunity for self-disclosure, or sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with nonjudgmental empathy. Engaging in this behavior deepens attraction and friendship. This must be a reciprocal behavior, however
xenocentrism
the opposite of ethnocentrism, the belief that another culture is superior to one's own.
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
social support
the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
narcotizing dysfunction
the phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of coverage that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue
equivalence point
the point in a titration where the number of moles of hydrogen ions equals the number of moles of hydroxide ions
why does sweat has a higher boiling point than pure water ? and why is that good ?
the presence of dissolved solutes in sweat increases the boiling point of sweat slightly in comparison to pure water; this allows the absorption of even more heat energy
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
avoidance learning
the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present
confabulation
the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
encoding
the process of putting new information into memory -much of the information we gain is passively absorbed from the environment
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
social control
the regulation and enforcement of norms within society
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
primary circular reactions
the repetition of actions that first occurred by chance and that focus on the infant's own body (sucking thumb)
secondary circular reactions
the repetition of actions that produce an effect on the environment (throwing toys from a high chair)
simple twitch
the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus and consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period
what structures does the small intestine use to absorb nutrients ?
the small intestine is lined up with vili, finger-like projections that absorb nutrients
skeletal muscle are innervated by __
the somatic nervous system
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
Social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable (lifting a couch, group project)
social facilitation
the tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around.
actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation (situational) and blame the actions of others on their personalities (dispositional)
reliance on central traits
the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver
functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use -the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner (example: the candle problem, remember Malcolm Gladwell's test for creativity naming how can one use a brick)
self-reference effect
the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself, or when we put in context of our own lives
group polarization
the tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme than the thoughts of the individual group members.
culture lag
the term culture lag to refer to this time that elapses between the introduction of a new item of material culture and its acceptance as part of nonmaterial culture
culture of prejudice
the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture (racist imagery on grocery store shelves, popular movies, ads)
where does the energy to make GTP in TCA come from ?
the thioester bond in succinyl-CoA is highly energetic. its hydrolysis catalyzed by Succinyl CoA synthetase to form succinate release a great amount of energy enough to form GTP from GDP + Pi
gastrulation is when
the three germ layers form from the blastula
what is the fluid that is filtered during glomerular filtration called ?
the ultrafiltrate
ingratiation
the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor --impression management strategy
how is the different in osmolarity between the loop of henle and vesta recta maintained in the nephron ?
the vasa recta and nephron create a countercurrent multiplier system.
which part of the brain is responsible for the feeling of satiety ?
the ventromedial hypothalamus responds to clue that we are full and promotes the feeling of satiety
Kf (starling equation)
the water permeability or hydraulic conductance of the glomerular capillary wall.
learning pyschology
the way we acquire new behaviors -change in behavior that happens in response to a stimulus
Actual Self in Self Discrepancy Theory
the way we see ourselves as we currently are
intersection theory
theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes
during REM sleep, what happens (physiologically) ?
there is increased respiratory rate and sympathetic activity
where do keratinocytes become connected together ?
these cells become connected to each other in the stratum spinosum
how are triacylglycerol and cholesterol transported in the blood?
they are transported as lipoproteins
what is the main function of brush-order enzymes (disaccharidases) ?
they break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers
How do short and medium chain fatty acids get into the mitochondria?
they can diffuse through the membrane
glycine and proline ? connection ?
they disrupt secondary structures (alpha-helices and beta sheets)
what are the enzyme activated by enteropeptidase ?
trypsinogen -> trypsin trypsin the activates pro carboxypeptidase A and B
anhydrides
two carboxylic acid molecules joined, an one water molecule is removed
how many cytochrome c molecules are reduced in complex III ?
two in one cycle (but since complex I and complex II both reduce CoQ to CoQH2, then we have two CoQH2 going into complex III to a total of 4 cytochrome c reduced)
group
two or more people who interact to accomplish individual or mutual goals, and have a sense of unity
how many protons are pumped from complex IV ?
two protons
the anus is composed of __
two sphincter: external and internal anal sphincters
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings (i.e the temperature, the route i took home, the barista working at starbucks)
internal urethral sphincter
under involuntary (parasympathetic) control.
Gallbladder location
under the liver
external urethral sphincter
under voluntary control.
endogamous marriages
unions of people within the same social category
exogamous marriages
unions of spouses from different social categories
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs
liver location
upper right quadrant
UTP
uridine triphosphate
variation in water reabsorption produce variations in ___
urine osmolarity
reduction of ketone and aldehydes
use LiAlH4 or NaBH4 -they have hydride H- that will donate electrons -reduce the ketone or aldehyde to alcohol
how can we determine the critical angle between two medium ?
use snel law and set theta2 = 90 degrees and solve for the other theta
PEP carboxykinase
uses GTP hydrolysis to make oxaloacetate into PEP
how does the sarcolemma propagate the action potential to all sarcomeres in a muscle ?
using a system of transverse tubules (T-tubules) that are oriented perpendicularly to the myofibril
base rate fallacy
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information (example: tossed a coin 10 times and its heads, the probability that it lands head next is still 50%)
Which reinforcement schedule is the most resistant to extinction?
variable-ratio schedule
how does vasodilation promote sweat evaporation ?
vasodilation brings a large quantity of blood to the skin, which accelerates the evaporation of sweat by maximizing the heat energy available for the liquid-gas phase change. (more blood available to sweat)
Upright images are always
virtual
emsis
vomiting
how can we decrease the ECF volume ?
vomiting or diarrhea
In addition to fats, carbohydrates, amino acids, and vitamins, the small intestine also absorbs ____
water
interstitial fluid
water between cells
A disturbance occurs to change the ECF osmolarity, what happens ?
water will shift across cell membranes to make the ICF osmolarity equal to the new ECF osmolarity. -After a brief period of equilibration (while the shift of water occurs), a new steady state will be achieved and the osmolarities again will be equal.
composition of bile
water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, electrolytes
plasma
watery part of blood
Can you dream during Non-REM sleep?
yes, but these dreams are less vivid than those in REM. -and 75% of dreams occur during REM sleep
the stomach secretes six products:
you can add gastrin secretion by pyloric glands
titration curve of strong acid by a strong base
you probably have to use close enough concentrations
example of dishabituation
you're taking a long car trip and driving for many miles on a highway. After a while, your brain will get used to the sights, sounds, and sensations of highway driving: the dashed lines dividing the lanes, the sound of the engine and the tires on the road, and so on. Habituation has occurred. At some point you use an exit ramp, and these sensations change. As you merge onto the new highway, you pay more attention to the sensory stimuli coming in. Even if the stimuli are more or less the same as on the previous highway, the presentation of a different stimulus (using the exit ramp) causes dishabituation and a new awareness of —and response to—these stimuli
regression
psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated -may return to earlier behaviors, such as thumb sucking, throwing temper tantrums, or clinging to their mothers
negative sanctions
punishments for violating norms
the antrum and the pylorus of the stomach contains___
pyloric glands
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
pyruvate + NADH ↔ lactate + NAD+, present in most tissues, marker of cell damage/death
renal clearance definition
renal clearance is the volume of plasma completely cleared of a substance by the kidneys per unit time. The higher the renal clearance, the more plasma that is cleared of the substance.
the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. All nephron empty into the ___
renal pelvis, which narrow to form the ureter
skin color is caused by ___
skin color is caused by varying levels of activity of the melanocytes. More active melanocytes result in darker skin tones. Upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation, melanocytes increase activity, resulting in a darker skin color
dyssomnias
sleep disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep
type I skeletal muscles ?
slow-twitch fibers (slow contractility)
where are fats digested ?
small intestine (minimal digestion in mouth and stomach)
what type of muscle have myogenic activity ?
smooth muscles cardiac muscles
Types of muscle in the muscular System
smooth muscles skeletal muscles cardiac muscles
out-groups
social groups with whom a person does not identify; "them"
social construction of sexuality
socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality
if Ksp = IP
solution at equilibrium
If Ksp > IP
solution has not yet reached equilibrium and is unsaturated
If IP > Ksp
solution is beyond equilibrium and is supersaturated
what is the common phrase that explains differential association theory?
someone as having "fallen into the wrong group"
lacteals
specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat into the bloodstream
citrate lyase
splits citrate back into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate in the cytosol
Functional attitudes theory
states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense
sliding filament model
states that the thick and thin filaments slide past each other so that their degree of overlap increases. A-band is unchanged H-zone and I-band shorten
cholecystokinin in the digestive system
stimulate the feelings of satiety
leptin in the digestive system
stimulate the feelings of satiety
function of the rectum
stores feces
where in the skin are melanocytes located ?
stratum basale
where are Langerhans cells (macrophages) found in the skin ?
stratum spinosum
what properties do constitutional isomers share ?
structural isomers are widely varied, with different chemical and physical properties.
crystallized intelligence
the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience -decline with age
e-readiness
the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
self-disclosure
the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others -impression management strategy
positive punishment
the administration of a bothersome stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
oxygen debt
the amount of oxygen required after physical exercise to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose
renal plasma flow
the amount of plasma that passes through the kidneys in one minute (plasma is watery blood)
what parts of the brain is responsible for aggressive behavior ?
the amygdala allows us to tell if the consequences of an event are related to reward or punishment. thus, it allows us to see if something is a threat. -the amygdala activation to allow for aggressive behavior
the anal stage
the anal stage (1 to 3 years), during which the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Toilet training occurs during this stage.
critical angle
the angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction of 90 degrees
animus
the animus is the analogous male quality of females that explains power-seeking behavior (a woman's inner man).
three selves of impression management
the authentic self, the ideal self, and the tactical self
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
the bystander effect
-the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present -when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need
cecum
-a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines. -an outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve and is the site of attachment of the appendix -
secure attachment
-a relationship where the child trust and love the caregiver -the child knows that the caregiver will always be a there to protect him -the child is thus free to go and explore knowing that the caregiver will come back -the child can be comforted by another person, but he will always prefer the caregiver
muscle fiber
-a single muscle cell -made up of many myofibrils
achieved status
-a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort -earned
emotional support
-empathising, listening to someone's problems and concerns and feelings 'i'm sorry for your loss', 'trip to the hospital'. 'card or trip'
where does absorption of nutrients occur ?
-it occurs in the small intestine -especially in the jejunum and ileum
scapegoat theory
-suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group. (Hitler)
from a structural functionalist perspective, deviance has a beneficial role. explain
-the view is that deviance fosters social change (think Rosa Parks)
implicit personality theory
The categories we place others in during impression formation is based on implicit personality theory. This theory states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
what happens at the collecting duct ?
The collecting duct is responsive to both aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone and has variable permeability, which allows reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on the body's needs
What are colligative properties?
The colligative properties are physical properties of solutions that are dependent on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on the chemical identity of the dissolved particles.
the enteric nervous system
The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. -neurons present on the walls of the digestive tract and trigger peristalsis or rhythmic contractions of the gut tube in order to move material through the system
normality of a solution
The normality (N) of a solution is equal to the number of equivalents of interest per liter of solution N = equivalants * Molarity
what is the exception when applying Starling forces to glomerular capillaries ?
The oncotic pressure of Bowman's space, which is analogous to interstitial fluid, is considered to be zero because filtration of protein is negligible.
for Ka remember that:
[H+] goes on top ; base goes on top acid goes at the bottom -it make sense, the more H+ you have the more acid have dissociated, teh higher the Ka, -the more acid [HA] you have left in solution, the less the acid has dissociated, the weaker the acid and the lower the Ka
aggression
a behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance
Functional Autonomy (Allport)
a bit component of allport's theory; behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behaviour (i.e. hunt for food, but then hunt for the thrill of the hunt)
tonus
a constant state of low-level contraction, as may be seen in the blood vessels,
saturated fatty acids
a form of fatty acid that lacks unsaturated (no double bonds) linkages between carbon atoms.
time-based prospective memory
a form of prospective memory in which time is the cue indicating that a given action needs to be performed (tend to decline with age)
inclusive fitness
a measure of an organism's success in the population -this is based on the number of offspring, the health of the offspring, and the ability of the offsprings to support each other
index of refraction
a measure of the amount a ray of light bends when it passes from one medium to another
chunking
a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way, or associating the information in STM to an information already in LTM
aldol
a molecule that contains both aldehyde and alcohol, functional groups
the ultrafiltrate
a portion of the blood that is filtered into Bowman's space
what do we first need to know before we calculate normality ?
-what purpose the solution serves -in acid-base reactions, we are most concerned with the concentration of hydrogen ions; in oxidation-reduction reactions, we are most concerned with the concentration of electrons.
beta waves
-when awake and alert -faster and smaller -neurons are randomly firing
Accommodation (Piaget)
-when one changes their schemata to fit new information that has been encountered
When is solvation exothermic?
-when the new interactions are stronger than the original ones -favored at low temperatures
when is solvation endothermic ?
-when the new interactions are weaker than the original ones -favored at high temperatures
sphincter
circular ring of muscle that constricts a passage or closes a natural opening
what activates fatty acid synthesis ?
citrate and insulin
two types of stratification
class, caste
high culture
classical music, opera, ballet, live theater, and other activities usually patronized by elite audiences
habituation
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
rapid decline in cognition
delirium
methanoic acid
formic acid
the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenolysis
glycogen phosphorylase
the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenesis
glycogen synthase
what is included under dyssomnias ?
insomnia sleep apnea narcolepsy
secondary groups serve___
instrumental functions
Fructose-2,6-BP stimulators
insulin
what are the product of the reactions catalyze by the enzymes secreted by the pancreas to digest lipids ?
these enzymes hydrolyze the lipid components to 2-monoacylglycerol, free fatty acids, and cholesterol.
How does the presence of bile, and the consequent formation of micelles from the fat and cholesterol affect the rate of pancreatic lipase's activity ?
these micelles increase the surface area of the fats, increasing the rate at which lipase can ac
Where are fibroblasts found?
they are found in the dermis layer
part of the midbrain
inferior and superior colliculi
ileum
third part of the small intestine
the PDH conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA is __
irreversible
the forebrain form the:
limbic system and the cerebral cortex
associative learning
linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together -classical conditioning -operant conditioning
Where is bile produced?
live r-Bile is produced in the liver and travels down these bile ducts where it may be stored in the gallbladder or secreted into the duodenum.
how is the protective mucus of the stomach produced ?
mucous cells of gastric glands produce bicarbonate-rich mucus that protect the muscular wall of the stomach from the acid (pH=2) and proteolytic environment
many muscle fibers (muscle cells) form a __
muscle
myocytes
muscle cells
another name for muscle cell is__
muscle fiber
sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to to form ___
myofibrils
life instincts (eros)
promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual need
7. Beta oxidation of a 14-carbon fatty acid will make_______________ acetyl-CoA units after________ rounds of beta-oxidation.
seven, six
sleep spindles
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
dextrins
short chains of glucose units resulting from starch breakdown
micturition reflex
the autonomic involuntary relaxation of the urethral sphincter in response to increased pressure in the bladder
paternalistic stereotype
the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored low status not competitive
if the cost of fighting is significantly lower than the value of the reward:
the hawk will have an advantage
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
inferior colliculi
the inferior colliculus receives sensory information from the auditory system. The inferior colliculus has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises.
Once in the lumen of epithelial cells lining up the small intestine, how do the nutrient pass to the blood ?
simple carbohydrates and amino acids diffuse from the epithelial cells into the capillaries (probably facilitated diffusion)
glyceraldehyde
simplest aldose
racial profiling
singling out an individual as a suspect due to appearance of ethnicity
glucose-6-phosphatase is absent in:
skeletal muscles
As permeability of the collecting duct increases
so too does water reabsorption, resulting in further concentration of the urine
slow-waves sleep
stages 3 and 4
How does sweat cool the body?
sweat absorbs heat from the body and evaporates
to which sociological theory does "impression management" belong to ?
symbolic interactionism
enamines and imines are:
tautomers
why are red fibers called slow-twitch fibers/muscles ?
-muscle that contract slowly, and that can sustain activity -they act slowly, but longly
alcohol suffix
-ol
what are the ways we can make an aldehyde ?
-oxidation of primary alcohols (by PCC) -ozonolysis of alkenes (by O3 and DMS) (at least one of the carbons of the alkene must be bonded to -H) -
function of ileocecal valve
-prevents food from moving back into the small intestine once it has entered the large intestine
functionalism's views on culture
-society needs culture to exist -cultural norms function to support the operation of society -cultural values guide people in making choices -culture function to meet society members' needs
what happens to IDl ?
-some are reabsorbed by the liver -some are further processed in the bloodstream -some IDL picks up cholesteryl ester from HDL to become LDL -
Steps of fatty acid synthesis
-starts with glucose -> pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA -> citrate and so on
what are the main functions of CKK ?
-stimulates the release of both bile and pancreatic juices -and also acts in the brain, where it promotes satiety
Merkel cells
-touch receptors in the skin -responsive to pressure and texture
cultural attribution
-type of culture an individual is a part of plays a major role in the types of attributions the individual makes
redlining
a practice in which banks refuse to make loans to people living in certain geographic locations (located predominantly in minority communities)
reference group
a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
pancreatic lipase
capable of breaking down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol.
efferent arterioles in the kidney:
carry blood away from the glomeruli
afferent arterioles in the kidneys:
carry blood toward the glomeruli
under normal circumstances peristalsis propel food ___
down the digestive tract
role exit
dropping of one identity for another
Solomon Asch
conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length
two parts of the kidney
cortex and medulla
how does the ego deal with the anxiety caused between the id and the supergo ?
defense mechanisms
ECF
extracellular fluid (1/3)
components of emotional expression according to Darwin ?
facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes.
Fritz Heider
father of attribution theory
uridine
nucleoside of uracil
stationary phase of anion exchange chromatography
positively charged in order to hold negative stuff.
informational support
providing information that will help someone
t-butyl
tertiary butyl
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
agnosia
the inability to recognize familiar objects.(object, people or sounds)
what segment(s) of the small intestine is responsible for absorption ?
the jejunum and the ileum
when blood pH is too high,___
the kidneys can excrete more bicarbonate and increase the reabsorption of hydrogen ions.
When blood pH is low, ___
the kidneys excrete more hydrogen ions and increase reabsorption of bicarbonate
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. -meet the demands of objective reality
which part of the brain is responsible for the feeling of hunger ?
the lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger
Smooth muscles can contract with nervous input. what stimulates them to do so ?
the muscle cells contract directly in response to stretch or other stimuli.
what muscle initiate swallowing ?
the muscle of the oropharynx, constitutes the upper esophageal sphincter
upper esophageal sphincter
the muscular ring located at the top of the esophagus
molarity
the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
social construction of race
the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable but rather a sociological way of understanding racial categories
Personality
the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations.
gatekeeping
the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount
model minority
the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
social perception
the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
the solvent
the substance in which the solute dissolves
what do we mean by real lenses ?
the thickness can't be neglected
Raoult's Law
the vapor pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solvent present -thus the lower the mole fraction of solvent the lower the vapor pressure
what is the premise of all psychoanalytic theories ?
they all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
how are complex II and FAD linked ?
they are covalently linked
skeletal muscle function
voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control
When is melatonin secreted?
when there is low light
Northern Blot ?
RNA
ketone to alcohol
Reduction NaBH4
how many ATPs per NADH ?
2.5 ATPs
Parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep: night terrors & sleepwalking
Franz Gall
phrenology; associated development of a trait with growth of its relevant part of the brain
de facto
(adj.) actually existing or in effect, although not legally required or sanctioned; (adv.) in reality, actually
what are some reasons why the liver might not be able to process bilirubin ?
(due to liver damage, excessive red blood cell destruction, or blockage of the bile ducts
geminal diol
- A compound with two hydroxyl groups on the same carbon due to a hydration reaction -hydrates
fructokinase
- Traps fructose into the cell - catalyzes fructose into fructose 1-phosphate -
hierarchy of salience
- how our identities are organized - we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most important for us at any given moment
ribose-5-phosphate
- pentose phosphate pathway intermediate (or final product) -used to make nucleotides
isocitrate dehydrogenase
- rate limiting enzyme of TCA -converts isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate -isocitrate is oxidized by NAD+ -there is release of CO2
isopropyl
1-methylethyl
secretin
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from increased stomach acid).
what inhibits F-1,6-BP ?
AMP F-2,6-BP
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which a group or individual's culture begins to melt into another culture
water soluble vitamins
B vitamins and vitamin C
BAT-D
Beta Alpha Theta Delta "BAT sleeps during the Day"
Southern blot ?
DNA
Glycogen synthase activators
G6P insulin
strong bases
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
can NaHCO3 cross the cell membrane ?
No
creative-self
The creative self is the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality. Style of life represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority
what is the ultrafiltrate composed of ?
The ultrafiltrate contains water and all of the small solutes of blood, but it does not contain proteins and blood cells.
why do short-chain fatty acids do not require transport when absorbed?
These fatty acids do not require transporters because they are nonpolar, so they can easily traverse the cellular membrane
conflict theory on gender
argue that patriarchal capitalists benefit through systems that subordinate women
why does ammonia gets converted into urea ?
as a base, ammonia can disturb the pH of blood and cells. -thus the body needs to get rid of it
Biotin (Vitamin B7)
bacteria in the gut produce biotin (vitamin B7 ), which is a coenzyme for many metabolic enzymes
vitamin K
bacteria in the gut produce vitamin K, which is essential for the production of clotting factors
On Test Day, the first thing you need to do when seeing a chemical equation is to:
balance it or make sure its balanced
sarcomere
basic contractile unit of muscle
Why is the Q cycle necessary?
because CoQH2 has two electrons and cytochrome C can only accept one
the early proximal tubule can be thought of as performing the "highest priority" reabsorptive work. why ?
because at the early proximal tubule glucose, amino acids, and HCO3- which are important for metabolism are reabsorbed
example of achieved status
becoming a plumber, electrician, sales representative, nurse, executive, lawyer, and doctor
what is one way epinephrine leads to increase contractility of heart muscles?
by increasing intracellular calcium levels within cardiac myocytes.
de jure
by law
in a solution, knowing whether a solution has reached saturation can be very helpful. How can we know where we are in the reaction of dissolutin ?
calculate ion product (IP)
role strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
Two types of attributions
dispositional and situational
short-term memory
fades quickly around 30 seconds without rehearsal and limited to 7+/-2 rule
what does the lipase in saliva do ?
hydrolysis lipids
monozygotic twins
identical twins 100% same genes
variable-ratio schedule
reinforce behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. With this type of reinforcement schedule, researchers might reward a rat first after two button presses, then eight, then four, then finally six.
what causes filtration equilibrium
♦ πGC, oncotic pressure in glomerular capillaries, is another force opposing filtration. πGC is determined by the protein concentration of glomerular capillary blood. πGC does not remain constant along the capillary length; rather, it progressively increases as fluid is filtered out of the capillary. ->πGC eventually increases to the point where net ultrafiltration pressure becomes zero and glomerular filtration stops (called filtration equilibrium). -as more fluid moves from the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's space, the concentration of protein increases, increase in glomerular oncotic pressure
methylvinylketone
3-butene-2-one
rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis
3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA)reductase
normal blood osmolarity
300 mOsm
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs 8 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccygeal
protons from complex I of ETC
4 H+ pumped
Wavelength of blue light
400 nm shorter than the wavelengths of red light, higher in energy
wavelengths of red light ?
700-800 nm
how many acetyl-CoA are yielded by a 16-carbon fatty acid ?
8
learned helplessness example
- dogs that had been exposed to uncontrollable electric shock and subsequently did not try to escape the shock when it was possible to do so
glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle
- electrons are transferred from NADH to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), forming glycerol 3-phosphate - these electrons can then be transferred to mitochondrial FAD, forming FADH2. this is done through the conversion of glycerol-3-phosphate back to DHAP by another glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme found in complex II of the ETC -this generates 1.5 ATP
malate-aspartate shuttle
- electrons are transferred from NADH to oxaloacetate, forming malate (malate dehydrogenase is the enzyme, this reaction is reversible, eq changes depending on conditions) - malate can then cross the inner mitochondrial membrane. mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase reverses the reaction (to form OAA again) to form mitochondrial NADH. Now that NADH is in the matrix, it can pass along its electrons to the ETC via Complex I and generate 2.5 ATP per molecule of NADH.
what leads to build up of lactic acid in the muscle ?
- even with all the adaptations, muscle use can quickly overwhelm the ability of the body to deliver oxygen. -then, even red muscle fibers must switch to anaerobic metabolism and produce lactic acid, at which point the muscle begins to fatigue
methods of gaining compliance
- foot-in-the-door technique - door-in-the-face technique - lowball technique - that's-not-all technique
What does Raoult's law state?
-As solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent decreases proportionately.
the renal tubule
-compromised of many segments (see picture)
M-line
-middle of sarcomere -middle of myosin filaments
portal system
A portal system consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart
amphiprotic
A species that can either accept or donate a proton .
how are branch introduced into glycogen ?
Branching enzyme: -Hydrolyzes one of the α-1,4 bonds to release a block of oligoglucose (a few glucose molecules bonded together in a chain), which is then moved and added in a slightly different location. -Forms an α-1,6 bond to create a branch.
conspicuous consumption
Buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position
Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
In the cytosol of the cell liver usually
five mechanisms of mate choice
Phenotypic benefits, sensory bias Fisherian/runaway selection indicator traits genetic compatibility
talk about the osmolarity of the medulla of the kidney
The descending limb is permeable only to water, and the medulla has an ever-increasing osmolarity as the descending limb travels deeper into it.
consensus cues
The extent to which a person's behavior differs from others (i.e he doesn't go out like everybody else, he studies all night)
oral stage
The first stage is the oral stage (0 to 1 year). During this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth
Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals. What happens then ?
These lacteals converge and enter the venous circulation at the thoracic duct in the base of the neck, which empties into the left subclavian vein
le chatelier's principle in complex ion formation
as an amount of silver ion is being used up to form the complex ion itself, the dissociation reaction of AgCl shifts to the right, providing more silver for complex ion formation. this is why formation of complex ions increases the solubility of a salt in solution
what is the driving force for urea reabsorption
as water is reabsorbed along the nephron, the urea concentration in tubular fluid increases, creating a driving force for passive urea reabsorption
part of the colon
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
ascribed status
ascribed status is a social position that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background.
what are the three types of statuses ?
ascribed, achieved, master
peg-word
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers for example, one -> sun two -> pair of shoes etc.
thermodynamic control
at high temperature, more stable product formed
when are ICF and ECF osmolarities equal?
at steady-state at equilibrium
capillary bed of villi
at the middle of each villus, there is a capillary bed for the absorption of water-soluble nutrients
type theorists
attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types
social control
attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior -a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
In many instances, we resist being labeled, particularly with labels we perceive as negative. However, groups may embrace deviant labels. Example ?
biker gangs utilize labeling to enhance the perception of their own subgroup
the bile is made of bile salts, pigments and cholesterol. What is the major pigment in the bile ?
bilirubin
which is higher energy red or blue light ?
blue light
alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
bond made by glycogen synthase in the process of adding glucose to the glycogen chain
agents of socialization for adults
bosses, colleagues, family
spite in game theory
both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted
cooperation in game theory
both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating
where does the chemical digestion of carbohydrate occur ?
both the mouth and the small intestine
theta waves
brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep
the hindbrain and the midbrain form the:
brainstem
alpha oxidation
break down of branched fatty acids
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
what would happen if complex IV is damaged ?
build-up of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
thick filaments of sarcomere
bundles of myosin
why are they openings in the skin ?
for sweat and sebaceous glands
dizogotic twins
fraternal twins 50% genes similar
polygamy
having more than one spouse or mate at a time
potentiate
increase the potency or strength of something
Inverted images are always
real
Types of fibers within skeletal muscle
red fibers and white fibers
the more substituted the alkene, the more___
stable it is
Me (George Herbert Mead)
"Me" is the part of self that is a response to the environment
nearsighted
can see nearby things clearly, but objects at a distance are blurred
Pierre Flourens
extirpation/ablation; concluded that different brain regions have specific functions
signaling stimuli
neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus
retroactive interference
new information causes forgetting of old information
what falls under parasomnias ?
night terror and sleep walking
if filtered load = excretion rate
no net absorption or secretion
Ideal Self (Self-Discrepancy Theory)
person we would like to become or be
Important Jungian archetypes
persona, anima, animus, shadow
culture shock
personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
forms of aggression
physical, verbal, relational
Where is melatonin secreted from?
pineal gland of the brain
CRF stimulates the ?
pituitary release of ACTH
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future (tend to not decline with age)
Excretion
removal of waste in the form of Urine
I (George Herbert Mead)
"I" is the creative expression of the individual.
impression management
"impression management" to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present
Piloerection
(goosebumps) in cold conditions, arrector pili muscles contract, causing the hairs of the skin to stand up on end -this helps trap air near the skin
Kf constant
(the formation or stability constant of the complex in solution
myglobin
-An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells -.oxygen carrier that uses iron in a heme group to bind oxygen, imparting a red color
lower esophageal sphincter
-a muscular ring that controls the flow between the esophagus and stomach -relaxes and open to allow passage of food
the propionic acid pathway
*exception to the rule that fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose in humans!
Learning Theory
-Based on the idea that changes in behavior result more from experience and less from our personality or how we think or feel about a situation. -attitudes are developed through different forms of learning
the social construction model
- assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions - states that emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions -suggests that emotions are expressed differently across cultures.
other than being a reducing agent in the PPP, what are some roles of NADPH ?
-Biosynthesis, mainly of fatty acids and cholesterol -Assisting in cellular bleach production in certain white blood cells, thereby contributing to bactericidal activity -Maintenance of a supply of reduced glutathione to protect against reactive oxygen species (acting as the body's natural antioxidant)
flashbulb memory
-A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event. - with components of both episodic and semantic memory (i.e where were you on 9/11)
hypothalamus
-A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities of the autonomic nervous system (eating, drinking, body temperature), -helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
attribute substitution
-A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception, or apply a heuristic (i.e the $1.10 questions, remember thinking fast and slow, who we tend to answer a question by replacing it with a smaller one, this basically what this is)
melanin
-A pigment that gives the skin its color -made by melanocytes in the skin -protects skin from DNA damage cause by ultraviolet radiation
titin
-A series elastic component protein responsible for allowing the sarcomere to stretch and recoil =spring and anchors the actin and myosin filaments together, preventing excessive stretching of the muscle
how do muscle cells recover and prepare for the next contraction after the termination of a muscle contraction ?
-ACh is degraded by the enzyme known as acetylcholinesterases -this results in termination of the signal and repolarization -as the signal decays, Ca2+ release ceases, and the SR takes up calcium from the sarcoplasm -ATP binds to the myosin heads, freeing them from actin. - Once the myosin and actin disconnect, the sarcomere can return to its original width
what is the role of ATP in muscle contraction ?
-ATP binding to the myosin head breaks the myosin-actin cross bridge -This ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and Pi, which recocks the myosin head so that it is in position to initiate another cross-bridge cycle.
archetypes
-According to Jung, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. -the building blocks of the collective unconscious (i.e having a mother and a father) -they have an emotional element
fictional finalism
-Alder's theory that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences -Fictional finalism can often be summed up by the phrase Life would be perfect if only
hoe does the debranching enzyme work ?
-Breaks an α-1,4 bond adjacent to the branch point and moves the small oligoglucose chain that is released to the exposed end of the other chain. - Forms a new α-1,4 bond. -Hydrolyzes the α-1,6 bond, releasing the single residue at the branch point as free glucose. -This represents the only free glucose produced directly in glycogenolysis (as opposed to the glucose produced from glucose 1-phosphate, which must be converted by a mutase to glucose 6-phosphate before it can be converted to glucose via the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase).
electra complex
-Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals
What happens in the distal convoluted tubule?
-DCT responds to aldosterone -aldosterone promotes the reabsorption of sodium -Because sodium ions are osmotically active particles, water will follow the sodium, concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume. -like PCT, DCT is a site of waste secretion (HUNK)
what happens after fructose-1-P is cleaved into DHAP and glyceraldehyde ?
-DHAP can go into glycolysis, glycogenesis or gluconeogenesis -glyceraldehyde become glyceraldehyde-3-P by some kinase and can then also go into glycolysis, glycogenesis or gluconeogenesis
Carl Rogers theory
-Developed "client-centered" therapy -people have the freedom to control their own behavior (not slaves of the unconscious, or of faulty learning) -unconditional positive regard
Gastrin
-Digestive hormone that stimulates the sustained secretion of gastric juice from the stomach or -Gastrin induces the parietal cells in the stomach to secrete more HCl and signals the stomach to contract, mixing its contents.
what is the basis of Erikson's stages of development ?
-Erik Erikson's stages of personality development are based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands -According to Erikson, it is possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean that mastery of each stage is required to move on to the next
Heterochromatin
-Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed. -methylated and not acetylated
example of cultural syndromes between USA and Japan
-For example, happiness is generally considered a positive emotion across cultures. However, in countries with more individualistic cultural syndromes, like the United States, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced. -In contrast, in countries with a more collectivist cultural syndrome, such as Japan, happiness is a very rational emotion and generally applied to collective experiences more than to individual successes or experiences. This difference is illustrated in the contrast between the phrases I am happy and I am sharing happiness with others
id
-Freud -unconscious -strive for immediate gratification -aim to satisfy biological and sexual needs -mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, tr to satisfy that need
functionalism on sexuality
-From a functionalist point of view, the purpose of encouraging sexual activity in the confines of marriage is to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship. -From a functionalist standpoint, homosexuality cannot be promoted on a large-scale as an acceptable substitute for heterosexuality. If this occurred, procreation would eventually cease. homosexuality can be dysfunctional if on a very large scale
theory of multiple intelligences
-Gardner theory of intelligence -posits that there are up to seven types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
symbolic interactionism on gender
-Gender is learned through the process of socialization; gender inequalities are reproduced through interactions with family, peers, schools, and the media -Because the meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not natural, and fluid, not static, we act and react to symbols based on the currently assigned meaning. -think about how the meaning of the word gay went from being "happy", to being GAY, to being a neutral or positive term about homosexuals
frequency summation
-If a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, it will have insufficient time to relax. The contractions will combine, become stronger and more prolonged. This is known as frequency summation or -Strengthening of contraction that results when the stimuli are so frequent that muscle cannot fully relax. The stronger contraction is due to the involvement of more muscle fibers.
what would happen if the blood of the vasa recta and the filtrate in the loop of Henle were not in opposite direction ?
-If the two flowed in the same direction, they would quickly reach equilibrium and the kidney would be unable to reabsorb as much water. -By making the two flow in opposite directions, the filtrate is constantly being exposed to hypertonic blood, which allows maximal reabsorption of water.
zone of proximal development
-In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction -referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
what does the acetyl-CoA made during beta-oxidation useful for ?
-In muscle and adipose tissue, acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle. -In the liver, acetyl-CoA, which cannot be converted to glucose, stimulates gluconeogenesis by activating pyruvate carboxylase
GLUT 4
-Primarily expressed on muscle cells and adipocytes. -stimulated by insulin -it has low Km
Urea reabsorption and secretion
-In the proximal tubule, 50% of the filtered urea is reabsorbed by simple diffusion -In the thin descending limb of Henle's loop, urea is secreted -The thick ascending limb of Henle, distal tubule, and cortical and outer medullary collecting ducts are impermeable to urea, so no urea transport occurs in these segments -in the presence of ADH, urea is reabsorbed by UT1, moving down its concentration gradient from the lumen into the interstitial fluid of the inner medulla.
functionalism's views on racism and discrimination
-In the view of functionalism, racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to exist as long as they have -racism is functional for the dominant group (i.e slave owners benefited, rationalizing that blacks' are inferior) -racism can strengthen bonds between in-groups members through the ostracism of out-groups members -dysfunctions associated with racism: -not taking advantage of the talent in the subjugated group -takes a lot of money and effort to maintain racially constructed boundaries
Where does bilirubin come from?
-It comes from the breakdown of heme, a part of the hemoglobin. -
collective unconscious
-Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements -a powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors. Its building blocks are images of common experiences, such as having a mother and a father
what are the major ions, molecules found in the ICF ?
-K+ -Mg2+ -anions -> proteins and organic phosphate (ATP, ADP, AMP)
Jean Piaget
-Known for his theory of cognitive development in children -very influential in the field of cognitive development
role of glycogen in the liver
-Liver glycogen is broken down to maintain a constant level of glucose in the blood -Glycogen stored in the liver is a source of glucose that is mobilized between meals to prevent low blood sugar
McDonaldization
-McDonaldization is commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies. -Chains are predicable, uniform, efficient and automated; however, homogeny of the organization leads to loss of originality/creativity
what are the sensory cells found in th dermis ?
-Merkel cells (deep pressure and texture), -free nerve endings (pain), -Meissner's corpuscles (light touch), -Ruffini endings (stretch), -Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure and vibration).
strain theory
-Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals -deviance is explained as a natural reaction to the disconnect between a social group and social structure
Wright Mills and the Power Elite
-Mills describe the existence of the power elite (a small group of people who have a lot of power from money, to access to media, etc) -the decision of the power elite affect everyone in society -they decide what is deviant and what is not, and the effect are often felt by those with little power
Complex I of ETC
-NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase -the transfer of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q (CoQ) is catalyzed in this complex -NADH -> NAD+ and CoQ -> CoQH2 -release of 4 H+ into intermembrane space
mechanism of isosmotic reabsorption
-Na+ enters the cell across the luminal membrane -because the luminal membrane is permeable to water, water follows the solute to maintain isosmolarity -Na+ is pumped out of the cell by the K+-Na+ ATPase, into the lateral intracellular space, as Na+ is pumped out water again follows passively - isosmotic fluid accumulate in the intracellular space. the Starling force (high oncotic pressure in the peritubular capillaries) draws the isosmotic fluid in, -The high πc is then a pressure favoring reabsorption of isosmotic fluid.
national identity
-National identity is the result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols such as a country's flag. Nationality need not be tied to one's ethnicity or even to legal citizenship.
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
-Organic brain syndrome resulting from prolonged heavy alcohol use, involving confusion, unintelligible speech, and loss of motor coordination. It may be caused by a deficiency of thiamine, a vitamin metabolized poorly by heavy drinkers.
CCK promotes the secretion of pancreatic juices into the duodenum among other functions. What do these pancreatic juices contain ?
-Pancreatic juices are a complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution. -This bicarbonate helps to neutralize acidic chyme, as well as provide an ideal working environment for the digestive enzymes, which are most active around pH 8.5. -Pancreatic juices contain enzymes that can digest all three types of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Galactokinase
-Phosphorylates galactose, trapping it in the cell. galactose become galactose-1-phosphate -ATP hydrolyzed to ADP
preoperational stage
-Piaget -from 2 to 7 years -can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas -they engage in pretend play (Ross pretending to be a girl: I'm a Bee) -they start to use language -But, they can't understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information. -their logic at this age is based on their knowledge of the world, rather than the conventional knowledge -they have not developed the idea of conservation -display egocentrism
sensorimotor stage
-Piaget first stage -from birth to about w years -they learn about eh world through their senses (they grasp objects, touch stuff, put stuff in their mouth) -they develop object permanence -they develop stranger anxiety
formal operational stage
-Piaget theory -from age 11 to adulthood --they can deal with abstract idea and hypothetical situations -use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions -in adolescence, new egocentrism occurs
concrete operational stage
-Piaget's theory -from about 7 to 11 years old -children can think logically about real events, they can use numbers and employ memory strategies. -they can perform mathematical operations and understand that addition is the opposite of subtraction -they understand the concept of conservation -they understand the principle of reversibility
symbolic interactionism's view on culture
-Proponents of this theory conceptualize human interactions as a continuous process of deriving meaning from both objects in the environment and the actions of others -perceive culture as highly dynamic and fluid, as it is dependent on how meaning is interpreted and how individuals interact when conveying these meanings
what were Carl Rogers therapeutic methods ? (client-centered therapy)
-Rather than providing solutions or diagnoses, the person-centered therapist helps the client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his or her own destiny. -help patients reconcile difference between the various selves and reduce stress inducing incongruence
alcohol oxidation
-React primary with KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 to make carboxylic acid, -react primary with PCC or PDC to make aldehyde, -react secondary with KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 to make ketone
cardiac electrical activity path briefly
-SA node -depolarization spreads to AV node -AV node transfer depolarization down the Bundle of His -Bundle of His branches to the Purkinje Fibers
premise of social cognition
-Social cognition focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior -Our attitudes—the ways in which we perceive others—impact the ways we behave toward them.
Functionalism's view of stratification
-Some jobs are more important than other jobs. -Some jobs require more skills and knowledge than other jobs. -Relatively few people have the ability to acquire the skills and knowledge that are needed to do these important, highly skilled jobs -To induce the people with the skills and knowledge to do the important, highly skilled jobs, society must promise them higher incomes or other rewards .
complex II of ETC
-Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase -Accepts two electrons from succinate via an FAD group to CoQ --> CoQH2 -no protons pumped
affective attitude
-The affective component of attitude refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude.
glomerulus
-The glomerulus is a glomerular capillary network, which emerges from an afferent arteriole. Glomerular capillaries are surrounded by Bowman's capsule (or Bowman's space), which is continuous with the first portion of the nephron. -Blood is ultrafiltered across the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's space, which is the first step in urine formation. The remainder of the nephron is a tubular structure lined with epithelial cells, which serve the functions of reabsorption and secretion.
if asked about choosing the right indicators for a titration how do we proceed ?
-The indicator must always be a weaker acid or base than the acid or base being titrated; otherwise, the indicator would be titrated first! -you need to know what the pH of the reaction at the equivalence point will be -select the indicator that has the closest pKa to the pH found
What is the stratum lucidum?
-The stratum lucidum is only present in thick, hairless skin, such as the skin on the sole of the foot or the palms, and is nearly transparent.
Carnitine acyltransferase I
-These enzymes catalyze the reversible exchange of acyl groups (which derive from fatty acids) between coenzyme A and carnitine. -carnitine attachment allows the transport of long-chain fatty acid into the mitochondria for beta-oxidation -rate-limiting enzyme of fatty-acid oxidation
what is the purpose of connecting cardiac cells by intercalated discs that contain gap junctions?
-These gap junctions are connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for the flow of ions directly between cells. -This allows for rapid and coordinated depolarization of muscle cells and efficient contraction of cardiac muscle.
how is glucose-1-phosphate activated ?
-This activation occurs when glucose 1-phosphate interacts with uridine triphosphate (UTP), forming UDP-glucose and a pyrophosphate (PPi)
instinctive drift
-This difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors -the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning through behavioral techniques such as classical or operant conditioning
what is the results of cognitive dissonance ?
-This generally leads to an internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion. Individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts -having the thought that the Earth is flat, but you see the top of the ship disappear behind the curve of the heart. (two contradictory thoughts), you relieve the tension by saying that this must be fabricated
why is the gastric mucosa very thick ?
-This protective layer is a defense mechanism the stomach has against being digested by its own protein-lyzing enzymes -protect against self-digestion
ileocecal valve
-Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines
Dehydration of the aldol (aldol condensation)
-With a strong base and high temperatures, dehydration occurs by an E1 or E2 mechanism: we kick off a water molecule and form a C=C double bond
biotin
-a coenzyme used in fatty acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism, and the formation of glucose -vitamin b7 -coenzyme of acetyl-coA carboxylase
interference (memory)
-a common reason for memory loss -Retrieval error cased by existence of other (usually similar) information.
structure of a nephron
-a glomerulus and a renal tube -glomerulus is a bunch of capillary networks -the renal tubule compromises multiple segments which serve the functions of secretion and reabsorption
stigma
-a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. -extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society
master status
-a master status is the status by which a person is most identified -This status is typically the most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person's life
explain how Fisherian selection work
-a trait that has no clear survival benefits is deemed sexually desirable -thus it is more likely to get passed on -the more it is passed on, the more its attractiveness increases -and the more it is selected and passed on. -the trait might become exaggerated like the plumage of a peacock
substrates of the TCA cycle in order
-acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate -citrate -isocitrate -alpha-ketoglutarate -Succinyl-CoA -Succinate -Fumarate -malate -oxaloacetate and repeat the cycle.
why would cells make acetyl-coA from pyruvate ?
-acetyl-Coa can go to through the TCA cycle to make more ATP -or it can store energy in the form of fatty acids
skeletal muscles under microscope
-actin and myosin arrangements into units called sarcomeres cause the muscle to appear striped or striated under a microscope
fatty acyl CoA synthetase
-activates fatty acids by attaching them to acetyl CoA -Uses ATP hydrolysis -the activation of long-chain fatty acid is necessary for transport into mitochondria
pancreatic amylase vs salivary amylase
-active in the small intestine -breaks down less soluble, nonpolar starches
controlled (effortful) processing
-active memorization (i.e making flashcards for the MCAT) -with practice, controlled processing can become automatic (ex: learning a new language)
mathematically, why does adding solutes to the solvent decreases vapor pressure ?
-adding solutes will decrease the mole fraction of solvent, which according to Raúl's law will decrease the vapor pressure.
esteem support
-affirms the qualities and skills of the person -reminding someone that they are skillful at a certain task can bolster their confidence and maybe their performance
nucleoside-diphosphate kinase
-after formation of GTP we can make ATP -enzyme in the citric acid cycle that synthesizes the transfer of a phosphate from GTP to ADP creating ATP
fatty acid synthase
-aka palmitate synthase (because palmitate is the only fatty acid humans synthesize de novo) -big enzymes complex -activated following a meal due to the rise of insulin -requires acyl carrier protein (ACP) -requires vitamin B5 -NADH is also required -about 8 acetyl-coA molecules -elongates the fatty acid chain by making a covalent bond
aldehydes suffix
-al replaces -e
what happens to the blood when aldosterone is present ?
-aldosterone increase Na+ reabsorption and thus water reabsorption -This results in an increased blood volume (and pressure), but no change in blood osmolarity
gluconeogenesis pathway
-all glycolytic intermediates have an enzyme that converts them to pyruvate (except Glycerol-3P is converted to DHAP) -the steps from pyruvate to glucose are the same as glycolysis but in reverse, except for the three irreversible reactions of glycolysis (hexokinase, PFK-1 and pyruvate kinase are replaced with gluconeogenesis enzymes)
amide suffix
-amide
operant conditioning
-an attempt to link voluntary behaviors with consequences (reward or punishments) in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors.
F0 portion of ATP synthase
-an ion channel that allows protons to flow down the gradient from the inter-membrane space to the matrix
Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep
-appearance of large, slow delta waves -low frequency, high-voltage waves -become difficult to wake someone up from sleep
Davis-Moore thesis
-argues that the greater the functional importance of a social role, the greater must be the reward. -the theory posits that social stratification represents the inherently unequal value of different work
Stage 1 sleep
-as soon as you doze off you enter stage 1 -theta waves -EEG show irregular waveforms and slower frequencies
Game theory Evolutionary stable strategy
-attempts to explain decision-making behaviour, players define the game -Evolutionary stable strategy -the object of the game being becoming more fit than the competitors
learning theory
-attitudes are developed through different forms of learning -direct contact -direct instruction -influenced by others, -classical or operand conditioning
Transketolase and transaldolase
-beginning with ribulose 5-phosphate, these enzymes catalyze a series of reversible reactions that produce an equilibrated pool of sugars for biosynthesis, including ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis. -Because fructose 6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are among the sugars produced, intermediates can feedback into glycolysis; conversely, pentoses can be made from glycolytic intermediates without going through the G6PD reaction. -These interconversions are primarily accomplished by the enzymes transketolase and transaldolase.
the liver communicate with the digestive system via two routes. what are they ?
-bile ducts connect the liver with both the gallbladder and small intestine -the liver receive all blood draining from hte abdominal portion of the digestive tract through the hepatic portal vein
what is the role of bile salts in digestion ? chemical or mechanical ?
-bile salts are not enzymes, so they dont participate in chemical digestion, but rather in mechanical digestion
what do bile salts do to promote digestion ?
-bile salts have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, allowing them to serve as bridge between aqueous and lipid environments. -they emulsify fats and cholesterol into micelles. making them stable and ready for pancreatic lipases
inductive reasoning
-bottom-up reasoning seeks to create a theory via generalizations -start with observation and specific instances and then draws a conclusion or a theory from them
display rules
-cultural expectations of emotions -culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display -Display rules govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree
mastication benefits
-breakdowns large food particle into smaller ones -helps increase the surface area-to-volume ratio of the food, creating more surface area for enzymatic digestion as it passes through the gut tube -moderate the size of food particles entering the lumen of the alimentary canal (foods too large to create an obstruction won't pass)
habitualization
-by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman -the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit "Not only do we construct our own society but we also accept it as it is because others have created it before us. Society is, in fact, "habit.""
avoidant attachement
-caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child -child ha no preference for cargive or some other stranger -child show little emotion when he/she sees the caregiver
ambivalent attachment
-caregiver is inconsistent with how he behave towards the child (sometimes appropriately, other times not) -the child is distressed when the caregiver is absent, but has mixed reaction when he/she comes back -the child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver, can never be sure of his potential response
galactokinase or galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase deficiency
-cause galactosemia -
fixation at the oral stage
-causes eating disorders and other mouth related dysfunctions -excessive dependency
secretin functions
-causes the pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum -reduce HCL secretion from parietal cell to increase pH -It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.
what are two main things to note about the preoperational stage (Piaget) ?
-children don't understand the idea of conservation -and they display egocentrism
the idea of conservation (Piaget)
-children have not yet developed it at the preoperational age -the idea that even if you change the appearance of something it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.
disorganized attachment
-children show no clear sign of behavior in response to caregiver's absence or presence. -the child can show confusion, avoidance, frozen in place, seeming dazed, resistance, or repetitive behaviors
Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
-children watched an adult kick inflatable toy -when children were allowed to play in the room, they inflicted similar violence on doll -Not imitation - can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior -Children who watched the adult get scolded for punching doll were less likely to be aggressive toward doll
important steps in cholesterol synthesis
-citrate shuttle carries acetyl-CoA from mitochondria to cytoplasm where synthesis occur -NADPH (from the pentose phosphate pathway supplies reducing equivalents) -HMG CoA reductase catalyze the formation of mevalonic acid as the rate limiting step in the smooth ER -
difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
-classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses -operant conditioning links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors
caste system
-closed stratification system -people can do little or nothing to change social standing -people are born into their social standing, they are assigned professions regardless of their talents, interests, or potential -likely to stay in their social position their whole lives
working memory
-closely related to short-term memory -it enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness at the same time and to manipulate that information
halo effect
-cognitive bias -in which judgment of one's aspect of an individual (i.e his leadership skills) are affect by the overall impression one has of that person. (i find her pretty and i like her, she must be a good leader (no evidence of leadership skills, but my liking of her overrides) )
what happens during slow-wave sleep ?
-cognitive recovery and memory consolidation -increase growth hormone release
function of sebum
-collects dirt; softens and lubricates hair and skin -It reduces water loss from the skin surface. -It protects the skin from infection by bacteria and fungi. -It contributes to body odour. -It is colonised by the bacteria Proprionibacterium acnes, which may have a role in immune system regulation.
Wright Mills
-conflict theorist -came up with the Power elite theory
A-band
-contains the thick filaments in their entirety, including any overlap with thin filaments
why are white fibers called fast-twitch ?
-contract rapidly -fatigue quickly
Three possible fates of pyruvate
-conversion to acetyl-CoA by PDH -conversion to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase -conversion to oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
-converts fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate. with the release of Pi -irreversible step -rate-limiting step, regulation point
pyruvate carboxylase
-converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate -hydrolyzes ATP to ADP, the release of CO2 -activated by acetyl-CoA build-up from fatty acid oxidation
dependency theory
-created as a response to the Western-centric mindset -states that global inequality is primarily caused by core nations (high-income nations), exploiting low-income nation -this creates a cycle of dependence preventing low-income countries from developing -gives a lot of control to high-income countries who can then create economies that work for them
enzymes and cofactors present in complex IV
-cytochrome a, cytochrome a3 , and Cu2+ ions. -cytochromes a and a3 make up cytochrome oxidase.
differential association theory
-deviance can be learned through interactions with others -this same person will however interact with other normal 'non-deviant' people. -Differential association, then, is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them. In this theory, when associations with others engaging in deviant behavior are more numerous or intense than those engaging in normative behavior, the individual begins to gravitate toward deviant behavior him- or herself
labeling theory of deviance
-deviance results not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions -As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.
what are all the enzymes secreted by the duodenum ?
-disaccharidases (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) -peptidases (including dipeptidase). -enteropeptidase (activate other digestive enzymes) -secretin (secreted into the bloodstream) -cholecystokinin (CCK) (secreted into the bloodstream)
How does a coma occur?
-disruption of the neural connection that keep the brain awake and alert
what are the limits of the Davis-Moore thesis?
-does not explain, why a media personality with little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign trail. -The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system or inequalities due to race or gender.
three fundamental levels of interactions (according to SYMLOG)
-dominance vs submission -friendliness vs unfriendliness -instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive
where does the blood go after being processed in the liver ?
-drain into the inferior vena cava on its way to the right side of the heart
What did Jung believe?
-ego -> conscious -unconscious can be divided into two parts: -personal unconscious (like Freud) -collective unconscious
EEG
-electroencephalogram; -an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
three major processes to acquire memory
-encoding -storage -retrieval
salivary amylase
-enzyme active in the mouth -breaks down rapidly soluble starches -hydrolyzes starch into maltose and dextrins
Enteropeptidase
-enzyme secreted by the cell of the duodenum, and activates the other digestive enzyme secreted by the accessory organ of the digestive system
citrate synthase
-enzyme that catalyzes Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA --> Citrate -release of CoA-SH and H+
cis-Aconitate
-enzyme that catalyzes the isomerization of citrate to isocitrate -this enzyme required Fe2+ -the result of this reaction is the switching of hydrogen and a hydroxyl group.
glycogen phosphorylase
-enzyme that cleaves glucose from the non-reducing end of a glycogen branch by phosphorylating it -use inorganic phosphate (Pi) -releases glucose from glycogen in the form of glucose-1-P
How is the equivalence point determined?
-evaluated by using a graphical method, plotting the pH of the unknown solution as a function of added titrant by using a pH meter, -or estimated by watching for a color change of an added indicator
conflict theory on racism and discrimination
-examines the numerous past and struggles between white ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities -examine specific conflicts (slavery, Jim crow) -intersection theory
what activates HSL ?
-fall in the level of insulin -epinephrine -cortisol
chylomicrons
-fat droplets covered in protein that diffuse into capillaries in small intestine -the large fats, cholesterol and glycerol gets packaged into chylomicrons after they enter the epithelial cells of the small intestine
example of indicator trait
-female cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats, a dirty coat might indicate malnutrition -guys are attracted to big tits because they indicate fertility and ability to feed offspring
what are the enzymes or cofactors in complex I of ETC, that allows the reduction of CoH2 and the oxidation of NADH ?
-flavin mononucleotide (FMN) (oxidizes NADH) -iron-sulfur subunit (Fe-S) (oxidizes FMNH and reduce CoQ)
sensory memory
-fleeting memory -the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system -includes iconic and echoic memory
glycogenesis
-formation of glycogen from glucose -the synthesis of glycogen granules
functionalism's views on gender
-gender roles were effective (men took care of work and heavy stuff like hunting, while women took care of the kids and cooking) -these roles were considered functional because women were physically restrained -these roles were then passed on to subsequent generations
lowball technique
-getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment (the cost could be money, time, work, etc) -example: fiki teje te5dinine bukra aal 5. 'eh akid'. byeji w ma3u kel 3ayltu
summarize how a nephron filters blood in three steps ?
-glomerular filtration -tubular reabsorption -tubular secretion
how does glucose get reabsorbed (from the ultrafiltrate back into the blood) ?
-glucose moves from tubular fluid into the cells of the proximal tubule via the Na+ glucose-cotransporter (; the energy for this uphill transport of glucose comes from the downhill movement of Na) -> secondary active transport -the Na+ gradient is maintained by the Na+-K+ ATPases (and this gradient is what drives the Na+-glucose cotransporter) -glucose goes from the cell into the peritubular capillary through facilitated (aided) diffusion. . In this step, glucose is moving down its electrochemical gradient and no energy is required
what are the ways in which acetyl-CoA can be formed ?
-glycolysis, pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA (PDH) -beta-oxidation -amino acid catabolism (alanine -> pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA (alanineaminotransferase and PDH) -alcohol
subcultures
-groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society's majority, even as the members exist within a larger society -a group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
α,β unsaturation reactivity
-has two electrophilic positions
chemical properties
-have to do with the reactivity of the molecule with other molecules. -results in changes in chemical composition -generally attributable to functional groups in the molecule
three outcomes of Hawk-Dove strategy
-hawk vs hawk -> one will win and the other will lose -hawk vs dove -> hawk will always win -dove vs dove -> share the food resources 50/50
HDL
-high-density lipoprotein -good cholesterol -made in the liver and intestine and released in the blood -it's role is to pick up excess cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion
transition state
-highest energy point in the reaction -the energy goes to breaking bonds and making new bonds.
cation exchange chromatography
-hold + stuff -allow negative stuff to go through
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
-hormone secreted by the gall bladder -It improves digestion by slowing down the emptying of food from the stomach and stimulating the production of bile in the liver as well as its release from the gall bladder -Cholecystokinin also increases the release of fluid and enzymes from the pancreas to break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates. -involved in the sensation of fullness
Renin
-hormone secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney -Renin then cleaves angiotensinogen, a liver protein, to form angiotensin I.
what solutes are often found in urine ?
-hydrogen -potassium ions -ammonia -urea
example of avoidance learning
-i associated studying with not failing a test in the future. Thus, studying is a behavior that has an increased frequency because it is associated with preventing a future unpleasant stimulus
Meritocracy
-ideal stratification system -based on the belief that social stratification is based on the result of personal effort
roles of cholesterol
-important component of plasma & other cell membranes -bile acids and salts are made from cholesterol in the liver -many tissues require cholesterol for steroid hormone synthesis -precursor to hormones and vitamins (especially vitamin D)
aligning actions
-impression management strategy -making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses
unconditioned stimulus
-in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
does the human brain work like a computer ?
-in some way it does, but the computer analogy is far too simplistic. the brain also handles emotions, impulses, smell, taste and memories.
the computer model of the brain
-in the 1950s, a theory has been posed that the working of the brain follow the way a computer works -the brain must encode information in a series of chemical and electrical impulses -the information must be stored by the brain, and retrieved on demand -just like a computer
what is the difference between chemical digestion in the mouth and in the intestine of carbohydrates ?
-in the mouth -> salivary amylase -in the small intestine -> pancreatic amylase -they have different affinities for different types of carbohydrates
pepsinogen
-inactive form of digestive proteolytic enzyme pepsin -secreted by the chief cells of gastric glands
what happens in the blood when ADH is released ?
-increase of water reabsorption at the collecting duct -This results in an increased blood volume (and pressure) and a decreased blood osmolarity.
give an example of cultural attribution
-individualists tend to make more fundamental attribution errors than those in collectivist cultures -individualists are more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors -collectivists are more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors
self-serving bias
-individuals will see success due to internal factors while they see failures due to external factors
impersonality
-often a characteristic of bureaucracies -takes personal feelings out of professional situations. -This characteristic grew, to some extent, out of a desire to protect organizations from nepotism, backroom deals, and other types of favoritism, simultaneously protecting customers and others served by the organization.
what can disorganized attachment be associated to? or be a sign of ?
-often associated with erratic behavior, or social withdrawal by the caregiver -or could be a sign of abuse
Anhydride suffix
-oic -oic anhydride
carboxylic acid suffix
-oic acid
ketone suffix
-one
the class system
-open social stratification system - based on both birth and individual achievement people are free to fain a different level of education or employment than their parents -they can socialize and marry members of other classes
sarcoplasmic reticulum
-organelle that covering myofibrils -modified ER that contain high concentration of Ca2+
fluid intelligence
-our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, consists of problem solving skills - tends to decrease during late adulthood
stratum corneum
-outermost layer of epidermis -made up of keratin, horny scale and dead keratinocytes -the dead keratinocytes secrete defensin, (part of the nonspecific first line of defense) -flattened keratinocytes, forming a barrier that prevents invasion by pathogens and that helps to prevent loss of fluids and salt.
ketone preparation methods
-oxidation of secondary alcohols (using Na2Cr2O7 and H2So4) -ozonolysis of alkenes (O3 and DMS) (at least one of the carbons of the alkene must be bonded to -R group) -Friedl-Crafts acylation
half equivalence point
-pH=pKa -The point in a titration at which exactly half the molar equivalence of reactant is consumed by the titrant being added. At this point in an acid-base titration, the pKa of the unknown solution is revealed. [A-] = [HA]
diluting segment
-part of the ascending loop of henle that reach the outer medulla -thicker than usual -have large amount of mitochondria that allows the re-absorption of sodium and chloride by active transport
example of state dependent memory
-people who learned something while intoxicated were more likely to recall that thing when intoxicated again rather than when sober
angiotensin II
-peptide hormone that promotes the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
three components of social perception
-perceiver (the person forming the impression and the inferences about someone) -target (person about which the perception is made) -situation (a given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver)
humanistic psychology
-person centered, individualistic approach -gestalt therapy (complete person, not a series of behaviors) -our personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals.
what are the key points of Karen Horney's theory ?
-personality is a result of interpersonal relationships -disagreed with many of what Freud said (i.e penis envy) -neurotic personalities are governed by 10 neurotic needs -while healthy people have those needs, these needs become problematic if they fit 4 criteria -basic anxiety (inadequate parenting can cause this)
supergo
-personality's perfectionist, judging our actions, and responding with pride or guilt -The mind's storehouse of values, including moral attitudes learned from parents and from society; roughly the same as the common notion of the conscience. -a system of right and wrong
emulsification
-physical process of breaking up large fat globules into smaller globules, thereby increasing the surface area that enzymes can use to digest the fat -the mixing of two normally immiscible liquids (fat and water). emulsification is aided by bile salts -
statuses
-positions in society that are used to classify individuals -statuses only exist in relation to other statuses that we can compare that status with
osmotic pressure
-pressure that must be applied to prevent osmotic movement across a selectively permeable membrane or -Osmotic pressure refers to a "sucking" pressure generated by solutions in which water is drawn into a solution
cite the function of the liver
-processing and synthesizing nutrients (glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, storage or mobilization of fats) -production of urea -detoxification of chemicals -production of bile -synthesis of albumin and clotting factors
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) functions
-production of NADPH -serving as a source of ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis
what enzymes or cofactors allow the transfer of electrons from CoQ ro cytochrome C in complex III ?
-proteins with heme groups in which iron is reduced to Fe2+ and reoxidized to Fe3 -CoQH2 (the reduced form of CoQ from complex I and II) -CoQ -cytochrome C1 (contains 1 heme group) -cytochrome b (contain two heme groups) Fe-S groups cytochrome C != to cyctochrom C1
skin (immune system)
-provides a physical barrier to microbes, protect our internal organs - slightly acidic pH discourages growth of organisms - sweat and oil gland secretions kill many bacteria
Bowman's capsule leads to a long tubule. What are the distinct areas in that long tubule in order?
-proximal convoluted tubules -descending loop of Henle -ascending loop of Henle -distal convoluted tubule -collecting duct
Kurt Lewin's Field Theory
-put little importance to habits, ego, id, supergo, fixed traits -personality is dynamic -focused on the present, and not on the past and future -Lewin defined the field as one's current state of mind, which was simply the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time.
the importance of thiamine
-pyruvate cannot be converted into acetyl-CoA without the vitamin. -in its lack or absence, there is buildup of lactic acid and thus acidosis
delirium
-rapid decline in cognition -rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes. -It can be caused by a variety of issues, including electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain.
glycogen synthase
-rate limiting enzyme of glycogenesis -add glucose to the glycogen chain -form an alpha-1,4 glycosidic bond
glucose-6-phsphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)
-rate limiting enzyme or step in the pentose phosphate pathway -converts glucose 6-Phosphate to 6-phosphogluconate, making NADPH from NADP+ in the process
Acetyl CoA carboxylase
-rate-limiting enzyme -requires ATP and biotin to function -adds Co2 to acetyl-CoA to make malonyl-CoA
changes in cognition with age
-reaction time increases (meaning we have slower reactions) in early adulthood -time-based prospective memory decline with age -fluid intelligence peaked in early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence peaked in middle adulthood -both types of intelligence declined with age,
I-band
-region containing thin filaments only
function of excretory system
-regulation of blood pressure -blood osmolarity -acid-base balance -removal of nitrogenous waste
the Rorschach inkblot test
-relies on the assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape. -A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure
what are the different part of the renal vasculature? start with the renal artery (only blood)
-renal artery -> interlobar arteries -> arterioles -> afferent arterioles => [glomerular capillaries] => efferent arterioles -> peritubular capillaries (reabsorption, secretion) -> small veins -> renal veins
shivering
-response to cold; body shakes to turn energy from food into body heat -muscle contraction that uses ATP. ATP hydrolysis convert a significant amount of energy to thermal energy
implicit memory
-retention independent of conscious recollection -part of the long-term memory -includes procedural memory (i.e muscle memory, typing, riding a bike), priming
what type of enzyme does saliva contain ?
-salivary amylase -lipase
Meissner's corpuscles
-sensitive touch receptors in the dermis -light touch
cultural syndrome
-shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme
How do short-chained fatty acids get absorbed?
-short-fatty acids are non-polar so they can easily cross the cell membrane -they will simply diffuse from the small intestine through the epithelial cell and then diffuse to the blood
Q cycle
-since cytochrome can only accept one electron and CoQH2 has two. two cytochrome c are required -at first one electron is transferred to cytochrome C with the help of Fe-S (Fe3+ -> Fe2+ -> cytochrome C + e-) -the second electron is transferred to CoQ to form CoQ- -then another, CoQh2 comes in the same process repeats. thus, a second cytochrome C is reduced. CoQ- binds another electron to become CoQH2 and then we can repeat the cycle
compare the distribution of cations and anions between the interstitial fluid and the plasma. explain why
-since the plasma has negatively charged proteins and the interstitial fluid does not -the plasma will have more cations (Na+) and less anions than the interstitial fluid
hormone that regulate circadian ryhtm
-sleepiness can be attributed to blood levels of melatonin (released when there is low light) -
Red fibers
-slow-twitch fibers -high myoglobin content -high mitochondria content to carry oxidative phosphorylation -aerobic cellular respiration
structure of villi of the small intestine
-small finger-like projection from the epithelial lining -each villus has many microvilli, exponentially increasing the surface area for absorption -in the middle of each villus, there is a capillary bed -and there is also a lymphatic channel called a lacteal
example of unconditioned stimulus
-smell of food
peer group
A social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common -friendships -self-selected
amphoteric species
A species capable of reacting as either an acid or base, depending on the nature of the reactants
steps of body response to water deprivation
1) dehydrated, loss of water, lead to an increase in osmolarity 2) osmoreceptors are activated in the hypothalamus, it stimulates thirst, and stimulate the secretion of ADH from the pituitary gland 3)ADH leads to an increase in H20 permeability in the principal cells of the late distal tubule and collecting duct 4) increase water permeability -> increased reabsorption of water 5) as more water is reabsorbed, urine osmolarity decrease, and urine volume decreases 6) since more water is reabsorbed, plasma water increases, osmolarity decreases in plasma, and return to normal
steps of body response to drinking water
1) drink water, decrease plasma osmolarity 2) inhibit osmoreceptor in the hypothalamus -> decrease thirst response -> inhibit ADH secretion 3) as a result of less ADH, there is a decrease in water permeability of the late distal tubule and collecting duct 4) decrease in water permeability, decrease in water reabsorption, 5) water that is not reabsorbed is excreted -> decrease urine osmolarity -> increase urine volume 6) -> Because less water is reabsorbed, less water is returned to the circulation. Coupled with the inhibition of thirst and the suppression of water drinking, plasma osmolarity increases back toward the normal value.
characteristics of bureaucracy
1) paid officials (main income) 2) officials have privileges 3) seniority rights and regular salary increases 4) degrees or vocational training 5) responsibilities rigidly defined by the organization 6) separation of funds & files from their personal ones.
Michael Reaction
1,4 nucleophilic addition of enolate anion or enamine to a,b-unsaturated carbonyl (done over EtO- and EtOH)
the kidney contains a portal system with two capillary beds in series. What are the names of those two capillary beds ?
1- Bowman's capsule 2- the vasa recta
describe the physiology of urination, starting from when the bladder is full.
1- bladder is full 2-stretch receptors in the bladder convey a signal to the nervous system that the bladder needs emptying 3-parasympathetic neurons fire and allow contraction of the detrusor muscle 4-the contraction also lead the internal urethral sphincter to relax 5-urine can pass and stop at the external urethral sphincter 6- next, one can voluntarily relax the external sphincter to urinate, or hold it to maintain the status quo
how are formal organizations different than groups ?
1- organization are not dependent on an individual member. (they were existent before the arrival and will remain existent after the departure of an individual member) 2- they have a specific goal they are working toward. the goal is known and written. and they guide the activities of its members. 3- organizations are characterized by the hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties. they can be very large
steps in the shortening of the sarcomere
1- the free globular heads of the myosin molecules move toward and bind with the exposed sites on actin 2-the actin-myosin cross-bridge now formed allows myosin to pull on actin. 3-the pulling by myosin draws the thin filaments towards the M-line. The unbinding of ADP and Pi from myosin allows for the power stroke. 4-the sarcomere contracts 5- binding of ATP to myosin then releases the myosin-actin binding
what are the two common characteristic of defense mechanisms ?
1- they deny, falsify, or distort reality; 2- they operate unconsciously.
three main steps of fatty-acid oxidation
1-activation 2-entry into mitochondria 3-beta oxidation in mitochondria
According to strain theory, there is a gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it. How does one react to this, according to Merton ?
1-conformitiy (accept his fate, and pursue goal to the best of his ability) 2-innovation: using deviant means to innovate 3-ritualism: lower their goals until they reach them through socially accepted ways (conformitiy) 4- retreatism: reject society's goals and means (beggars and street people reject society's goal of financial success) 5- rebellion: protest, terrorist, freedom fighters, try to overthrow the goals of society through unacceptable means.
sec-butyl
1-methylpropyl
trajectory of food down the GI tract
1-oral cavity 2-pharynx (common passage for both air and food, see epiglottis) 3- esophagus 4- esophagus transport food to the stomach 5- from the stomach the food travel to the small intestine 6-then to the large intestine or colon 7-waste product of digestion then enter the rectum, where feces are stores until an appropriate time of release
Accepted states of consciousness
1. Alertness 2. Sleep 3. Dreaming 4. Altered States of Consciousness
trajectory of blood through the kidney
1. Blood from the renal artery flows into afferent arterioles, which form glomeruli in Bowman's capsule (the first capillary bed). 2. Blood then flows through the efferent arteriole to the vasa recta (the second capillary bed), which surround the nephron, before leaving the kidney through the renal vein.
segments of small intestine
1. Duodenum 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum
steps of beta-oxidation
1. Oxidation of the fatty acid to form a double bond 2. Hydration of the double bond to form a hydroxyl group 3. Oxidation of the hydroxyl group to form a carbonyl (β-ketoacid) 4. Splitting of the β-ketoacid into a shorter acyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA
impression management strategies
1. Self-disclosure: give info about oneself to establish an identity 2. Managing appearances: use props, appearance, emotional expression, etc with others to create a positive image 3. Ingratiation: use flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over 4. Aligning actions: make questionable behavior acceptable through excuses 5. Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person
Eight factors indicative of groupthink
1. illusion of invulnerability 2. collective rationalization 3. illusion of morality 4. excessive stereotyping 5. pressure for conformity 6. self-censorship 7. illusion of unanimity 8. mindguards
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
1. trust vs. mistrust (0 -> 1) 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 -> 3) 3. initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6) 4. industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12) 5. identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20) 6. intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40) 7. generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65) 8. integrity vs. despair (65 to death)
how many ATPs per FADH2 ?
1.5 ATP
Steps leading up to muscle contraction
1.ACh released from synaptic vesicles 2.Binding of ACh to motor endplate(nerve terminal) 3. Ach binds to receptors on the sarcolemma leading to depolarization 4. Depolarization triggers an action potential 5.Conduction of impulse along T-tubules 6.When the AP reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum, there is the release of Ca2+ 7.Calcium binds to troponin triggering a conformational change in tropomyosin 8. Change in tropomyosin, leads to the exposure of myosin-binding sites on actin thin filament 9. Cross-bridge formation and contraction
when is it a good idea to do mixed or crossed aldol additions ?
1.if fon of the aldehydes lack an alpha proton and possesses an unhindered carbonyl group. thus we know that this aldehyde will be the electrophile (example: formaldehyde has no alpha proton) 2. using LDA as a base to irreversibly form an enolate. (thus we know that it will be the nucleophile) then use that enolate and react it with a ketone or adelhdye
optics equation
1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r
How many cranial nerves are there?
12 cranial nerves
how much do our kidneys filter ?
180 L/day (filter not urinate)
isobutyl
2-methylpropyl
isopropyl alcohol
2-propanol
acetone
2-propanone
total ATP production from PDH and TCA ?
25
the phallic or Oedipal stage
3-5 years... - Centers on the resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the Electra conflict for female children. -Child must sublimate his libidinal energy of hate toward his father to school work or activities. Once libido is sublimated, child enters latency till puberty.
3. How many rounds of beta oxidation are needed to break down the pictured fatty acid?
8 It requires 8 rounds of beta oxidation to produce 9 acetyl-CoA from an 18-carbon fatty acid. ((18/2)-1) = 8.
1. How many acetyl-CoA molecules can be made from an 18-carbon fatty acid by the process of beta oxidation?
9 Beta oxidation of an 18-carbon fatty acid yields 9 molecules of acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA is a 2-carbon molecule, so to determine the number of acetyl-CoA that a fatty acid will yield, divide the total number of carbons in that fatty acid by 2 (18/2 = 9).
what happens to fats that remain in the ileum of the small intestine ?
; any fat that remains in the intestine will pass into the colon, and ultimately ends up in the stool.``
strong base
A base that dissociates completely into ions in solution.
Bureaucracy
A bureaucracy is a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control.
Oedipal conflict
A child's sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent
Skewed data distribution
A data distribution that is NOT symmetrical with respect to its mean.
recognition-primed decision model
A decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations one has already experienced play a large role in decision-making and actions; also one of the explanations for the experience of intuition. (think of Malcolm Gladwell's Blink)
maltase
A digestive enzyme that breaks maltose into glucose.
discriminative stimulus
A discriminative stimulus indicates that reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm
family group
A family group, by contrast, is not self-selected but determined by birth, adoption, and marriage. It joins members of various ages, sexes, and generations through emotional ties.
unsaturated fatty acids
A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
solubility
A measure of how much solute can dissolve in a given solvent at a given temperature.
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value, respect and feel about yourself
beta-oxidation
A metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments that enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA.
vicinal diol
A molecule with two hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons
anus
A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body
ECF volume expansion lead to a decrease in fractional reabsorption. what happens to the volume of ECF that is not reabsorbed anymore ?
A portion of the fluid that would have been reabsorbed instead leaks back into the lumen of the tubule (across the tight junction) and is excreted.
trial-and-error
A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.
aldol addition
A reaction in which an aldehyde or ketone acts as both the electrophile and nucleophile, resulting in the formation of a carbon-carbon bond in a new molecule called an aldol.
functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
the appraisal model
A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions (facial) once an emotion is experienced; accepts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.
stage 2 of sleep
A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles." -theta waves, sleep spindles and K-complexes
counterculture
A subculture with lifestyles and values opposed to those of the established culture.
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself (usually without attempting to find meaning in it) to keep it in working memory or to keep it in short-term memory in order to transfer it to long-term memory eventually
hepatic portal vein
A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and glucose absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.
ADP accumulation ___
ADP accumulation signals the need for ATP synthesis. ADP -> isocitrate dehydrogenase -> the rate of the citric acid cycle -> the production of NADH and FADH2 -> the rate of electron transport and ATP synthesis.
what happens when a coupler is introduced ?
ADP builds up ATP synthesis decreases body sense lack of energy production - increases O2 production and NADH oxidation energy from the electrons is released as heat (example: fever that rises from toxic levels of salicylates (aspirin)
glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors
ATP
what activates F-1,6-BP ?
ATP
isocitrate dehydrogenase is inhibited by
ATP and NADH
two compounds needed for muscle contraction ?
ATP and calcium
Citrate synthase is inhibited by
ATP, NADH, succinyl CoA, citrate
the genital stage
According to Freud, if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result
what is psychotherapy according to Kelly ?
According to Kelly, psychotherapy is a process of insight whereby the individual acquires new constructs that will allow him or her to successfully predict troublesome events. Then, the individual will be able to integrate these new constructs into already existing ones.
Assimilation (Piaget)
According to Piaget this is the process of fitting new ideas or concepts into existing schemata. the information is comparable to what they already know i
how does social facilitation relate to Yerkes-Dodson law ?
According to the Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation, being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks).
Paivio's dual-code hypothesis
According to this theory, information can be stored (or encoded) in two ways: visually and verbally. Abstract information tends to be encoded verbally, whereas concrete information tends to be encoded visually (i.e., as an image) and verbally.
pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited by:
Acetyl CoA
rate-limiting enzymes of fatty acid synthesis
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)
when does the signal for muscle contraction terminate ?
Acetylcholine is degraded in the synapse by the enzyme known as acetylcholinesterase. This results in termination of the signal at the neuromuscular junction and allows the sarcolemma to repolarize
steps in fatty acid synthase catalysis
Action of Fatty Acid Synthase Reactions include activation of the growing chain (a) and malonyl-CoA (b) with ACP, bond formation between these activated molecules (c), reduction of a carbonyl to a hydroxyl group (d), dehydration (e), and reduction to a saturated fatty acid (f).
conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. -changing belief or behavior to fit in a group or a society
inferiority complex
Adler's conception of an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially
what does the social disorganization theory really say ?
An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use, violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become a criminal than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.
salience
An individual's belief that an issue is important or relevant to him or her.
What causes rigor mortis?
After death, ATP production ceases. Myosin heads cannot detach from actin, making it impossible for muscles to relax and lengthen. This condition is known as rigor mortis.
example of availability heuristic
After seeing several news reports about car thefts, you might make a judgment that vehicle theft is much more common than it really is in your area.
how do muscles get rid of the lactic acid ?
After the cessation of strenuous exercise, the body must metabolize all of the lactic acid it has produced. Most lactic acid is converted back into pyruvate, which can enter the citric acid cycle
other than increasing water reabsorption, what does aldosterone promote ?
Aldosterone will also increase potassium and hydrogen ion excretion.
all the gland of the body (except ___) are innervated by the ______ nervous system
All of the glands of the body (except sweat glands) are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system.
Functional Attitudes Theory: Ego-Expressive
Allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity example if a person strongly identifies with chelsea football club, she may wear a chelsea hat to show her attitude towards it
anticipatory socialization
Anticipatory socialization is the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships. A couple living together in preparation for married life is an example of anticipatory socialization
Once in the epithelial cells, the nutrients will cross to the blood via facilitated diffusion. How is the [ ] gradient maintained ?
Blood is constantly passing by the epithelial cells, carrying the carbohydrate and amino acid molecules away. This creates a concentration gradient such that the blood always has a lower concentration of monosaccharides and amino acids than inside the epithelial cells.
osmoregulation
Body fluid osmolarity is maintained at a value of about 290 mOsm/L (for simplicity, 300 mOsm/L) by processes called osmoregulation. -Even small deviations in body fluid osmolarity produce a set of hormonal responses that alter water reabsorption by the kidneys, attempting to return osmolarity back toward the normal value
Strategic Alternatives for Socially Influenced Competitors
Altruism: the donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to him- or herself Cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating Spite: both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness: the donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted
Where does ammonia come from in the body?
Ammonia (NH3 ) is a byproduct of the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds (proteins and amino acids)
equivalents
An equivalent is a measure of the reactive capacity of a molecule. Most simply, an equivalent is equal to a mole of the species of interest— protons, hydroxide ions, electrons, or ions.
glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch. -JUST A BUNCH OF GLUCOSE
managing appearances
An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.
a diabetic patient starts insulin injections. what effects does that have on his weight ?
An increase in insulin levels will increase lipid storage and decrease lipid mobilization from adipocytes, leading to weight gain in diabetic patients who begin insulin injections
apolipoproteins or apoproteins
Apolipoproteins are receptor molecules and are involved in signaling. see pic for examples
The Fick principle states that the amount of a substance entering an organ equals the amount of the substance leaving the organ. apply it to the kidneys
Applied to the kidney, the Fick principle states that the amount of a substance entering the kidney via the renal artery equals the amount of the substance leaving the kidney via the renal vein plus the amount excreted in the urine
Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Aromatic ring acylated through electrophilic aromatic substitution.
how does succinate dehydrogenase participate in the ETC ?
As succinate is oxidized to fumarate, FAD is reduced to FADH2 . Each molecule of FADH2 then passes the electrons it carries to the electron transport chain (this eventually lead to the formation of 1.5 ATP)
since the osmolarity of the medulla is very high, what is expected at the descending loop of henle ?
As the descending limb traverses deeper into the medulla, the increasing interstitial concentration favors the outflow of water from the descending limb
synaptic pruning
As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information.
complex ion
By definition, a complex-ion—or coordination compound—refers to a molecule in which a cation is bonded to at least one electron pair donor (which could include the water molecule). The electron-pair donor molecules are called ligands
Front stage self
Component of the dramaturgical approach. -The player knows they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience -the actor is in front of the audience and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see.
How do conformational isomers differ?
Conformational isomers are, in fact, the same molecule, only at different points in their natural rotation around single (σ) bonds.
compare osmolarity and volume of filtrate at the start and end of the loop of Henle
At the beginning of the loop of Henle, the filtrate is isotonic to the interstitium. Thus, from the beginning of the loop of Henle to the end, there is a slight degree of dilution. Far more important, however, is the fact that the volume of the filtrate has been significantly reduced, demonstrating a net reabsorption of a large volume of water
why is it useful to know the equivalence point ?
At the equivalence point, the number of equivalents of acid and base is equal. the number of moles of acid is equal to the number of moles of base. This fact allows us to calculate the unknown concentration of the titrand through the equation: NaVa = NbVb where Na and Nb are the acid and base normalities, respectively, and Va and Vb are the volumes of acid and base solutions
How do attitudes develop?
Attitudes develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors. Even prior to meeting someone, past experiences and information from others can influence your attitude toward a person
ubiquinone
Coenzyme Q
compliance
Compliance occurs when individuals change their behavior based on the requests of others
the Cori cycle
Because red blood cells lack mitochondria, they cannot carry out aerobic metabolism. Rather, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid to regenerate NAD + . However, lactate is acidic; it must be removed from the bloodstream to avoid acidifying the blood. Red blood cells deliver this lactate to the liver, where it can be converted back into pyruvate and, through gluconeogenesis, become glucose for the red blood cells to use
what does the volume of the ECF depend on ?
Because the major cation of ECF is Na+ (and its accompanying anions Cl− and HCO3 − ), ECF volume is determined by the amount of NaCl and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) it contains
discrimination
Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a specific group.
deviance
Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society
ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group or culture
beliefs
Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but they also share collective values.
Emile Durkheim
Believed in functionalism and the scientific method; saw society as a set of independent parts that maintain a system but each separate part has a function
vasa recta
Capillary branches that supply loops of Henle in the medulla region of the kidney
functional group priorities
Carboxylic acid > anhydride > ester > amide > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > alkene or alkyne > alkane
how do cardiac myocytes communicate with one another ?
Cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs, which contain many gap junctions. These gap junctions are connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for the flow of ions directly between cells.
rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation
Carnitine acyltransferase I
what are the personal consequences of the caste system ?
Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A person who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing.
celiac disease
Celiac disease results from an immune reaction against gluten, a protein found in grains, especially wheat. In this condition, the immune system develops antibodies against certain components of gluten. These antibodies then cross-react with elements of the small intestine, causing damage to the mucosa. This results in diarrhea and discomfort. Sometimes, this condition also results in malabsorptive syndromes, including the inability to absorb fat and fat-soluble vitamins. Contrary to popular belief, celiac disease and gluten sensitivity are immune conditions, but not true allergies
parts of the forebrain
Cerebral cortex Basal ganglia Limbic system Thalamus Hypothalamus
chelation therapy
Chelation therapy is often used to sequester toxic metals (lead, arsenic, mercury, and so on).
Piaget's pendulum experiment.
Children were given a pendulum in which they could vary the length of the string, the weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the initial angle of the swing. They were asked to find out what determined the frequency of the swing. Children in the concrete operational stage manipulated the variables at random and even distorted the data to fit preconceived hypotheses. Adolescents, on the other hand, were able to hold all variables but one constant at a given time, proceeding methodically to discover that only the length of the string affects the frequency. -the difference between the earlier stages and formal operational
what types of attachment can lead to deficit in social skills ?
Children with avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized attachment can have deficits in social skills.
control points of the TCA
Citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
closed systems
Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relationships between levels
complex III of ETC
CoQH2-cytochrome c oxidoreductase -transfers electrons from CoQ to cytochrome C -four protons H+ pumped into intermembrane space
rCBF
Detects blood patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to certain parts of brain
digestion
Digestion involves the breakdown of food into its constituent organic molecules: starches and other carbohydrates into monosaccharides, lipids (fats) into free fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids
Dipeptidase
Dipeptidases cleave the peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids
direct contact
Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes. For example, children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them
direct instruction
Direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes. For instance, a child who is taught by her parents not to use curse words can form a negative attitude toward curse words and, indirectly, a negative attitude toward those who use curse words
Displacement
Displacement describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another. Someone angry at her boss may hold her tongue at work but snap at her spouse when she gets home.
mnemonic for major waste product excreted in the urine
Dump the HUNK H+ Urea NH3+ K+
how are the different areas of the sarcomere affected during contraction ?
During contraction, the H-zone, I-band, the distance between Z-lines, and the distance between M-lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant.
ECF volume expansion effects on reabsorption
ECF (plasma + interstitial fluid) volume expansion leads to a decrease in fractional reabsorption
ECF volume contraction effects on fractional reabsorption
ECF volume contraction produces an increase in fractional reabsorption in the proximal tubule
glucose-6-phosphatase is only present in:
ER of liver cells
glycogen granules
Each granule has a central protein core with polyglucose chains radiating outward to form a sphere
what addition to the Myer-Briggs Inventory was made, other than Jung's three dichotomies ?
Each of Jung's three dichotomies, and a fourth—judging (J, preferring orderliness) vs. perceiving (P, preferring spontaneity)—is labeled as a specific personality type
how many acetyl-CoA molecules are needed to make palmitate ?
Eight acetyl-CoA groups are required to produce palmitate (16:0)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons can be studied using an electroencephalogram (EEG), which involves placing several electrodes on the scalp. Broad patterns of electrical activity can thus be detected and recorded. Because this procedure is noninvasive (it does not cause any damage), it is commonly used with human subjects
lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
peptidases
Enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids
what happens at the equivalence point ?
Equivalence point: point in titration at which the amount of titrant added is just enough to completely neutralize the analyte solution. moles of base == moles of acid
how does one achieve successful resolution of a crisis according to Erikson ?
Erikson viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages.
ethnic identity
Ethnic identity refers to one's ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language
micelles
Free fatty acids, cholesterol, 2-monoacylglycerol, and bile salts contribute to the formation of micelles, which are clusters of amphipathic lipids that are soluble in the aqueous environment of the intestinal lumen
according to Freud, how do we access our thoughts? (or not)
Freud also stated that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into three main categories: thoughts to which we have conscious access, thoughts that we aren't currently aware of (preconscious), and thoughts that have been repressed (unconscious)
who can be blamed for social inequalities ?
No individual, rich or poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects a person's social standing. Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported by society as a whole
primary reinforcers
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
*oxo-* prefix
Exception: carbonyl when *not* on parent chain; but rather on a (*substituent*) 3-(5-oxohexyl)cyclohexanone
fixation in phallic stage
Excessive masturbation, flirts frequently, excessively modest, excessively timid, overly proud, promiscuity
single cross over
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes at a single locus
once in the peritubular cell how does glucose go into the blood, during reabsorption ?
Facilitated diffusion by glucose carrier proteins (GLUT 1 and 2)
failure of the epiglottis to close the laryngeal inlet during swallowing can lead to:___
Failure of this mechanism can lead to aspiration of food and choking.
how does fast-twitch muscle make ATP ?
Fast-twitch (white) muscle fibers have fewer mitochondria and must rely on glycolysis and fermentation to make ATP under most circumstances
white fibers
Fast-twitch muscle fibers. They are primarily anaerobic and fatigue more easily than red fibers. -low myoglobin content -not much mitochondria
How are fat soluble vitamins absorbed?
Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the lymphatic circulation
intimacy vs isolation
Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If this crisis is not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdrawn or capable of only superficial relationships with others
initiative vs guilt
Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself or may overcompensate by showing off.
from where does the food leave the stomach and enter the small intestine ?
Food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum
What is Vgotsky's theory?
For Vygotsky, the engine driving cognitive development was the child's internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language, and so on. As the child internalized these various interpersonal and cultural rules, her cognitive activity developed accordingly.
agents of socialization for adolescents
For adolescents, this can expand to social circles, including friends, peers, and teachers.
Each of the following theorists (Freud, Erikson, Kohlberg) evaluates an individual and determines that the person has failed in completing one of the theorist's developmental stages. What would each say is the most likely outcome for this person?
Freud would say that the individual has become fixated in that stage and will display the personality traits of that fixation for the rest of his or her life. Erikson would say that the individual will still move through subsequent phases, but will be lacking the skills and virtues granted by successful resolution of that stage. Kohlberg would say that the individual was incapable of reasoning at the level of failure and that the individual would use the reasoning described in previous stages to resolve moral dilemmas.
how does norepinephrine and epinephrine affect the heart ?
Norepinephrine from sympathetic neurons or epinephrine from the adrenal medulla binds to adrenergic receptors in the heart, causing an increased heart rate and greater contractility
example of sensory bias
For example, fiddler crabs are naturally attracted to structures that break up the level horizon because they may indicate a food source; male crabs take advantage of this fact by building pillars around their territory to attract mates.
example of the common ion effect
For example, if a salt such as CaF2 is dissolved into water already containing Ca2+ ions (from some other salt, perhaps CaCl2 ), the solution will dissolve less CaF2 than would an equal amount of pure water -
example of McDonaldization
For example, the establishment of 24-hour news channels, which feature a running footer of the latest news stories as "bite-size" headlines, demonstrate an efficient and predictable source of information Corporations may mine "big data" to make business decisions using controlled, standardized methods, allowing the business to focus on the calculable outcomes of a choice such as profit and loss analysis and market share.
example of Paivio's dual-code hypothesis
For example, the word "dad" can recall some information, and the picture of "dad" can recall that same information. The fact that we can code this information two different ways builds redundancy and increases the chance that the information can be retrieved and used effectively when cued
Na+ balance example
For example, to remain in Na+ balance, a person who ingests 150 mEq of Na+ daily must excrete exactly 150 mEq of Na+ daily.
explain all or nothing response in muscles
For muscle cells to respond, stimuli must reach a threshold value. The strength of a response from one muscle cell cannot be changed because the only options are all or nothing. Therefore, nerves control overall force by the number of motor units they recruit to respond. Maximal response occurs when all fibers within a muscle are stimulated to contract simultaneously
secondary active transport
Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.
why is G6PD activated by insulin ?
G6PD is induced by insulin because the abundance of sugar entering the cell under insulin stimulation will be shunted into both fuel utilization pathways (glycolysis and aerobic respiration), as well as fuel storage pathways (fatty acid synthesis, glycogenesis, and the PPP)
starling equation for glomerular filtration rate
GFR = Glomerular filtration rate (mL/min) Kf = Hydraulic conductance (mL/min • mm Hg) PGC = Hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillary (mm Hg) PBS = Hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space (mm Hg) πGC = Oncotic pressure in glomerular capillary (mm Hg) assuming Oncotic pressure in Bowman's space is 0.
Gemeinschaft (Tonnies)
Gemeinschaft (community) refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Families and neighborhoods are examples of Gemeinschaften.
generalization
Generalization is a broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response.
Gesellschaft (Tonnies)
Gesellschaft (society) refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal. Companies and countries are examples of Gesellschaften.
glomerular filtration
Glomerular filtration is the first step in the formation of urine. As the renal blood flow enters the glomerular capillaries, a portion of that blood is filtered into Bowman's space, the first part of the nephron. -The fluid that is filtered is similar to interstitial fluid and is called an ultrafiltrate.
glomerular filtration rate definition
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the measure that describes the total amount of filtrate formed by all the renal corpuscles in both kidneys per minute. The glomerular filtration rate is directly proportional to the pressure gradient in the glomerulus, so changes in pressure will change GFR.
glomerotubular balance
Glomerulotubular balance ensures that a constant fraction of the filtered load is reabsorbed by the proximal tubule, even if the filtered load increases or decreases.
in which part of the renal tubule is glucose reabsorbed
Glucose is filtered across glomerular capillaries and reabsorbed by the epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubule
how is glycogen stored in cells ?
Glycogen is stored in the cytoplasm as granules.
PDH, TCA and glycolysis yield
Glycolysis yields two ATP and two NADH, providing another seven molecules of ATP; thus, the net yield of ATP for one glucose molecule from glycolysis through oxidative phosphorylation is 30-32 ATP.
H3K9ac
H3K9ac is an epigenetic modification to the DNA packaging protein Histone H3. It is a mark that indicates the acetylation at the 9th lysine residue of the histone H3 protein.
strong acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4
norms
Norms define how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and important, and most members of the society adhere to them.
how are pancreatic juices- secreted by acinar cells- transferred to the duodenum?
Pancreatic juices are transferred to the duodenum via a duct system that runs along the middle of the pancreas
Promiscuity
Having sex with a number of partners without commitment
function of the forebrain
Higher order thinking processes emotions and memory
How does pepsinogen become pepsin?
Hydrogen ions in the stomach, secreted by parietal cells as hydrochloric acid, cleave pepsinogen to pepsin
Intensity of wave
I = Energy / (Area) (time) I = Power/ Area
Stanford-Binet Test
IQ tests were largely pioneered by Alfred Binet in the early twentieth century. A professor at Stanford University took Binet's work and created what is known as the Stanford-Binet IQ test
disconfirmation principle
Idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised.
example of false consciousness
Ideas such as the emphasis of competition over cooperation, or of hard work being its own reward, clearly benefit the owners of industry. Therefore, workers are less likely to question their place in society and assume individual responsibility for existing conditions.
identification
Identification refers to the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas. -surface-level acceptance of the idea
if O2 is limited, the rate of ____ ____ _____ and levels of ___, ____ ___
If O2 is limited, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation decreases and the concentrations of NADH and FADH2 increase
Why is socialization important?
Individuals gain the knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors that are necessary for inclusion in society. The views of society become the accepted viewpoints and are generally adopted by the individuals within it
what are some factors that disrupt the ideal meritocracy ?
Inheritance and pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure meritocracy
the consensus cues (a person deviates in behavior when compared to others) indicate which attribution?
If a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person's behavior.
Integrity vs. Despair
If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as a detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death
Trust vs. Mistrust
If resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life.
how can one unlearn the conditioned response ?
If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and extinction occurs
impression management
Impression management refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us. This is done through the regulation or controlling of information in social interactions
what is the premise of Kohlberg's theory on personality development?
Kohlberg's theory of personality development focuses not on resolving conflicts or urges, but rather on the development of moral thinking. Kohlberg reasoned that, as our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong
in fasting state, what happens to beta-oxidation ?
In a fasting state, the liver produces more acetyl-CoA from β-oxidation than is used in the citric acid cycle. Much of the acetyl-CoA is used to synthesize ketone bodies (essentially two acetyl-CoA molecules linked together) that are released into the bloodstream and transported to other tissues.
primary groups
In a primary group, the interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members. These groups often last a long period of time and may include a core circle of friends, a tightly knit family, or members of a team.
example of the iron cage
In a rationalized, modern society, we have supermarkets instead of family-owned stores. We have chain restaurants instead of local eateries. Superstores that offer a multitude of merchandise have replaced independent businesses that focused on one product line, such as hardware, groceries, automotive repair, or clothing. Shopping malls offer retail stores, restaurants, fitness centers, even condominiums. This change may be rational, but is it universally desirable?
what is the difference between identity and personality ?
In a way, identity describes who we are, while personality describes how we act and react to the world around us
egocentrism in formal operational stage
In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response, innate or reflexive response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
what is the difference between a hydrolase and a phosphorylase ?
In contrast to a hydrolase, a phosphorylase breaks bonds using an inorganic phosphate instead of water
what is the ki struggling with during development in each stage of Feud's stages ?
In each stage, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body. Each stage differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which the libidinal drive is met
which subdivision of the brain are the oldest ?
In evolutionary terms, the hindbrain and midbrain were brain structures that developed earlier
equilibrium constant for an ionic compound in solution
Ksp
Ksp for AgCl (s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl− (aq )
Ksp = [Ag+ ][Cl− ]
conformational isomers
Stereoisomers that differ by rotation about one or more single bonds, usually represented using Newman projections.
example of generalization
In one famous experiment, researchers conditioned a child called Little Albert to be afraid of a white rat by pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud noise. Subsequent tests showed that Little Albert's conditioning had generalized such that he also exhibited a fear response to a white stuffed rabbit, a white sealskin coat, and even a man with a white beard.
A large percentage of the chyme is actually water from secretions. Secretions of water into the GI tract can reach 7 liters a day. How is fluid balance maintained ?
In order to maintain proper fluid levels within the body, much of this fluid must be reabsorbed by osmosis. As solutes are absorbed into the bloodstream, water is drawn with them, eventually reaching the capillaries. W
what happens when a child fixates on a stage according to Freud ?
In response to the anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as a neurosis
complex ion and chelation
In some complexes, the central cation can be bonded to the same ligand in multiple places. This is called chelation, and it generally requires large organic ligands that can double back to form a second (or even third) bond with the central cation.
how is glomerulotubular balance maintained ?
In summary, increases in GFR produce increases in the filtration fraction, which leads to increased πc and increased reabsorption in the proximal tubule; decreases in GFR produce decreases in the filtration fraction, which leads to decreased πc and decreased reabsorption. The proportionality of filtration and proximal tubule reabsorption is thereby maintained (i.e., there is glomerulotubular balance).
The portal vein, large vein through which oxygen-depleted blood from the stomach, the intestines, the spleen, the gallbladder, and the pancreas flows to the liver. What happens to the blood when it reaches the liver?
In the liver the blood from the portal vein is relieved of worn-out red cells, bacteria, and other debris and in which nutrients are added to the blood or removed from it for storage.
triacylglycerols are made in the liver. how do they go to the adipose tissues ?
In the liver, triacylglycerols are packaged and sent to adipose tissue as very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), leaving only a small amount of stored triacylglycerols.
formation of enols from ketone
In the presence of catalytic acid or base, a ketone will exist in equilibrium with an enol.
where do keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei ?
In the stratum granulosum, the keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei
Object relations theory
In this context, object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects then persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others, including the social bonds we create and our predictions of others' behavior.
According to the social construction theory, can a foreigner (who is not familiar with the Arabic culture) go to Syria, and express emotion that will be understood by the native ?
In this model, one must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation -so probably not (this is extreme, but i'm just making the point of the model)
angiotensin I
Inactive precursor Converted in lung capillaries to Angiotensin II (active) by ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme)(made in lungs).
Indicators
Indicators are weak organic acids or bases that have different colors in their protonated and deprotonated states
what role do micelles play ?
Micelles are vital in digestion, transport, and absorption of lipid-soluble substances starting from the duodenum all the way to the end of the ileum.
myofibrils
Microscopic protein filaments that makeup muscle cells.
internalization
Internalization involves changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group.
cerebral cortex function
Is the center for humans highest functions governing thought, memory, reasoning, sensation and voluntary movement., complex thought, impulse control, long-term planning, problem solving, language processing
describe the reaction catalyzed by the rate limiting enzyme of the TCA cycle
Isocitrate is first oxidized to oxalosuccinate by isocitrate dehydrogenase. Then oxalosuccinate is decarboxylated to produce α-ketoglutarate and CO2 ,
isoosmotic reabsorption
Isosmotic reabsorption is a hallmark of proximal tu - bular function: -Solute and water reabsorption are coupled and are proportional to each other. -Thus, if 67% of the filtered solute is reabsorbed by the proximal tubule, then 67% of the filtered water also will be reabsorbed.
effect of ADH on collecting duct
It increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water, increasing water reabsorption
glycogen synthase regulation
It is stimulated by glucose 6-phosphate and insulin. It is inhibited by epinephrine and glucagon through a protein kinase cascade that phosphorylates and inactivates the enzyme
what is the significance of glycerol-3-phosphate ?
Its ability to be converted to DHAP, an intermediate of glycolysis, means that the glycerol of triacylglycerols can be shunted into glycolysis for energy.
Myer-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)
Jung's work laid the groundwork for creation of the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI), a classic personality test.
the kinetic energy of a gas depends on temperature. what is the equation that describes this ?
KE = 1/2 * m * v^2 = 1.5 * Kb * T where Kb is Boltzmann's constant, T is temperature, m is mass and v is velocity
why is having keratin (mad by keratinocytes) useful ?
Keratin, mentioned above, is resistant to damage and provides protection against injury, water, and pathogens.
reference group examples
Kids and adults pay attention to what their peers wear, what music they like, what they do with their free time—and they compare themselves to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group, so a middle school boy might look not just at his classmates but also at his older brother's friends and see a different set of norms.
post conventional morality
Kohlberg's highest stage of morality- occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws. And restrictions V- social contract, views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights VI- (universal human ethics) reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom)
on what did Kohlberg's observations rely ?
Kohlberg's observations about moral reasoning were based on responses of subjects to hypothetical moral dilemmas.
epimer
Stereoisomers that differ in stereochemistry at only one chiral carbon
what happens if a particular disaccharide is missing ?
Lack of a particular disaccharidase causes an inability to break down the corresponding disaccharide. Then bacteria in the intestines are able to hydrolyze that disaccharide, producing methane gas as a byproduct. In addition, undigested disaccharides can have an osmotic effect, pulling water into the stool and causing diarrhea
Langerhan cells in the skin
Langerhans cells are special macrophages that serve as antigen-presenting cells in the skin.
ATP synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP - -spans the entire inner mitochondrial membrane and protrudes into the matrix. -
how do long chain fatty acid, glycerol and cholesterol get absorbed ?
Larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides The triglycerides and esterified cholesterol molecules are packaged into chylomicrons. Rather than entering the bloodstream, chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals, small vessels that form the beginning of the lymphatic system
what is one very important role of NADPH ?
Maintenance of a supply of reduced glutathione to protect against reactive oxygen species (acting as the body's natural antioxidant)
example of positive punishment
Matilda gets a smack from her mum for being naughty
iron cage
Max Weber's pessimistic description of modern life, in which we are caught in bureaucratic structures that control our lives through rigid rules and rationalization -
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously -priming and procedural memory
heuristics
Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).
facilated diffusion
Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
myoglobin vs hemoglobin
Myoglobin has higher O2 affinity; stores O2 for when Hb runs out;
isocitrate dehydrogenase is stimulated by
NAD+ and ADP
can NaCl cross the cell membrane ?
NO
what are the major ions, molecules, found in the ECF ?
Na+ Cl- HCO3-
what is freely filtered and what is not ?
Na+ , K+ , Cl− , or HCO3 − are freely filtered large proteins (plasma proteins) do not get filtered
negative reinforcer
Negative reinforcers act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant.
chyme
Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.
Key regulators of oxidative phosphorylation
O2 and ADP
the big five traits of personality
OCEAN Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
of all the isomers, which are the most similar ?
Of all of the isomers, conformational isomers are the most similar
why does adding solutes reduce vapor pressure at the molecular level ?
On a molecular level, the presence of the solute molecules can block the evaporation of solvent molecules but not their condensation. This reduces the vapor pressure of the solution compared to the pure solvent,
what happens to the melanin after it has been produced by melanocyte in the stratum basale ?
Once produced, the pigment is transferred to the keratinocytes.
how can one take advantage of the common ion effect?
One can take advantage of the common ion effect to separate out specific compounds in a solution mixture. For example, in a solution of silver salts, one could add sodium or potassium chloride to preferentially precipitate silver(I) chloride. By adding an appropriate counterion in excess, the dissociation reaction shifts to the left, forming the solid salt.
polyandry
One female, several males.
polygyny
One male, several females.
looking-glass self
Our reactions to how others perceive us can be varied— maintaining, modifying, downplaying, or accentuating different aspects of our personality. This construct, which relies on others reflecting ourselves back to ourselves, is appropriately called the looking-glass self.
open systems
Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes.
2. Which of the following fatty acids will produce 8 acetyl-CoA molecules after it is completely catabolized via beta oxidation?
Option 4 A 16-carbon fatty acid will yield 8 molecules of acetyl-CoA after complete beta oxidation (16/2 = 8).
pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic amylase breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides and is therefore responsible for carbohydrate digestion
what affect oxidation state of a carbon ?
Oxidation state increases with more bonds to heteroatoms (atoms besides carbon and hydrogen, like oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or halogens) and decreases with more bonds to hydrogen.
primary product of fatty acid synthesis i
Palmitic acid (palmitate)
aminopeptidase
Peptidase secreted by glands in the duodenum that removes the N-terminal amino acid from a peptide.
positive reinforcer
Positive reinforcers increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior.
primary deviance
Primary deviance is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual's self-image or interactions with others (i.e getting a speed ticket, deviant but does not affect you in any major way )
Arrhenius acid
Produces H+ ions when dissolved in water starts with an H (HCl, HNo3)
Arrhenius base
Produces OH- ions when dissolved in water ends with OH (Ca(OH)2, NaOH)
What stage does crossing over occur?
Prophase 1 of meiosis
Functional Attitudes Theory: Knowledge
Provides consistency and stability, helps to provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps predict their behavior.
PEN model (Eysencks)
Psychoticism is a measure of nonconformity or social deviance. Extraversion is a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation. Neuroticism is a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
oxaloacetate
Pyruvate carboxylase is a mitochondrial enzyme that is activated by acetyl-CoA (from β-oxidation). The product, oxaloacetate (OAA), is a citric acid cycle intermediate and cannot leave the mitochondrion. Rather, it is reduced to malate, which can leave the mitochondrion via the malate-aspartate shuttle
queer theory
Queer Theory is an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation.
symbolic interactionism's view on race
Race and ethnicity are part of people's identity as displayed through our presentation of self People may differ in front-stage and back-stage on racial matters Minorities suffer from microaggressions Another way to apply the interactionist perspective is to look at how people define their races and the race of others.
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, -most muscles are paralyzed -EEG mimic wakefulness waves
what happens to the chylomicrons that form in the epithelial cell of the small intestine?
Rather than entering the bloodstream, chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals, small vessels that form the beginning of the lymphatic system.
enoyl-CoA isomerase
Rearranges cis double bonds at the 3,4 position to trans double bonds at the 2,3 position once enough acetyl-CoA has been liberated to isolate the double bond within the first three carbons (permits beta-oxidation to proceed in monounsaturated fats)
function of the appendix
Recent evidence, however, suggests that it may have a role in warding off certain bacterial infections and repopulating the large intestine with normal flora after episodes of diarrhea.
REM is associated with ___ and SWS with ___
Recent studies have associated REM more with procedural memory consolidation and SWS with declarative memory consolidation
distinctiveness cues
Refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios (i.e every time he gets hit, he hit back; could be variable to indicating low distinctness)
what happens to the glycerol released from triacylglycerol hydrolysis by HSL ?
Released glycerol from fat may be transported to the liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis.
why does Ksp equation doesn't have a denominator ?
Remember that pure solids and liquids do not appear in the equilibrium constant. Indeed, dissociation reactions—by definition—have a solid salt as a reactant; thus, Ksp expressions should never have denominators.
alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is inhibited by
Succinyl CoA, NADH, ATP
resocialization
Resocialization is another process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations.
when is resocialization necessary ?
Resocialization is necessary when a person moves to a senior care center, goes to boarding school, or serves time in jail. In the new environment, the old rules no longer apply. The process of resocialization is typically more stressful than normal socialization because people have to unlearn behaviors that have become customary to them
strain theory
Robert Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
role performance
Role performance is the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role
sanctions can be either formal or informal. explain
Sanctions can be either formal (enforced by social institutions) or informal (enforced by social behaviors).
Schemata (Piaget)
Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything.
secondary deviance
Secondary deviance occurs when a person's self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a "deviant".
secretin is an enterogastrone, explain.
Secretin is also an enterogastrone, a hormone that slows motility through the digestive tract. Slowing of motility allows increased time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme—especially fats
What advantage does secretion confers ?
Secretion is a mechanism for excreting wastes that are simply too large to pass through glomerular pores
self-concept
Self-concept describes the sum of all of the phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are, who we used to be, and who we may become in the future
self-presentation
Self-presentation is the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors. The implication of self-presentation is that people use specific strategies to shape what others will think of them.
how do simple sugars (fructose, glucose and galactose) and amino acids go to the epithelial cells lining the small intestine on their way to the capillaries ?
Simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, and amino acids are absorbed by secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
Steroetype threat
Stereotype threat refers to the concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group. Stereotype threat can cause reduced performance, encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one's personal investment in an activity
Gallbladder function
Store & concentrate bile produced by the liver until it is needed in the small intestine
K-complex
Single but large high-voltage spike of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep.
skeletal cells are multinucleated cells. explain
Skeletal muscle is multinucleated because it is formed as individual muscle cells fuse into long rods during development
why striations in smooth muscle can't be seen ?
Skeletal muscle is multinucleated because it is formed as individual muscle cells fuse into long rods during development
the idea of personality according to BF skinner ?
Skinner reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time. Therapy, then, should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operant conditioning techniques
Gallstones
Small crystals that form from bile or cholesterol in the gallbladder.
example of affective attitude
Snakes scare me and I love my family
identity (as defined by social scientists)
Social scientists define identity as the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong. Whereas we have one all-encompassing self-concept, we have multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context
socialization
Socialization is the process of developing and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs.
Diffusion (Sociology)
Spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another -the spread of material and nonmaterial culture
alterness
State of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment; nearly synonymous with arousal. -cortisol levels are high -EEG indicates wakefulness
HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors
Statins cholesterol (negative feedback)
stratification is not about ___ inequalities, but about ____ inequalities
Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like.
structural mobility
Structural mobility happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes.
is there any support for the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ?
Studies have shown, for instance, that unless people have access to the word "ambivalent," they don't recognize an experience of uncertainty from having conflicting positive and negative feelings about one issue. Essentially, the hypothesis argues, if a person can't describe the experience, the person is not having the experience.
why is projection a particular defense mechanism ?
Tests that make use of projection to gain insight into a client's mind are common in psychoanalytic therapy. For example, the Rorschach inkblot test
examples of tetanic contraction
Tetanic contraction is usually normal (such as when holding up a heavy box). Muscles often exhibit some level of tetanic activity, leading to muscle tone, in order to maintain posture; for example, in a crouching position, some muscles require sustained contraction to hold the position.
the value of the filtration fraction is about 20%. meaning 20% of the RPF is filtered and what happens to the remaining 80% ?
The 80% of RPF that is not filtered leaves the glomerular capillaries via the efferent arterioles and becomes the peritubular capillary blood flow.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is based on the idea that people experience their world through their language, and that they therefore understand their world through the culture embedded in their language. The hypothesis, which has also been called linguistic relativity, states that language shapes thought
theory of mind.
The ability to sense how another's mind works—for example, understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it—is referred to as theory of mind
glucose-6-phosphatase absence in skeletal muscle means that:
The absence of glucose-6-phosphatase in skeletal muscle means that muscle glycogen cannot serve as a source of blood glucose and rather is for use only within the muscle
If O2 is limited, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation decreases, and the concentrations of NADH and FADH2 increase. What happens then ?
The accumulation of NADH, in turn, inhibits the citric acid cycle.
the stomach does not participate in absorption (except for alcohol and aspirin) but is rather focused on digestion. How does digestion in the stomach promote absorption by the small intestine ?
The combined mechanical and chemical digestive activities of the stomach result in a significant increase in the surface area of the now unrecognizable food particles, so when the chyme reaches the small intestine, the absorption of nutrients from it can be maximized
explain the common ion effect
The common ion effect is really Le Châtelier's principle in action. Because the solution already contains one of the constituent ions from the products side of the dissociation equilibrium, the system will shift toward the left side, reforming the solid salt. As a result, molar solubility for the solid is reduced, and less of the solid dissolves in the solution—although the Ksp remains constant.
what happens at the descending loop of henle ?
The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water but not salt; therefore, as the filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla, water is reabsorbed from the filtrate
the disease tetanus
The disease tetanus is caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetani that releases the toxin tetanospasmin. Tetanospasmin blocks the release of GABA from the neurons that inhibit motor neurons, making the motor neurons overexcitable. This leads to constant contraction of muscles, which can be so strong as to fracture bones
example of exothermic solvation
The dissolution of gases into liquids, such as CO2 into water, is an exothermic process because the only significant interactions that must be broken are those between water molecules—CO2 , as a gas, demonstrates minimal intermolecular interaction.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
The elaboration likelihood model separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information. 1- central route processing 2- peripheral route processing
vapor pressure
The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile. The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure. As the temperature of liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure.
external anal sphincter (control)
The external sphincter is under voluntary control (somatic),
food coma colloquially
The fact that so often we feel sleepy and lethargic after eating a big meal (often called a food coma colloquially) is due, in part, to parasympathetic activity1
how does the body deal with ammonia Nh3 ?
The liver converts the ammonia to urea, a neutral compound, which travels to the kidney and is secreted into the nephron for excretion in the urine
what part of the autonomic nervous system stimulates digestion ?
The parasympathetic division is involved in stimulation of digestive activities, increasing secretions from exocrine glands and promoting peristalsis
central executive
The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.
curve of forgetting
The pattern of forgetting discovered by Ebbinghaus, which shows that forgetting tapers off after a period of rapid information loss that immediately follows learning.
Koko the gorilla
a gorilla who is able to communicate with humans through the use of American Sign Language. Koko's vocabulary includes more than one thousand words.
autonomy vs shame
The favorable outcome here is feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control
identity vs role confusion
The favorable outcome is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.
starling force at the glomeruli-Bowman interface
The hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus is significantly higher than that in Bowman's space, which causes fluid to move into the nephron. On the other hand, the osmolarity of blood is higher than that of Bowman's space, resulting in pressure opposing the movement of fluid into the nephron. However, the hydrostatic pressure is much larger than the oncotic pressure, so the net flow is still from blood into the nephron
what does the hypodermis do ?
The hypodermis contains fat and connective tissue and connects the skin to the rest of the body
why can the kidneys contribute to regulating blood pH ?
The kidneys are able to selectively increase or decrease the secretion of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate
Na+ balance
The kidneys are responsible for maintaining a normal body Na+ content. On a daily basis, the kidneys must ensure that Na+ excretion exactly equals Na+ intake, a matching process called Na+ balance
compare the size of the large intestine to the small intestine
The large intestine has a larger diameter but shorter length than the small intestine
latent period of muscle twitch
The latent period is the time between reaching the threshold and the onset of contraction. It is during this time that the action potential spreads along with the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
euchromatin
The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription.
how does bilirubin reaches the liver ?
The major pigment in bile is bilirubin, which is a byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin. Bilirubin travels to the liver, where it is conjugated (attached to a protein) and secreted into the bile for excretion
what roles does the media play in socialization ?
The media impact beliefs and can determine what is considered important in a particular society. It delivers impersonalized communication to a vast audience, and can thereby establish trends in American or international pop culture
tranverse tubules (T-tubules)
The membranes of t-tubules are a continuation of the muscle fiber membrane, which makes the lumen of t-tubules continuous with the extracellular fluid. The lie transverse to the terminal cisternae. T-tubules allow action potentials to move rapidly from the cell surface into the interior of the fiber so that they reach the terminal cisternae nearly simultaneously. Without t-tubules, the action potential would reach the center of the fiber only by conduction of the action potential through the cytosol, a slower and less direct process that would delay the response time of the muscle fiber.
function of the meninges
The meninges help protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid.
example of resocialization
The method by which members of the armed forces are trained to obey orders and commands without hesitation is a prime example of resocialization, but so is attracting and indoctrinating members into a cult.
function of the midbrain
The midbrain is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli. There are several prominent nuclei in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called colliculi.
Keratinocytes
The most abundant epidermal cells, they function mainly to produce keratin.
how is myoglobin beneficial during times of high strenuous activity ?
The muscle also contains myoglobin, which binds oxygen with high affinity. As exercising muscles run out of oxygen, they use myoglobin reserves to keep aerobic metabolism going
persona
The persona is likened to a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world. Like our identity, Jung described the persona as adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities
what determines the rate of glomerular filtration and the characteristics of the glomerular filtrate ?
The physical characteristics of the glomerular capillary wall
what happens when the indicator changes color ?
The point at which the indicator changes to its final color is not the equivalence point but rather the endpoint (you can then draw a graph to find the equivalence point)
proton-motive force
The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during electron transport
the prefix n-
The prefix n- that we see in Figure 1.3 on n-propyl simply indicates that this is "normal"—in other words, a straight-chain alkane.
why does adding a solute to a solution s decreases it's freezing point ?
The presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the lattice arrangement of solvent molecules associated with the solid state. Thus, a greater amount of energy must be removed from the solution (resulting in a lower temperature) in order for the solution to solidify
thermodynamic product
The product of a reaction that is formed favorably at a higher temperature because thermal energy is available to form the transition state of the more stable product; has a larger overall difference in free energy between the products and reactants than the kinetic product.
kinetic product
The product of a reaction that is formed favorably at a lower temperature because thermal energy is not available to form the transition state required to create a more stable thermodynamic product; has a smaller overall difference in free energy between the products and reactants than the thermodynamic product.
ion product
The product of the molar concentrations of dissociated ions in solution at a given point in a reaction, where each ion is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient. -analogous to the reaction quotient, Q, for other chemical reactions. The ion product equation has the same form as the equation for the solubility product constant:
oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the proton-motive force.
are psychoanalytic perspectives still accredited ?
The psychoanalytic perspective, much like other Freudian and Jungian theories within psychology, has been largely discredited and has fallen from common use
ration of free fatty acids to glycerols
The ratio of free fatty acids to glycerol is 3:1. A triacylglycerol molecule is composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
mole fraction
The ratio of the moles of solute in solution to the total number of moles of both solvent and solute
digital divide
The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countries
what gives the energy that allows myosin to full on actin ?
The release of the inorganic phosphate and ADP in rapid succession provides the energy for the power stroke and results in the sliding of the actin filament over the myosin filament
what leads to the shortening of the actin filament ?
The repetitive binding and releasing of myosin heads on actin filaments allow the thin filament to slide along the thick filament, causing sequential shortening of the sarcomere.
representativeness heuristic
The representativeness heuristic involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
retro-aldol reaction
The reverse of an aldol condensation reaction, in which a carbon-carbon bond is cleaved with heat and base, yielding two aldehydes, two ketones, or one of each.
how do we go from ribulose-5-phosphate to ribose 5-phosphate ?
The ribulose 5-phosphate created in the PPP is isomerized to ribose 5-phosphate, the backbone of nucleic acids
freezing point
The temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid
centration
The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects. Or inability to understand the concept of conservation
what happens to the oxyhemoglobin curve under strenuous exercise ?
When a person exercises, heart rate and respiratory rate increase in order to move more oxygen to actively respiring muscles. The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve undergoes a right shift in the presence of increased carbon dioxide concentration, increased hydrogen ion concentration (decreased pH), and increased temperature
Which structure absorbs more water, the colon or the small intestine ?
The small intestine actually absorbs much more water than the colon
detrusor muscle
The smooth muscle compresses the urinary bladder and expels urine into the urethra.
the social cognitive theory
The social cognitive theory states that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment.
if a liquid phase chemical is mixed with another liquid, which is the solvent ?
The solvent is the component of the solution that remains in the same phase after mixing. If the two substances are already in the same phase (for example, a solution of two liquids), the solvent is the component present in greater quantity
gluconeogenesis requires acetyl-CoA from fatty-acid oxidation to occur. why can;'t the acetyl-CoA be from glycolysis ?
The source of acetyl-CoA cannot be glycolysis because this would just burn the glucose that is being generated in gluconeogenesis.
preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. -birds naturally peck when searching for food, so rewarding them with food in response to a pecking-based behavior works well
generativity vs stagnation
The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others
superior colliculi (midbrain)
The superior colliculus receives visual sensory input. -this promotes the midbrain reflex response to the visual stimuli
how does the sympathetic nervous system affects the digestive system ?
The sympathetic division is involved in the inhibition of these activities
the salivary gland are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system. But the sympathetic nervous system also have some effect explain.
The sympathetic nervous system increases the viscosity of saliva, which is why dry mouth and even a tacky sensation in the mouth occurs during a fight-or-flight response.
network
The term network is used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups. -A network is a more formal illustration of the relationships between individuals, usually through graphic representation
thalamus
The thalamus is a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell. After receiving incoming sensory impulses, the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. (
vagus nerve effect on heart
The vagus nerve provides parasympathetic outflow to the heart and slows the heart rate.
what is 'i', the van hoff factor ?
The van't Hoff factor corresponds to the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution. For example, i = 2 for NaCl because each formula unit of sodium chloride dissociates into two particles—a sodium ion and a chloride ion
Deviance is often associated with negative behavior. Some sociologists argue that deviance is necessary for society even beneficial. explain
These theorists argue that deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity within society, and can even promote social change.
what benefit does an increase in fractional reabsorption offers when ECF volume contraction occurs ?
This alteration of glomerulotubular balance is a logical protective mechanism, as the kidneys are trying to restore ECF volume by reabsorbing more solute and water than usual.
what is the benefit of having a change in reabsorption when there is ECF volume expansion ?
This alteration of glomerulotubular balance is one of several mechanisms that aids in the excretion of excess NaCl and water when there is ECF volume expansion
how does symbolic interactionism study stratification ?
This analysis strives to explain how people's social standing affects their everyday interactions.
basic anxiety (Horney)
This is based on the premise that a child's early perception of self is important and stems from a child's relationship with his or her parents. Inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness, which Horney termed basic anxiety, while neglect and rejection cause anger known as basic hostility.
under what conditions will the dilution segment be most important ?
This is important during periods of overhydration and provides a mechanism for eliminating excess water
insulin activate PDH in the liver, why does that make sense ?
This makes sense because high insulin levels signal to the liver that the individual is in a well-fed state; thus, the liver should not only burn glucose for energy, but shift the fatty acid equilibrium toward production and storage, rather than oxidation
what is the countercurrent multiplier system between the filtrate and the blood in the vasa recta ?
This means that the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle is in the opposite direction from the flow of blood through the vasa recta
labeling theory
This theory posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person's self-image. This can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity.
what is the reasoning behind the genetic compatibility theory of mating ?
This theory provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population: attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele
general principle of titration
Titrations are performed by adding small volumes of a solution of known concentration (the titrant) to a known volume of a solution of unknown concentration (the titrand) until completion of the reaction is achieved at the equivalence point
what is an instinct according to Freud ?
To Freud, an instinct is an innate psychological representation of a biological need
why are the intracellular and the extracellular osmolarity eventually become the same ?
To maintain this equality, water shifts freely across cell membranes. Thus, if a disturbance occurs to change the ECF osmolarity, water will shift across cell membranes to make the ICF osmolarity equal to the new ECF osmolarity.
how does rCBF work ?
To measure blood flow, the patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas; a special device that can detect radioactivity in the bloodstream can then correlate radioactivity levels with regional cerebral blood flow -non-invasive
how does a male child successfully resolve the Oedipal conflict ?
To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. Also, the child to a large extent deeroticizes, or sublimates his libidinal energy. This may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork
why does the interstitial fluid have the same composition as the plasma, but without proteins ?
To understand why interstitial fluid contains little protein and no blood cells, simply remember that it is formed by filtration across capillary walls. Pores in the capillary wall permit free passage of water and small solutes, but these pores are not large enough to permit the passage of large protein molecules or cells.
example of negative punishment
Toby's teacher confiscates his phone for using it during class time -the behavior is less likely to occur next time because the student now associated using phone during class with a the punishment of having it confiscated
total internal reflection
Total internal reflection, a phenomenon in which all the light incident on a boundary is reflected back into the original material, results with any angle of incidence greater than the critical angle, θc
dietary fats:
Triacylglycerols, cholesterol, cholesteryl esters, phospholipids, and free fatty acid.s.
acetylation of histones
Unwinds DNA, adds actyl group- changes shape = genes turned ON
When does the gallbladder release bile?
Upon release of CCK, the gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the biliary tree. The bile duct system merges with the pancreatic duct, before emptying into the duodenum.
average speed of a particle in a gas (root-mean-squared)
Urms = SQRT (3RT/M)
Stanford-Binet IQ Scale
Using this equation, a four-year-old with intelligence abilities at the level of the average six-year-old would have an IQ of 150
chemiosmotic coupling
Utilization of the proton-motive force generated by the electron transport chain to drive ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation.
values
Values are a culture's standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture's beliefs
Fat soluble vitamins
Vitamins A, D, E, K
Reabsorption brief function
Water and many solutes (e.g., Na+ , Cl− , HCO3 − , glucose, amino acids, urea, Ca2+ , Mg2+ , phosphate, lactate, and citrate) are reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate into the peritubular capillary blood.
how does water passes from the GI tract back to the plasma ?
Water passes not only transcellularly (across the cell membrane), but also paracellularly (squeezing between cells) to reach the blood.
example of organizations
We have all been members of multiple organizations, such as schools, companies, music groups, sports teams, fraternities and sororities, political organizations, community action committees, and so on.
similarity
We tend to be attracted to people who are similar to us in attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age, religion, appearance, and socioeconomic status. One reason for this may be convenience: it's easier to spend time together if you both want to go on a bike ride or if you both enjoy Thai food.
what was the premise of Max Weber theory on modern society ?
Weber's analysis of modern society centered on the concept of rationalization. A rational society is one built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition. To Weber, capitalism is entirely rational. Although this leads to efficiency and merit-based success, it can have negative effects when taken to the extreme
myogenic activity
ability of a muscle cell to contract without input from the nervous system;
how can alcohol be used to make acetyl-CoA, is it useful ?
When alcohol is consumed in moderate amounts, the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase convert it to acetylCoA. However, this reaction is accompanied by NADH buildup, which inhibits the Krebs cycle. Therefore, the acetyl-CoA formed through this process is used primarily to synthesize fatty acids.
sweating is under autonomic control. Which part of the brain initiate sweating ?
When body temperature rises above the setpoint determined by the hypothalamus, thermoregulation processes must occur in order to rid the body of heat
how do we go from ribose-5-phosphate to a nucleotide ?
When coupled to a nitrogenous base, it forms a nucleotide that can be integrated into RNA
activation of fatty acids
When fatty acids are metabolized, they first become activated by attachment to CoA, which is catalyzed by fatty-acyl-CoA synthetase. The product is generically referred to as a fatty acyl-CoA or acyl-CoA. Specific examples would be acetyl-CoA containing a 2-carbon acyl group, or palmitoyl-CoA with a 16-carbon acyl group.
what is the difference between suppression and repression ?
While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, suppression is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.
what would happen if bile salts didn't emulsify fat and cholesterol into micelles ?
Without bile, fats would spontaneously separate out of the aqueous mixture in the duodenum and would not be accessible to pancreatic lipase, which is water-soluble.
what would happen without calcium ?
Without calcium, the myosin-binding sites are covered by tropomyosin and contraction is prevented.
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome is a rare disease resulting from a gastrin-secreting tumor (gastrinoma). Typically, this tumor is found in the pancreas. The excess gastrin leads to excessive HCl production by parietal cells. Not surprisingly, one of the most common signs of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome is the presence of intractable ulcer disease
the common ion effect
a decrease in the solubility of an ionic compound caused by the addition of a common ion
Algorithms
a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem -mathematical or a set of instruction, designed to automatically produced the desired solution
long-term potentiation (LTP)
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier -STM memory is basically the firing of a synapse -this neural activity forms a memory trace that is thought to be the cause of STM -if the stimulus is repeated enough, the synapse fire more and the post-synaptic membrane makes more receptors, increasing receptors density. -this is the physiological basis of LTM
that's-not-all technique
a sales technique in which the persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the target person can make a decision
self-schemata
a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities. For example, the athlete self-schema usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing and acting in certain ways, although these qualities may change depending on culture, socioeconomic status, and personal beliefs.
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
what happens when there is a buildup of acetyl-CoA from beta oxidation ?
a shift in metabolism: pyruvate is no longer converted into acetyl-CoA (to enter the citric acid cycle), but rather into oxaloacetate (to enter gluconeogenesis)
Nash Equilibrium
a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the other actors have chosen
dementia
a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes
social stratification
a society's categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
visuospatial sketchpad
a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code
enolate formation
a strong base is used to deprotonate the alpha-C of the keto form of an aldehyde or ketone, resulting in an enolate carbanion
the system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)
a technique for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence -leads to overconfidence and erroneously interpreting one's own decisions, knowledge and beliefs as infallible
Neuroticism
a tendency toward anxiety, depression, self-doubt, and other negative feelings.
Social Disorganization Theory
a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)
a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.
what is the unit of molality ?
can be expressed as 'm', just like molarity is expressed as 'M'
secondary lactose intolerance
can be precipitated at any age by gastrointestinal disturbances that cause damage to the intestinal lining, where lactase is found
Alcohol use during pregnancy
can cause fetal alcohol syndrome, which results in slowed cognitive development and distinct craniofacial features
1,3 diketone
can form very stable enolates they have pka of 9 (so even weak bases work)
configurational isomers
can only be interchanged by breaking and reforming bonds
farsighted
can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects appear blurry
consistency cues
consistent behavior of a person over time (i.e he works out everyday)
feces
consists of indigestible material, water, bacteria (E. coli and others), and certain digestive secretions that are not reabsorbed (enzymes and some bile)
Pre-conscious
contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved
H-zone
contains only thick filaments (myosin)
kidney hilum
contains renal artery, renal vein, and ureter
control theory of deviance
control theory states that social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society. Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less likely to commit crimes against it.
what happens to glucose-1-phosphate in glycogenolysis ?
converted by a mutase to glucose 6-phosphate before it can be converted to glucose via the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
converts alanine to pyruvate
alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
converts alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized by NAD+ (making NADH) there is the release of CO2 CoA-SH is added
galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase
converts galactose 1-phosphate to glucose 1-phosphate (in hepatic cells) with the help of an epimerase
greater curvature
convex lateral surface of the stomach
glycogenin
core protein found in the glycogen protein start of glycogenesis
CRF
corticotropin releasing factor -released from hypothalamus when increased light
if melatonin contributes to sleepiness, what contributes to wakefulness?
cortisol -cortisol levels increase slightly in the morning
hormone that act to raise blood glucose levels ?
cortisol, epinephrine, glucagon, growth hormone
types of nerves in the PNS ?
cranial and spinal
synthetases
create new covalent bonds WITH energy input ex. succinyl CoA synthetase
synthases
create new covalent bonds WITHOUT energy input ex. citrate synthase
John Dewey
credited with the landmark article on functionalism; argued for studying the entire organism as a whole.
what are cues and how are they useful ?
cues can be useful to help understand the behavior of someone
example of counterculture groups
cults
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped structure of the nephron of a kidney that encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.
zeitgeber
cyclically occuring external stimuli used by the body to determine its circadian rhythm (external not intrinsic)
complex iV
cytochrome c oxidase -transfers electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, the final electron acceptor -2H+ are pumped into intermembrane space O2 is reduced to become H2O
Where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm
why does a decrease in ECF volume, increase fractional reabsorption ?
decrease in ECF -> decrease in plasma volume -> increase in protein [ ] -> decrease in hydrostatic pressure -> in the peritubular capillary, oncotic pressure increases, decrease in Pc ->> These changes in Starling forces in the peritubular capillaries produce an increase in fractional reabsorption of isosmotic fluid.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Where are keratinocytes produced?
deep in the epidermis by stem cells in stratum basale
Rationalization
defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions
sensory bias
development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population example:
Howard Gardner
devised theory of multiple intelligences
what sex chromosome can the male pass on to his offsprings ?
either the X chromosome, or the Y chromosome
what is the best way to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory ?
elaborative rehearsal
EEG
electroencephalogram
the complex ion (the center atom) is usually the __
electron acceptor and thus the Lewis acid
Lewis acid
electron pair acceptor
lewis acid
electron pair acceptor
Lewis Base
electron pair donor
lewis base
electron pair donor
Electron movement compared to current
electrons move in the opposite direction of the current
attachement
emotional bond between a caregiver (not necessarily a parent) and a child
different categories of social support
emotional esteem material informational network support
semantic encoding
encode the meaning of information that require controlled processing by putting it into a meaningful context
acoustic encoding
encode the meaning of information that require controlled processing by storing the way it sounds
visual encoding
encode the meaning of information that require controlled processing through visualizing it
Multiculturalism
encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity
the formation of ATP is
endergonic
the dissolution of a solute into a solvent is an ___
endothermic process
how are procarboxypeptidase A and B activated ?
enteropeptidase trypsinogen to trypsin, which can then activate the other zymogens, and also activates procarboxypeptidase A and B.
organizations
entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and a culture
Succinyl CoA synthetase
enzyme that converts succinyl CoA to succinate coupled with formation of GTP from GDP release of CoA-SH from succinyl-CoA GTP can then become ATP
epimerase
enzymes that catalyze the conversion of one sugar epimer to another
layers of the skin
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
how is food in the pharynx prevented from entering the larynx ?
epiglottis, a cartilaginous structure that folds down to cover the laryngeal inlet
Glycogen phosphorylase activators
epinephrine AMP glucagon
glycogen synthase inhibitors
epinephrine glucagon
negative reinforcers type
escape learning avoidance learning
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common -What There Is, Is All There Is
acetaldehyde
ethanal
acetic anhydride
ethanoic anhydride
ethyl alcohol
ethanol
electron transport between NADH,FADH2 and carrier proteins is:
exergonic
muscle cell are like neurons in what sense ?
exhibit an all-or-nothing response; either they respond completely to a stimulus or not at all.
two types of long term memory
explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
primary groups serve ___
expressive functions
altruism
form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him- or herself.
galactitol
formed from galactose in the lens in children with untreated galactosemia; increases water in lens, osmotic damage and then will cause cataracts
troponin and tropomyosin in sarcomeres
found on the thin filament and regulate actin-myosin interactions
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment father of psychology
Where are mirror neurons located?
frontal and parietal lobes
Aldolase B
fructose 1-phosphate is then cleaved into glyceraldehyde and DHAP by aldolase B.
units for solubility
g/L
Where is bile stored?
gallbladder -Bile is produced in the liver and travels down these bile ducts where it may be stored in the gallbladder or secreted into the duodenum.
the fundus and body of the stomach contains__
gastric glands
cultural universals
general cultural traits that exist in all cultures
favoritism
giving unfair advantages to the people who you like best
Fructose-2,6-BP inhibitors
glucagon
beta oxidation stimulation
glucagon
what activates phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase ?
glucagon and cortisol
sucrose
glucose + fructose
lactose
glucose + galactose
Isomaltose
glucose + glucose alpha 1, 6
Glucose-6-phosphatase
glucose 6-phosphate to glucose
Glucose-6-phosphatase
glucose 6-phosphate to glucose release of Pi
lactose breakdown
glucose and galactose
Maltose is made of
glucose and glucose
what are some substances that are almost always reabsorbed ?
glucose, amino acids, and vitamins. I
what are the three substrate of gluconeogenesis ? (from what compound does gluconeogenesis start)
glycerol 3-phosphate lactate (from anaerobic glycolysis) glucogenic amino acids (from muscle proteins)
Fats structure
glycerol and fatty acids
groups hold power over their members. They exert pressure that leads to individuals within that group to change behavior in accordance with the group. this is called___
group conformity
admiration stereotype
group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings high status, not competitive
triad
group of three
dyad
group of two
Vasoconstriction leads to a decrease in ___
heat loss
vasodilation leads to increased ___
heat loss
why does AMP inhibit F-1,6-BP ?
high levels of AMP imply that a cell needs energy and cannot afford to produce energy for the rest of the body before satisfying its own requirements
why does ATP activate F-1,6-BP ?
high levels of ATP imply that a cell is energetically satisfied enough to produce glucose for the rest of the body
why are red fibers red?
high myoglobin
three subdivisions of the brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
Where is short term memory stored?
hippocampus
meritocracies
hiring and promotion is based on proven and documented skills, rather than on nepotism or random choice
Anion exchange chromatography
hold negative stuff allow + stuff to pass
self-discrepancy theory
holds that we have three selves: 1) actual self: way we see ourselves as we currently are 2) ideal self: person we would like to be 3) ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be - the closer these 3 are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be
ghrelin in the digestive system
hormone secreted by the stomach and pancreas that stimulates the sensation of hunger
ADH or vasopressin in the digestive system
hormone that trigger the sensation of thirst encouraging fluid consumption
Mate bias
how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate
Conscientiousness
how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is
what is the purpose of aggression ?
humans evolved as it allowed our ancestor to fight for land, access to food, defend against predator. it can be the decisive factor regarding whether the genes will be passed on or not
fumarase
hydrolyzes the alkene bond of fumarate, forming malate -although two enantiomers are possible: -only L-malate is formed
what happens to the oncotic pressure in the peritubular capillaries if the filtration fraction increases?
if FF increase -> GFR increases -> more plasma is filtered -> less plasma in the efferent arterioles -> higher concentration of protein in efferent -> higher concentration of protein in the peritubular capillaries -> higher oncotic pressure,
Deviance, stigmatization, and reputation are strongly linked with the labeling theory. Give an example of how/
if members of society label a woman as promiscuous, this could either lead to further promiscuity or to a change in behavior toward something more in line with what is accepted in that society
linoleic acid and alpha-linoleic acid
important in maintaining cell membrane fluidity, which is critical for proper functioning of the cell.
anima
in Jung's theory, the anima is the suppressed female quality in males that explains emotional behavior (described by Jung as a man's inner woman)
when does the impermeability function of the skin become particularly important ?
in cases such as burns or large losses of skin as dehydration of the tissues becomes a real threat to survival.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at varying interval times
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
punishment
in operant conditioning, a way to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that increases the frequency that a behavior will occur
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness (to the unconscious) anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Where are sensory receptors/cells located?
in the dermis
where do sweat glands, blood vessels and hair follicles originate in the skin ?
in the dermis
where is lactase found ?
in the duodenum
where does triacylglycerol formation occur ?
in the liver and somewhat in adipose tissues
Where do vitamins get absorbed?
in the small intestine
in-groups
in-groups are groups to which an individual belongs and can be contrasted with out-groups, with which an individual competes or is in opposition.
REM rebound
increased frequency of depth of REM stage after sleep deprivation
Aldosterone effect on collecting duct
increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, thereby increasing water reabsorption.
Aldosterone effect on distal convoluted tubules
increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, thereby increasing water reabsorption.
foot-in-the-door compliance
increasing compliance by first asking people to give in to a small request, which then paves the way for compliance with a second, larger request (i.e. bteje bte5dni, 'akid', fina nemro2 aa basbus aal tari2, 'ayri fik')
HMG-CoA reductase activators
insulin
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activators
insulin NAD+ (its reactant)
what activates acetyl-coA carboxylase ?
insulin and citrate
beta oxidation inhibition
insulin inhibits beta oxidation
Globalization
integration of international trade and finance markets
reciprocal causation
interdependence of environmental, behavioral, and personal variables in influencing learning and development
how i amalgamation achieved ?
intermarriage between races
IDL
intermediate-density lipoprotein, fat transporter that exists in transition from VLDL to LDL -once triacylglycerol is removed from VLDL, the resulting particle is IDL
Two types of conformity
internalization and identification
ECF is subdivided into:
interstitial fluid plasma
compare interstitial fluid and plasma
interstitial fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma -it has the same composition as plasma, without the plasma proteins and no red blood cells
Before the nutrients (amino acid, glucose, galactose, di-peptides, etc.) pass from the small intestine into the blood, they have to go into __
into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
ICF
intracellular fluid (2/3 of TBW)
inulin is a reference substance called a glomerular marker. why is that ?
inulin is the only substance whose GFR is equal to its renal clearance. meaning every inulin that is filtered is neither reabsorbed, nor secreted. all filtrate is excreted
PGC, hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capillaries
is a force favoring filtration. When compared with systemic capillaries, PGC is relatively high (45 mm Hg). -In systemic capillaries, hydrostatic pressure falls along the length of the capillary; in glomerular capillaries, it remains constant along the entire length.
PBS, hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's space
is a force opposing filtration.
The nephron aims to conserve water and make urine that is less dilute. Why is the diluting segment important, if it does the opposite of what the nephron wants ?
it is the only portion of the nephron that can produce urine that is more dilute than the blood. This is important during periods of overhydration and provides a mechanism for eliminating excess water
what is the point of adding UDP to glucose-1-phosphate in glycogenesis ?
it provides the energy required for subsequent integration of glucose into the glycogen chain by glycogen synthase
How is succinate dehydrogenase unique when compared to the other enzymes in the citric acid cycle?
its reaction occur in the inner membrane and not in the mitochondrial matrix
what happens if the liver is unable to process bilirubin ?
jaundice
proximity
just being physically close to someone plays a factor in our attraction to him or her
organs of the excretory system
kidney, ureters, bladder, and urethra
cognitive attitude example
knowing that snake can be dangerous (and sometimes poisonous) provides a reason to be afraid and to avoid them
enzymes that breaks down lactose
lactase
what is a good source of galactose ?
lactose
too much water absorption in the colon___
lead to constipation
too little water absorption in the colon ___
lead to diarrhea
fixation during the anal stage
lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or sloppiness in the adult
observational learning
learning by observing others aka monkey sees, monkey does
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
LCAT
lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase -LCAT adds a fatty acid to cholesterol, which produces soluble cholesteryl esters such as those in HDL
decreased acetylation of histones ?
less acetylation means that DNA is more tightly bound to histone, less unwinding and less transcription
ketogenic amino acids
leucine and lysine can be converted into ketone bodies, which serve as alternative fuels during periods of long starvation
Where is fructose metabolized?
liver
what are the glands of the digestive system ?
liver, pancreas, gallbladder, salivary glands
log (xy) =
log x + log y
technophile
lover of all things technological
what triggers the release of renin ?
low blood pressure
Why are white fibers white?
low myoglobin content
undifferentiated (gender identity)
low scores on both masculinity and femininity
LDL
low-density lipoprotein bad cholesterol deliver cholesterol to tissues for biosynthesis
layers of the epidermis
lowest stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum highest
Central Traits (Allport)
major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer such as honesty or charisma
Salivary amylase decomposes starch into smaller sugars, what are these sugars ?
maltose and dextrins
Z-line
marks the boundaries of sarcomeres
monogamy
marriage with one mate at a time
mass hysteria
mass hysteria refers to a shared, intense concern about the threats to society. In mass hysteria, many features of groupthink—collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, and pressure for conformity, in particular—lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering
direct benefits of mate bias
material advantages, protection, emotional support
parts of the hindbrain
medulla, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation
episodic memory
memory for one's personal past experiences
neurosis
mental disorder
Formaldehyde
methanal
DNA methylation
methyl groups are added to DNA molecules. methylation typically act to repress gene transcription
Where does beta oxidation occur?
mitochondria
Where does the TCA cycle occur?
mitochondrial matrix
how does the common ion effect affect solubility ?
molar solubility for the solid is reduced, and less of the solid dissolves in the solution—but the Ksp remains constant.
molar solubility
molarity of a solute in a saturated solution
what would the presence of plasma protein or red blood cells in the urine indicate ?
molecules and protein larger than the glomerular pores don't get filtered -if they are present in the urine there is a problem at the glomeruli level
example of positive reinforcer
money, ex: employees will continue to work if they are paid
Secondary Traits (Allport)
more personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence aspects of one's personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations
norms can be classified as:
mores folkways
Secretion:
movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule
Reabsorption:
movement of solutes from filtrate to blood
Three part of the pharynx
nasopharynx(behind the nose) , oropharynx (behind the mouth) , laryngopharynx (above the larynx)
stationary phase of cation exchange
negatively charged in order to hold + charged stuff
what is the functional unit of the kidney ?
nephron
cholinergic system
neurotransmitter system of acetylcholine, which includes its receptors and the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
What are Freud's psychosexual stages of development?
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
Bilirubin
orange-yellow pigment in bile; formed by the breakdown of hemoglobin when red blood cells are destroyed
difference between osmotic and oncotic pressure
osmotic pressure is the "sucking" pressure that draws water into the vasculature caused by all dissolved particles. Oncotic pressure, on the other hand, is the osmotic pressure that is attributable to dissolved proteins specifically
Ought Self (Self Discrepancy Theory)
our representation of the way others think we should be
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list (recency and primacy effect)
Network Redundancy
overlapping contact points within a social network
how is oxaloacetate transported leave the mitochondria to participate in gluconeogenesis?
oxaloacetate (OAA), is a citric acid cycle intermediate and cannot leave the mitochondrion. Rather, it is reduced to malate, which can leave the mitochondrion via the malate-aspartate shuttle. Once in the cytoplasm, malate is oxidized to OAA.
alcohol to ketone
oxidation
Pairing two molecules, the molecule with the lesser reduction potential will be:
oxidized
Glycerol-3-P Dehydrogenase
oxidizes G3P to DHAP converting NAD+ to NADH
oxygen is an ____ agent ?
oxidizing (take electron away oxidizing the other thing)
what happens as a result of the H+ pumping into the intermembrane space?
pH drops in the intermembrane space, and the voltage difference between the intermembrane space and matrix increases due to proton pumping.
if [H+] = 10^-3 what is the pH ?
pH= 3
if Kb = 10^-12 then pKb = ?
pKb = 12 but log (10^-12) = -12
enzymes that digests fats
pancreatic lipase colipase cholesterol esterase (all three secreted by the pancreas)
layers of the dermis
papillary layer and reticular layer
the detrusor muscle of the bladder is under___ control
parasympathetic control
Intrinsic Factor (IF)
parietal cells secrete intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein involved in the proper absorption of vitamin B12 .
global stratification
patterns of social inequality in the world as a whole
agents of socialization
peers, religious affiliation, social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values
Reciprocal liking
people like others better when they believe the other person likes them
familiarity/exposure effect
people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
gastrin is a __
peptide hormone
ascending loop of Henle permeability
permeable to salt but not water
the descending loop of Henle permeability
permeable to water and impermeable to the major electrolytes
ketones and enols are tautomers. what does that mean ?
rapidly interconverting constitutional isomers that differ from each other in the placement of a proton and the position of a double bond.
racial steering
real estate agents advising customers to purchase homes in neighborhoods depending on their race -they steer certain races away from a neighborhood based on their race
explain how the reaction of Hcl with NH3 will make the solution more acidic ?
recall that two reaction can occur -Hcl is a strong acid, and Nh3 is a weak base -the conjugate of a weak base is a strong acid ,(NH4+) which can then further react with water
thoracic duct
receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, left arm, and lower extremities
adrenergic receptors
receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine
galactosemia
recessive genetic disorder; characterized by body's inability to tolerate galactose
who has the longer wavelengths, blue light or red light ?
red light
Pairing two molecules, the molecule with the greater reduction potential will be:
reduced
Reciprocal determinism
refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. People choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments
limbic system function
regulation of emotion; memory; appetite; autonomic, neuroendocrine; olfaction
examples of identities
religious affiliation sexual orientation ethnic and national affiliation
industry vs. inferiority
resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.
from golgi to ER ?
retrograde
positive sanctions
rewards given for conforming to norms
each status has a ___
role
be careful of:
rounding errors
Spearman's G factor
said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today)
Where is saliva secreted from?
salivary glands
stereoisomers
same chemical formula. -same atomic connectivity . -different in how atoms are arranged in space
constitutional isomers
same molecular formula, different connectivity
the cell membrane of a muscle cell___
sarcolemma
Myofibrils are composed of__
sarcomeres
foraging
searching for food
conventional morality
second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior III- the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others IV- law and order, maintains the social order in the highest regard
jejunum
second part of the small intestine
Margot moves to a new city. She learns a new behavior to better fit in this new society. What type of socialization is this ?
secondary socialization
parietal cells of stomach
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
sebaceous glands
secrete sebum (oil) into the hair follicles where the hair shafts pass through the dermis
glucagon in the digestive system
secreted by the pancreas stimulates the feeling of hunger
where do the hydrogen ions (HCl) of the stomach come from ?
secreted by the parietal cell of the gastric glands
four types of attachment
secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized
self-efficacy
self-efficacy is our belief in our ability to succeed.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor preoperational concrete operational formal operational
Ruffini endings
sensory cells in the dermis that response to stretch
free nerve endings
sensory receptor cells in the skin that detect pressure, temperature, and pain
Pacinian corpuscles
sensory receptors that respond to vibrations and deep pressure
class
set of people who share similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income and education
glycolysis contributes two NADH that can participate in the TCA cycle to make ATP. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm. How does NADH enter the mitochondria ?
shuttle mechanism
what are the factors that affect attraction ?
similarity self-disclosure reciprocity proximity physical characteristics
Sublimation
sublimation is the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors. Freud might say that pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into a drive for business success or artistic creativity
if filtered load > excretion rate
substance X has been reabsorbed net absorption > 0
if filtered load < excretion rate
substance X has been secreted net secretion > 0
-ene
suffix indicating the presence of an alkene (double bond)
-yne
suffix indicating the presence of an alkyne (triple bond)
aldoses
sugars with aldehydes as their most oxidized group
ketoses
sugars with ketones as their most oxidized group
example of escape learning
take an aspirin to 'escape' the headache you're already having
example of retroactive interference
teacher learned so many new names this year, she has trouble remembering the names of the students last year
Mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA
ten times higher than that of nuclear DNA
Choice shift
tendency for groups to make decisions that appear more extreme (more risky, or more cautious) than the decisions group members would have made on their own
belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
if the cost of fighting is larger than the value of the reward:
than the dove has an advantage
what assumption do we make about lenses ?
that their thickness is negligible
Q cycle in more details
the 2 H+ on CoQH2 are pumped out as soon as CoQH2 comes in contact with complex III -on the other hand, the 2 electrons take two different routes. one electrons binds to Fe3+ making it Fe2+ (in the Fe-S subunit), Fe3+ transfers the electron to cytochrome c1, and then to cytochrome C The other electron is transferred to cytochrome b, cytochrome b then transfers it to CoQ so we get CoQ- -Now a second CoQH2 binds to complex III. the 2H+ of CoQH2 are pumped into intermembrane space (so that's 4H+ pumped) Again, the two electrons take two different paths. the first electron is transferred to the Fe-S (Fe3+ -> Fe2+), the Fe2+ transfers the electron to a different cytochrome c . The other electron, goes to cytochrome b, cytochrome b then transfer the electron to the CoQ- formed in the first mini-cycle forming CoQH2. CoQH2 then leaves complex III and can be used to start another cycle.
what is the driving force of glomerular filtration ?
the Starling forces.
social mobility
the ability to change positions within a social stratification system
how do you choose which carbon is carbon 1 ?
the carbon numbered 1 will be the one closest to the highest-priority functional group.
intergenerational mobility
the change that family members make in social class from one generation to the next
cognitive attitude component
the cognitive component of attitude is the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components.
what part of the tubules of the nephron are under control of hormones ?
the collecting duct -> aldosterone and ADH the distal convoluted tubule -> aldosterone
what happens after passing the collecting duct ?
the collecting duct is the point of no return. After that, there are no further opportunities for reabsorption.
when the body is fairly hydrate, the collecting duct will be:
the collecting duct will be fairly impermeable to salt and water
generalized other
the common behavioral expectations of general society
molality
the concentration of a solution expressed in moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (notice denominator is solvent and not solution)
explain how the reaction of acetic acid with a strong base (NaOH) make the solution more basic ?
the conjugate base of the weak acid can further react with water after the initial acid-base exchange
status consistency
the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual's rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation
genetic compatibility
the creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics` -this can reduce the chance that the offspring is homozygous for a genetic disease
cultural imperialism
the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture
We saw how the osmolarity of the kidney medulla rises as we dive deeper into it. explain how does that makes sense for the permeability of the loop of Henle.
the descending limb maximizes water reabsorption by taking advantage of increasing medullary osmolarity, the ascending limb maximizes salt reabsorption by taking advantage of decreasing medullary osmolarity
phrenology
the detailed study of the shape, size and bulges of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
boiling point elevation
the difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent
freezing point depression
the difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); after multiple cycles, the organism become habituated to the conditioned stimulus
selfishness in game theory
the donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted
Altruism in Game Theory
the donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to him or herself
if there is a tie between assigning priority in a molecule with double and triple bonds__-
the double bond takes precedence
from which germ layer is the skin derived ?
the ectoderm
what leads to the secretion of CKK ?
the entry of chyme into the duodenum
Beriberi
thiamin deficiency characterized by congestive heart failure or nerve damage
factors and coenzymes needed by PDH
thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid, CoA, FAD, and NAD+
what is the sarcomere made of ?
thick and thin filaments
envious stereotype
those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust high status competitive
contemptuous stereotype
those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger low status competitive
peripheral route processing
those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility
neo-Luddites
those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life
central route processing
those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought. This deep thinking is referred to as central route processing
escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus
pertibular capillaries
tiny blood vessels, supplied by the efferent arteriole, that travel alongside nephrons allowing reabsorption and secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the nephron
micelles
tiny spherical complexes of emulsified fat that arise during digestion; most contain bile salts and the products of lipid digestion, including fatty acids, monoglycerides, and cholesterol
main function of the colon
to absorb water and salts (such as sodium chloride) from the undigested material left over from the small intestine.
example of reference group
to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants.
why is the self-serving bias used ?
to protect our self-esteem
if a person ingests a large quantity of NaCl, where will the NaCl be added ?
to the ECF
Gordon Allport
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary -concept of functional autonomy
Cardinal Traits (Allport)
traits around which a person organizes his or her life -Mother Teresa's cardinal trait may be selfsacrifice
indicator traits
traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates
somatic cells do not__
transfer their genetic material to offspring (so if a mutation occurs in somatic cells, it will not affect offspring)
Shuttle Mechanism
transfers the high-energy electrons of NADH to a carrier that can cross the inner mitochondrial membrane
troponin is bound to
tropomyosin
pancreatic peptidases
trypsinogen chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidases A and B (released in their zymogen form, but once activated are responsible for protein digestion)
give an example in everyday` life that supports the idea that dissolution of a solute in solution is an endothermic process ?
we all know that the easiest way to dissolve lots of sugar into water (such as in tea or coffee) is to heat up the water and then add the sugar. Because heating the water increases the solubility of sugar, it must be that the dissolution of sugar into water is an endothermic process—think of Le Châtelier's principle
Cognitive neoassociation model
we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when whenever we are feeling negative emotions (being tired, hungry, sick, frustrated, in pain) ex. riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones - drivers with no AC are more likely to honk and display road rage
pigeonholing (master status)
we may view an individual only through the lens of his or her master status, without regard to any other personal characteristics (such as with a president or other major political figure).
norms
what determines the boundaries of acceptable behaviors within society
why does ECF volume expansion lead to a decrease in fractional reabsorption?
when ECF increases -> plasma protein [ ] decreases -> plasma hydrostatic increases -> in peritubular capillaries, decrease in oncotic pressure, increase in Pc -> Both of these changes in Starling forces in the peritubular capillary produce a decrease in fractional reabsorption of isosmotic fluid in the proximal tubule
When does fixation occur according to Freud?
when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
in the presence of NaOH in solution with an aldehyde, what happens ?
when an aldehyde is treated with sodium hydroxide, both the aldehyde and the enolate will be present at equilibrium
identity shift effect.
when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group to eliminate the internal conflict
hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
Hypotonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes
filtration equilibrium
when forces opposing and favoring filtration are equal occurs -no filtration can occur
in what form is myosin able to bind to the myosin-binding site on actin?
when it is bound by ADP and Pi
When can total internal reflection occur?
when light moves from a medium with a higher refractive index to a medium with a lower one
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event (i.e how fast were the cars moving when they collided vs how fast were the car moving when they crashed)
what is the equation of dissociation of a solute in a solvent:
when solution is unsaturated, dissolution is favored when solution is saturated, precipitation is favored
Tetanus (physiology)
when the contractions become so frequent that the muscle is unable to relax at all -prolonged tetanus results in muscle fatigue. tetanus is one of the SYMPTOMS of the disease "tetanus" but tetanic physiology can also occur under normal circumstances w/ multiple simple twitches in succession
when can hemiacetals be isolated ?
when the hemiacetal is cyclic, meaning the carbonyl group and the hydroxyl group are on the same molecule and undergo an intermolecular reaction
When do neurotic needs become problematic?
when they meet one of the 4 criteria: -that they are disproportionate in intensity, -that they are indiscriminate in application, -that they partially disregard reality, -or that they have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety.
example of proactive interference
when you moved to a new address, the memory of your previous address interfered with the memory of you remembering your new address
how can the concentration of a solution be determined after dilution?
where M1 -> initial molarity where M2 -> final molarity where V1 -> initial volume of solution where V2 -> final volume of solution
focal length for a real lens
where n is the index of refraction of the lens material, r1 is the radius of curvature of the first lens surface and r2 is the radius of curvature of the second lens surface.
left subclavian vein
where the thoracic duct drains into
freezing point depression equation
where ΔTf is the freezing point depression, i is the van't Hoff factor, Kf is the proportionality constant characteristic of a particular solvent, and m is the molality of the solution
osmotic pressure equation
where ∏ is the osmotic pressure, i is the van't Hoff factor, M is the molarity of the solution, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the temperature.
the authentic self
who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes
the tactical self
who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us
mores
widely observed social norms
substituents attached to a nitrogen atom are labeled:
with a capital N- , indicating that this group is bonded to the parent molecule via nitrogen
who is better at detecting subtle differences in emotional expression ? (men or women)
women
striation of cardiac muscles ?
yes
shadow
—unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness
Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)
• Enzyme in the adipose cell that is responsible for the hydrolysis of triglyceride into free fatty acids and glycerol, which then leave the adipose cell and enter circulation • Inhibited by the hormone insulin
contraction period of muscle twitch
•10 - 100 msec •Calcium binds to troponin •Myosin-binding sites on actin are exposed •Cross-bridges form and swivel •Peak tension develops
relaxation period of muscle twitch
•10-100 msec •Calcium ions transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum •Myosin binding sites on actin are covered by tropomyosin •Myosin heads detach from actin •Tension decreases
