MCAT P/S HIGH YIELD

The Thomas theorem

"If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." In other words, the interpretation of a situation causes the action. This interpretation is not objective. Actions are affected by subjective perceptions of situations. Whether there even is an objectively correct interpretation is not important for the purposes of helping guide individuals' behavior.

Disengagement Theory of Aging

"aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between the aging person and others in the social system he belongs to".

Hindsight Bias

"knew it all along"

Self-Serving Bias

"we could never commit acts like this"

Self Serving Bias

+ve events to their own character, but -ve events to external factors

Index of Dissimilarity

0 = total segregation; 100 = perfect distribution

Sleep Apnea

1 in 20; Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes not getting enough oxygen and wake up gasping then fall back asleep. Can happen 100x a night Don't get enough N3 (slow-wave) sleep. Snoring is an indication, or fatigue in the morning

Conditions for Self Actualization in Humanistic Theory

1) Genuine 2) Acceptance from others both together gives self concept Need congruence in our actions to be fulfilled

Stigma

1) Social Stigma: can be due to prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination, etc. E.g. against mental illnesses 2) Self Stigma: internalize all negative stereotypes... , may feel rejected by society

Improving Self Control

1) change environment 2) operant conditioning - reinforce good behaviors with rewards 3) classical conditioning - healthy chocolate every time u crave chocolate 4) deprivation - removing something completely is problematic. can make u want it more, and leads to ego depletion

Social Circles

1) self 2) family 3) society 4) media

Substance use disorders

1) tolerance 2) withdrawal

Asch Conformity Studies

1/3 of people agree with the obvious mistruths to go along with the group (line study)

Social Identity Theory

2 parts: 1) personal identity 2) social identity

Humanistic Theory Self Concept

3 components: 1) self image 2) self esteem 3) ideal self

Kelley's Covariation Model of Attribution

3 cues: 1) Consistency (internal factors) 2) Distinctiveness (situational) 3) Consensus (People, more = situational)

Attribution

3 parts: 1) consistency (does he usually behave this way) 2) Distinctiveness (does he behave differently in different situations) 3) Consensus (do others think the same)

Attitude

A LEARNED tendency to evaluate tings in a certain way - people, events, objects. 3 components: ABC Affective (emotional) Behavioral Cognitive (thought / idea formation)

Double Blind Research

A double-blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment.

Token Economy

A token economy is a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens. Individuals receive tokens immediately after displaying desirable behavior. The tokens are collected and later exchanged for a meaningful object or privilege.

Components of attitude

ABC model of attitude - Affective (emotional - I love yoga) Behavioral (how we act or behave towards subject/object - I will go to yoga each week) Cognitive (form thoughts/beliefs/ideas, and knowledge - yoga makes me relax)

Dreaming - Why?

Activity in prefrontal cortex is decreased, which is partly responsible for logic

Life Course Theory

Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born till the time you die. Age-based expectations no longer apply as they used to, as people now live longer.

Visual Field Processing

All right visual field goes to the left side of the brain, and vice versa

Exchange Theory

Application of rational choice theory to social interactions

Confirmation Bias

As with groupthink, conf. bias causes an individual to seek and attend to only that information that confirms his or her existing point of view

Theory of Differential Association

Association with deviant people will increase likelihood of deviance

Availability vs. Representative Decision Making

Available = actual memories Rep = prototype of idea; leads to conjunction fallacy

Optimism Bias

Bad things happen to others, not to us

Observational Learning

Bandura - particularly imp. during childhood. Learned through watching and imitating others - modeling actions of another

Compliance

Behavior/conformity for reward or to avoid a punishment. Goes away if reward is removed

Theories of Language - Intro

Behaviorist - language is conditioned behavior Nativist - language must be innate Materialist - look at what happens in the brain when someone reads/writes Interactionist - interplay between environmental cues and innate biology

Brain Waves

Beta Waves (13-30Hz) - awake, concentration Alpha Waves (8-13Hz) - daydreaming. Disappear in drowsiness, but appear in deep sleep Theta Waves (7Hz) - Drowsiness, right after u fall asleep Delta Waves (.5-3Hz) - Deep Sleep or coma

Selective Attention Theories

Broadbent's Theory: Sensory register -> selective register -> higher lvl processing Deutch&Deutch: Sensory-> higher lvl processing-> selective Treisman Attenuation Theory: sensory -> attenuator...

Alzheimer's Biological Systems

Build up of AB (beta amyloid) and NFT (neurofibrillary Tangle) proteins in certain brain areas like amygdala, hippocampus, etc.

Circadian Rhythms Control

By melatonin produced by the pineal gland

Stimulants

Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy, nicotine, etc. Disrupt sleep. Cocaine is strong - releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norE that it depletes brain's supply. Amphetamines and meth also trigger dopamine release, and euphoria can last for 8 hrs. Highly addictive

Humanistic Theory of Personality

Carl Rogers; emphasizes the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in forming a self-concept. Focuses on conscious, and says people are inherently good and self motivated to improve. First theorist of this was Maslow.

Communism

Classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by the community

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a short-term, goal-oriented psychotherapy treatment that takes a hands-on, practical approach to problem-solving. Its goal is to change patterns of thinking or behavior that are behind people's difficulties, and so change the way they feel

This theory is most often associated with class based conceptions of society

Conflict Theory

Arcuate Fasciculus

Connects broca and wernicke. if damaged - conduction aphasia.

Cognitive Theory

Connects observable theories like behaviorist to mental like psychoanalytic. Treats thinking as a behavior, so it has a lot in common with behavior theory

Culture Lag

Culture takes time to catch up w/ tech innovations; resulting in social problems.

Alzheimer's

Dementia; Symptoms are memory loss, attention, planning semantic memory loss, etc. Build up of amyloid plaques in the brain

Barbiturates

Depress your CNS, used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety

Behaviorist Theory of Personality

Deterministic - people begin as blank slates. Personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Focuses on observable and measurable behavior rather than mental stuff Skinner - strict behaviorist Pavlov - classical conditioning

Bystander Effect

Diffusion of responsibility theory - someone else will do it.

Hypnosis Theories

Dissociation Theory - extreme form of divided consciousness Social Influence Theory - people do what's expected of them

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Dissonance between 2 or more conflicting cognitiions: ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions. Things we do: 1) Modify cognititions 2) Trivialize 3) Add 4) Deny facts

Characteristics of Ideal Bureaucracy: Max Weber

Division of Labor Hierarchy of Organization Written Rules and Regulations Impersonality Employment based on Technical Qualifications

Reward Pathway

Dopamine produced in VTA. VTA sends to Amygdala, Hippocampus, Nucleus Accumbens, Prefrontal Cortex. Dopamine goes up

Observational Study

Draws inferences from a sample of a population where the independent variable is not under control of the researcher because of ethical or logical constraints`

Dual Coding Hypothesis

Easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone

Decay

Ebbinghaus first investigator. When we don't encode something well or retrieve for a while, we can't at all anymore. Relearning is faster

Hallucinogens

Ecstasy (stimulant & hallu), increases dopamine and serotonin Some are used for PTSD treatment. Less addictive

Lower Motor Neurons

Efferent neurons of the PNS; control skeletal muscle. Abnormalities of LMN cause: atrophy of skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitching), hypotonia, hyporeflexia

Functionalism

Emile Durkheim - approach that emphasizes the contributions made by each part of society. E.g. grow from simple to complex (e.g. human body)

Group Polarization

Enhancement of a groups already existing attitudes through discussion within the group. Can lead to confirmation bias

Dramaturgical Approach

Erving Goffman - people planned their conduct, and act differently alone than in public Front Stage Self: in social setting Back Stage: more private area, when act is over

Iron Rule of Oligoarchy

Even the most democratic of organization become more beaureucratic over time, until they are governed by a select few. Why? because once person gains leadership role, hesitant to give it up.

Attention Cues

Exogenous (loud noise) Endogenous(prior knowledge, cocktail party effect)

Sick Role

Expectations in society that allow you to take a break from responsibilities. If you don't get better though u become a deviant

Esteem Support

Expression of confidence/encouragement. Provided by teachers, therapists, etc.

Social Facilitation vs. Social Loafing

Facilitation: presence of others increases your arousal Loafing: put forth less effort in group task

Freud's Psychosexual Dev. Theory

First 5 years are crucial OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES (oral 0-1, anal 1-3, phallic 3-6, latent 6-12, genitals 12+)

Norms

Folkways: mildest type of norm - open the door Mores: norms based on some moral value/belief e.g. truthfullness Laws: formal consequences Taboo: completely wrong, often punishable by law

Behavior Influence Attitude

Foot in the Door - tend to agree to small actions first Role-Playing. Overtime what feels like acting becomes you. Zimbardo's prison experiment

Example of when participants act as their own control

For example, when participants take the same survey before and after a stimulus; they are their own control here

Behavior (Skinner)

Form of behavior learned through operant conditioning

Dream Theories

Freud - Manifest content (monster chasing u) and Latent (means job pushing you out) Activation Synthesis - lots of neural impulses in brainstem (activation), which can sometimes be interpreted in frontal cortex (synthesis)

Theories of Development

Freud = Psychosexual, 5 stages, fixation Erikson = Psychosocial, 6 stages, overcoming conflict Vygotsky = sociocultural Kohlberg = Moral Development Theory, 3x2 stages

Auditory Processing

From cochlea, hair cells send action potential to (finally) primary auditory cortex. Has tonotypical mapping

Macrosociology Concepts

Functionalism Conflict Theory

Autcommunication

Give information to themselves, e.g. bats and echolocation

Anthropomorphism

Giving human qualities to non-humans; e.g. dog sleeping with u at night

Neurotransmitters

Glutamate - most excitatory GABA and Glycine - most common inhibitory Ach - nuclei in frontal lobe that releases it to cerebral cortex; LMN and ANS use it Histamine - sent by Hypothalamus Serotonin - raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla Dopamine - VTA and substantia nigra

Tend and befriend

Good response to stress may be to have support system. Oxytocin -> peer bonding

Trait Theory of Personality

Gordon Allport: list of 4500 diff. traits in 3 categories: cardinal, central, secondary. All of us have diff. traits Raymond Cattell: 16 essential personality traits; 16PF questionnaire Hans Eysenck: 3 major dimensions of personality: Extroversion, neuroticism, psychotism. We express to different levels. Not everyone has psychotism 5 Factor Model (Big 5): OCEAN Openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

Grey, white matter

Gray matter contains somas. White matter contains myelinated axons. In brain, gray is outside; in spinal cord, gray is inside

Likelihood of someone conforming

Group size: common in 3-5 Unanimity: if opinions of group are unanimous Group Status: doctor> gardener Group cohesion: if we care, we conform Observed Behav: is it observed? Public Response: acceptance vs. shaming Cultures like US/Europe that emphasize individual achievement are less likely to conform

Basilar Tuning

Hair cells @ the base of the cochlea - activated by high frequency, and at the apex - by low frequency

Drug with lowest risk of dependence

Hallucinogens

Otolithic Organs

Help detect linear acceleration

Medulla Oblongata

Helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, swallowing, etc.

Cognitive Flexibility

Helps w/ Stress management; Perspective change. Work w/ counselor

Limbic System Mnemonic

Hippo wearing a HAT

Obedience

How we obey authority; compared to conformity which is changing behavior to match a group

Desires/Temptation

Humans have desires, which aren't necessarily bad. But they can become temptation when they conflict with our long-term values and goals

Random Assignment in studies

If participants are equally likely to be in either group, then that is random assignment; otherwise potential bias

Peter Principle

In a bureaucracy, every employee keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence

Erikson's Psychosocial Dev. Theory

Influenced by Freud but based on culture and society, room for growth throughout life

Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders

Involves distress/disability from psychosis. Psychosis involves delusions (not explainable by experiences/culture), hallucinations

Theories of Emotion

James Lange: physiological -> emotion Cannon Bard: physiological = emotion Schacter Singer: physiological + cognitiion = emotion Lazarus: Cognition -> emotion + physiological

Cultural Relativism

Judge other culture from within their culture. No absolute right or wrong, but we have different cultures who are themselves valid

Ethnocentrism

Judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture can lead to cultural bias and prejudice

Altruism Ulterior Motives

Kin Selection - more altruistic to kin Reciprocal Altruism - if they will see in future Cost Signaling - to show they have resources

Proprioception vs. Kinaesthasia

Kinaesthasia does not include balance

Hidden Discrimination

Law/public institutions can do this

Latent Learning

Learned behavior is not expressed until required

Personality Disorders

Long-term changes Cluster A: odd/eccentric Cluster B: intense emotional/relationship problems Cluster C: anxious/avoidant/obssessive

Environmental Justice

Looks at fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens within the same society

Absolute Threshold of Sensation

MIn. to detect 50% of the time; Can be influenced by expectations, experience, motivation, alertness

Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuation

More cognitive approach. Focuses on why/how of persuasion. Central - depends on argument quality Peripheral - superficial/nonverbal cues Characteristics: 1) Message Characteristics 2) Source Characteristics 3) Target Characteristics

Role model of defiance

More likely to disobey if we see someone else doing the same

Authoritarian Personality

More susceptible to prejudice. They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior. They are oppressive. Inflexible, rigid thinkers. Use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves.

Alzheimer's - Biological

Most common in dementia category. Loss of cognitive functions and memory, but motor functions are fine until later stages. Cerebrum atrophies. Starts in temporal lobes (imp. for memory) 3 Main abnormalities: 1) amyloid plaques 2) loss of neurons (first to go is in nucleus basalis - ACh) 3) tangles (clumps of protein tau)

Benzodiazepines

Most common suppressant. Enhance response to GABA.

Parkinson's Disease

Motor abnormalities. Tremor, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, poor balance. Abnormalities visible to naked eye. - substantia nigra is less dark/not dark at all. Loss of only dopaminergic neurons. - many neurons contain lewy bodies. In PD this alpha synuclein protein appears to be clumped together subs. nigra is part of the basal ganglia which plays a major role in motor function. leading cand. for stem cell treatment since only 1 type of cell affected

Sleep Stages

N1->N2->N3->N2->REM

Sleep Stages Waves

N1: theta, hearing/seeing things that aren't there (hypnagonic hallucinations) N2: theta, sleep spindles & K complexes (suppress cortical arousal) N3: delta waves, where walking/talking in sleep happens REM: muscles paralyzed; dreaming happens. Memory consolidation happens. alpha, beta, and desychronous waves

Opiates

NOT a depressant. Used to treat pain and anxiety. e.g. heroine and morphine. Act at receptors for endorphins. Lead to euphoria

Depression

No consistent abnormalities in brain tissues. Abnormal activity in frontal lobe (decreased) and limbic (inc) Changes in serotonin, dopamine, and NE

Photoreceptors

Normally rod is turned on, but when light hits - turns off. When off, it turns on bipolar cell which turns on retinal ganglion cell, which goes into optic nerve and enters brain. Rods are more sensitive to light, and have slower recovery time

Frustration Agression Hypothesis

Not personality based, but more emotional. When people perceive that they are being prevented from achieving a goal, their frustration is likely to turn to aggression. Often towards minorities. Seen in times of economic hardship

Collective Behavior

Not the same as group behavior. It is time limited, involves short social interactions. Collectives have loose norms while groups have strongly defined norms. Often driven by group dynamics such as deindividualization. 3 types: Fads, mass hysteria, riots Mass hysteria: large # of people experience same delusions at the same time

Case Control Study

Observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor. e.g. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar

Groupthink

Occurs when situational pressures hinder groups from critically evaluating relevant information. Power leader makes it more likely. Groups affected wrongly believe that they have followed a sound decision making process

Learning associated with reward-seeking motivation

Operant conditioning - it includes a change in behavior due to past outcomes

Memory Schemas

Organized clusters of knowledge; The speed with which memory schemas are activated is presumed to indicate the participant's implicit bias

Impression Management

Our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Multiple front stages, and u play a different role each time. Backstage: where you work on impression management, e.g. try out different outfits

Structural Oppression

Part of feminist theory; women's oppression are due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism

Shaping

Part of operant conditioning. Successively reinforce behaviors that approximate the target behavior

Social Loafing

People are more productive alone than in a group. Research also suggests that individuals are less critical and creative in a group

Rational Choice Theory

People are motivated to do what's best to get more good. Cost benefit analysis

The Halo Effect

People have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Physical attractiveness stereotype - attractive people have more positive personality traits

Fundamental Attribution Errors

People in out-groups behave a certain ways because of their personalities/flaws More individualistic cultures (Western), success is attributed to internal factors and failure to external. In collectivist cultures, opposite

Ambient Stressor

Perceivable but hard to control. E.g. noise, crowding

Stress Management

Perceived Control (taking back some) Optimsim Social Support

Personality, Temperament, Character

Personality: relatively stable predispositions for behaviour that is partially learned. Examples include extroversion, conscientiousness, openness. Temperament: innate behavioral predispositions. Examples include intensity of emotion, persistence, attention span, reactivity. Character: this is a more philosophical notion. It is your actions according to your beliefs. Character can be measured in virtues like honesty, compassion.

Components of Emotion

Phsyiological - > HR increases Cognitive -> mental assessments. Result from emotions, and can cause emotions Behavioral -> emotions may cause behavior

Globalization Impacts

Positive: better allocation of resources, higher output, more employment, cheaper. Cultural practices spread = diffusion Negative: Exploitation, outsourcing hurts core country

Kohlberg's Moral Development

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Prejudice are attitudes that prejudge a group and are typically negative, not based on fact (e.g. sexist CEO thinks women can't run companies). Discrimination is ACTION (if CEO doesn't promote woman)

Gestalt Principles

Principles of perception; Similarity - similar items grouped together pragnanz - organized into simplest (ex. olympic rings) continuity; closure

Beaureaucratization

Process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy.

Interference Theory

Regarding human memory; when there is an interaction between the new material and transfer effects of past learned behavior (memory or thoughts that have a -ve influence on the comprehending of new material)

Operant Conditioning:

Reinforcement: increase behavior Punishment: decrease behavior

Conformity

Tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms. e.g. obey traffic lights Reasons: 1) Informative Influence: look to group for guidance 2) Normative Influence: to avoid social rejection 2 ways to conform: 1) publically: outwardly changing, but maintaining inner beliefs 2) privately: changing behaviors

Traditionalism

Tendency to follow authority

Operant Conditioning: Escape and Avoidance Learning

The 2 types of aversive control. 1) Escape: ex. fire 2) Avoidance: avoid fire before it arrives

Social Stratification

The arrangement or classification of people into socioeconomic strata

Social Potency

The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations. Seems to be a trait. Common in twins reared separately

Baby Boomers

The increasing share of the population over the age of 65 primarily stems from the baby boomers - the post World War II generation in the United States and Canada; Those born between 1946 and 1964

Theory of Planned Behavior

The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors.

Companionship Support

The type that gives someone a sense of belonging

Conflict Theory

Theory by Karl Marx that states that society is in a permanent state of conflict due to competition for limited resources. Social order is maintained by domination and power. Has thesis and antithesis. Causes synthesis of new state. e.g. "how exposure to environmental pollution and hazards is shaped by race and class; how words play a role in reproducing and justifying conflict;"

Social Cognitive Theory

Theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and the environment. Unlike behaviorism, where environment controls entirely, cognition is also important. Bandura.

Social Reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to another

Learned Helplessness

You learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control;so you lose the ability to identify coping mechanisms because taking less control of outcome of yourlife

Conversion Disorder

You show psychological stress in physical ways. For e.g. your leg may become paralyzed after you fall from a horse, even though there was no real injury

False Consciousness

a way of thinking that prevents a person from perceiving the true nature of their social or economic situation

Attitude to Behavior Process Model

event -> attitude. Then, attitude + outside knowledge -> behavior

Fertility vs. Fecundity

fecundity is the ability to have babies and fertility is the rate at which women actually have babies

Tangible Support

financial support, goods, or services

Self-Control

focussing on long term goals while putting off short term temptations

Social Exclusion

from the poverty magnet, the ill-health magnet, discrimination magnet; education, housing, employment all can do this

Self Concept

how someone perceives/evaluates themselves. 2 parts: 1) existential self: most basic concept, of being separate and distinct from others 2) Categorical Self: become aware that even though we're separate, we also exist in the world with others

Hidden Curriculum

how to stand in line, how to treat peers, etc. learned at school. we internalize social inequalities, when boys /girls treated differently

Racialization

i.e. ethnicization - process of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such

Ego Depletion

idea that self control is a limited resource. if u use a lot of it, it can get used up.

Internalization

idea/belief/behavior has been integrated into our own. Strongest kind of conformity

Strain Theory

if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals (such as the American dream) though they lack the means, this leads to strain which may lead the individuals to commit crimes.

fMRI

image from MRI along with Blood Flow (to see what's active)

Cheyne Stokes Breathing

in lungs or chest, hyperventilation can occur (high pCO2, low pO2). Caused by medication/obesity Chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right side heart failure

Inclusive Fitness

is the number of offspring equivalents an individual rears, rescues or otherwise supports through its behavior (regardless of who begets them). Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves.

Korsakoff's Theorem

lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. First stage is Wernicke's encephalopathy

Learning Performance Distinction (part of Obs. Learning)

learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. Two types: classical (has neutral stimuli) and operant conditioning

Appraisal Theory of Stress

less from actual event, more from our cognitive interpretation of the event

Deindividualization

loss of self awareness and self restraint, typically in a sense of anomie (mob situation). Easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from it (Zimbardo Prison)

Depressants

lower neural activity; think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep, remove inhibitions. E.g. alcohol

Subculture

meso-level subcommunity; can support people throughout their lifespan

Schizophrenia

most prominent in psychosis category. delusions, hallucinations. Biological cause: 1) cerebral cortex reduced in size 2) perhaps dopamine higher 3) mesocorticolimbic pathway causes cognitive symptoms 4) limbic structure causes -ve symptoms 5) temporal cortex causes +ve

Frontal Lobe

motor, prefrontal, Broca's

Inattentional Blindess

not aware of stuff in our visual field when attention is elsewhere in the field

Conjunction Fallacy

occurs when it is assumed that multiple specific conditions are more probable than a single general one.

Gender Script

organized info about order of actions appropriate to familiar situation

Social Construction to medicine

stereotyped assumptions on both sides; medicalization - construct illness out of ordinary behavior

Somatic Symptom Disorders

symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but psychological origin. E.g. someone has abdominal pain, caused by stress

Evolutionary Game Theory

tells us those with best fit to the environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations. Predicts avaialability of resources and social behavior. Strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players. However, game theory involves intention reasonsing about behaviors of others. Evolutionary game theory is dfferent because decisions may not be conscious. E.g. Altruism.

The Hawthorne Effect

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.

Parallel Processing

the brain simultaneously processes incoming stimuli of differing quality. This is most important in vision, as the brain divides what it sees into four components: color, motion, shape, and depth. These are individually analyzed and then compared to stored memories, which helps the brain identify what you are viewing. The brain then combines all four components into the field of view that you see and comprehend. This is a continual and seamless operation.

Reciprocal Determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Strong Linguistic Determinism; Sapir Whorfian

the structure of a language determines a native speaker's perception and categorization of experience.

Continuity Theory

theory of normal aging states that older adults will usually maintain the same activities, behaviors, relationships as they did in their earlier years of life.

Temporal confounds

time related confounding variables

Wernicke's area

understanding; temporal lobe

Broca's area

speech formation; frontal lobe

Social Movements:

Relative Deprivation Theory: groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy Mass Society Theory: skepticism about groups - says they only form for people seeking refuge from main society (e.g. nazism Resource Mobilization Theory: Looks at factors that help/hinder social movements like access to resources. Rational Choice Theory: people compare pros and cons of different course of action and chose best for themselves

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them

Interference

Retroactive Interference (new impairs old) Proactive (old impairs new)

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Development

Role social interaction plays in the development of cognition Babies have 4 elementary mental functions: attention, sensation, perception, memory. These develop into higher mental functions. Independent Learning and thinking 1) requires an MKO 2) Zone of Proximal Development 3) Language

Foraging

Search for food in environment 1) Solitary Foraging 2) Group Foraging Foraging behavior is strongly driven by genetics, but can also be learned

Dissociative Disorder

Selectively forgetting distracting elements of his/her life. Frequently associated with trauma. Other symptoms include feeling of detachment or out-of-body

Self Esteem, Self Efficacy, Locus

Self Esteem = respect and regard for oneself Self Efficacy = belief in one's abilities Strong/weak efficacy: 1) mastery of experience 2) social modeling 3) social persuasion 4) psychological responses

Paraphilic Disorder

Sexual arousal to unusual stimuli

Unintentional Discrimination

Side effect discrimination: one institution/sector can influence another negatively Past-in-Present Discrimination: how things done in the past can have consequences for people in the present

Attribution types

Situational - because of the situation dispositional - because of the internal characteristics

Functionalism - Society Size

Small societies held together by similarities; Large -: individuals become interdependent. Socialchange threatens mutual dependence. Institutions change only enough to maintain mutual interdependence

Gender

Social construct. Two factors: identity and expression. e.g. biological male and identify as male (cis-gender). Some people are gender queer

Cohorts

Sociology studies these age groups because they all live through the same life events in a certain time

Parietal

Somatosensor, spatial manipulation

Empathy Altruism Hypothesis

Some people are altruistic due to empathy. Early development trajectory - some new borns cry when other new borns cry. Helping behavior begins around age 2; age 4 actually begin helping

Memory with aging

Stable: implicit Improve: semantic, crystallized IQ (ability to use knowledge/exp) & emotional intelligence Decline: Fluidity, recall, episodic memories, prospective memory (remembering to do shit in the future)

Marginal Poverty

State of poverty when a person lacks a stable employment

Structural Functionalism

Structural Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc. The sociological paradigm of functionalism makes a distinction between manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions of social activities. From the functionailist perspective, almost all social actions have both manifest and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall stability.

Microsociology Concepts

Symbolic Interaction

Spotlight Model of Attention

Take in from all 5 senses, but don't pay attention to everything. Some are unconscious level. Priming - exposure to a stimulus affects response to another stimulus

Upper Motor Neurons

UMNs control the LMNs. Found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on the LMN. UMN signs: Hyperreflexia, clonus (rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle), hypertonia, extensor plantar response (if u take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up)

More Language Theories

Universalism - thought determines language completely Piaget - first children learnt to think a certain way, then developed language to describe thoughts Vygotsky - language and thoughts were both independent, but converge through development

Unrelated Physiological Arousal

Unrelated sympathetic arousal can lead to higher attraction

Occipital

Vision, striate cortex

Self Referencing

Way of learning by thinking of new info and how it relates to you personally. Also preparing to teach to someone else

Charles Cooley - Looking Glass Self

We are not actually being influenced by the opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of others to be

Actor-Observer

We are victims of circumstance, but others are willful actors

False Consensus

We assume everyone agrees with what we do, even if they don't

Projection Bias

We assume people have the same beliefs as we do

Similarity Bias

We will not befriend people different from us

Rational Choice/Exchange to Medicine

What's the purpose of medicine? Is it capitalist to earn $$$?

Horizontal Mobility

When an individual changes some aspect of social status (eg. employed to unemployed) but still maintains the same relative status (same income)

Counterculture

When laws of common society are violated; e.g. polygamy

Role Strain

When u can't carry out all obligations within one status - e.g. student

Age Stratification Theory

age stratification refers to the hierarchical ranking of people into age groups within a society. Age stratification could also be defined as a system if inequalities linked to age.

Response Bias

also called survey bias; tendency to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly. For e.g. they may feel pressure to give answers that are socially acceptable

Class Consciousness

awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially (in Marxist terms) as it relates to the class struggle.

Prototype Willingness Model

behavior is a function of 6 things: Past behavior, attitude, subjective norms, intentions, willingness to engage in behavior, prototype/models

Non-associative Learning

behaviour toward a stimulus changes in the absence of any apparent associated stimulus or event (such as a reward or punishment). 1) Habituation: person tunes out stimulus 2) dishabituation: previously habituated stimulus is removed 3) Sensitization: increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimlus

Interactionist (Vygotsky)

biological + social -> language in children; Desire to communicate gives language

5 main tastes

bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (ability to taste glutamate)

Nativist Language (Noam Chomsky)

born w/ ability to learn language

PET scan

can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time

Microculture

can't support people throughout their lifespan, e.g. college sororities

Role Conflict

conflict between multiple statuses, e.g. someone who is a parent, friend, student, etc.

Culture vs. Society

culture = way of life; society = way people organize themselves

Organizations

designed for a specific purpose, try for maximum efficiency. Utilitarian: people are paid Normative: shared goals - e.g. Religious Groups Coercive: forced -e.g. military, prison

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

difference between classical and operant is that operant has the addition or removal of a reward or punishment, whereas classical is pairing two things so that you respond to one thing the same way you would spend to another.

Symbolic interaction to medicine

doctor-patient;

Main criticism of social construction

doesn't consider effects of natural phenomenon on society

Increase of this creates euphoria

dopamine

Identification

dress like someone famous. Do this as long as u respect that person

Social Cognitive Theory of Behavior

emphasizes interactions between people and environment. Unlike behaviorism, where environment controls entirely, cognition is also important. Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors all can influence beliefs.

Labelling Theory

people come to identify and behave in ways that reflect how others label them. It is most commonly associated with the sociology of crime and deviance, where it is used to point out how social processes of labeling and treating someone as criminally deviant actually fosters deviant behavior and has negative repercussions for that person because others are likely to be biased against them because of the label. Primary Deviance: no big consequences, mild deviance 2ndary: more serious consequences

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Deterministic theory: Behavior is determined by UNCONSCIOUS desires

Aggression

physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy 1) Biology 2) Psychological -Frustration-Aggression Principle - Reinforcement Modeling (parents who given in to temper tantrums) 3) Sociocultural

Somatosensation 5 types

position, vibration, touch, pain, temperature. Position, vibration, touch = mechanoreceptors; pain = nocioceptors; temp= thermoreceoptrs

Illness experience

process of being ill and how people cope with illness; being ill can change a person's identity

Medicalization

refers to the taken-for-granted process in which a problem comes to be defined and treated by the social institution of medicine. A behavior undergoes medicalization when both the definition of the problem and the therapy intended to improve it are couched in medical terms.

Gender Schema Theory

refers to the theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live.

Reticular Activation System

required for consciouness

Segregation

separating out people and giving them access to separate resources within the same society. Idea is 'separate but equal' but it rarely works out. can cause social isolation

Social Selection

social conditions/ individual's health can affect their social mobility and affect reproductive rates of individuals

Temporal

sound, Wernicke's

Incentive Theory of Motivation

we are pulled into action by extrinsic incentives. +ve reinforcement. E.g. study hard to get good grades

Conflict Theory to medicine

wealthier get better healthcare; poorer get worse and are sick longer

GroupThink

when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing the problem at hand. Happens in cohesive groups, with 'respected' leaders

Deviance

when norm is violated. Doesn't have to be -ve, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal

Functionalism to medicine

when people become ill medicine ensures they return to functional state

Vehicular Control

when you're testing a drug that's, say, injected intravenously dissolved in saline, then the vehicular control condition is just injecting the saline (the vehicle for the drug) by itself, to make sure that it's the drug, not the vehicle, that's having an effect on the subject.

Construct Validity

whether the tool is measuring what it is intended to measure

Motivational Interviewing

work w/ patients to find intrinsic motivation to change

World's Systems Theory

world into 3 countries: Core, periphery, semi-periphery. Criticised on being focused on core