MCAT Psychology/Sociology (Princeton Review)

Francis Galton

"• believed intelligence was purely hereditary (genetically determined) developed a rudimentary intelligence test"

Select the population

#1 of ED.

Operationalize the Independent and Dependent Varibles

#2 of ED.

Select Control and Experimental Groups

#3 of ED

Randomly sample from population

#4 of Ed

Randomly assign individuals to groups

#5 of ED

Measure the Results

#6 of ED

Test the Hypothesis

#7 of ED

Five Factor Model

(McCrae & Costa) widely accepted model of global factors attributed to Trait theory

factitious disorder

(Munchausen syndrome); person consciously makes up symptoms, creates symptoms, or alters tests for themselves or for others ("by proxy") to get attention/be seen as ill

echoic memory

(Sensory memory) allows auditory information to be stored for brief durations.

person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

panic disorder

(anxiety disorder) suffered at least one panic attack and is worried about having more of them. Panic attacks are triggered by certain situations but they are more often uncued or spontaneous occurring unexpectedly and with sometimes unpredictable intense dread, shortness of breath, chest pain, choking sensation, and cardiac symptoms

Specific Phobia and Social Phobia

(anxiety disorder) sufferer feels a strong fear that he or she recognizes as unreasonable. experiences general anxiety or panic attack when confronted with the feared object or situation.

secondary reinforcer

(conditioned) are learned, paired with primary to make them conditioned (pizza-primary and stamps to get pizza is secondary)

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

Involuntary Migration

(forced migration) The migration event in which individuals are forced to leave a country against their will.

emergence

(gestalt principle) when attempting to identify the object, we first identify the outline which allows us to figure out what the object is

observational learning

(or vicarious, social learning) a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations

command economics

(planned economics) economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public

expressive functions

(primary group) meeting emotional needs

instrumental functions

(secondary groups) meeting pragmatic needs

iconic memory

(sensory memory) a brief photographic memory for visual information, decays quick

eidetic memory

(sensory memory) an ability to remember an image in vivid detail for several minutes after brief exposure.

global factors

(source traits) extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control Cattell reduced 15 surface traits to 5

primary reinforcer

(unconditioned) somehow innately satisfying or desirable, we do not need to learn these because they are integral to our survival (food (+) and pain (-)

lifelong application stage

- Typically beginning in adolescence and progressing through adulthood. - Movements are continually refined and applied to normal daily activities as well as recreational and competitive activities.

universal emotions

-Happiness: smile, wrinkling around eyes, raised cheeks -Sadness: frown, inner eyebrows pulled up and together -Surprise: eyes widen, eyebrows are pulled up and curved, jaw opens -Fear: eyes widen, eyebrows pulled up and together -Disgust: nose wrinkling, raising of upper lip -Anger: eyebrows pulled down and together, lips pressed together

in-group

-a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are -a group which a person has personal pride in and affinity for

functionalism/structural functionalism

-a social structure theory that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose -a belief that almost all social actions have both manifest (intended) or latent (unintended) functions which are connected to overall social stability (Durkheim/Macro)

social cognitive perspective

-according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors -based upon expectations of others

parallel play

-behavior of pre-school children -they will play by themselves but observe another child and adjust their behavior in response

Ideal Bureaucracy (Max Weber)

-covers a fixed area of activity -hierarchically organized -workers have expert training in an area of specialty -organizational rank is impersonal, and advancement depends on technical qualifications -works follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency

thinning

-in operant condition it means reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action

mores

-norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced -general (but not always) formal norms -deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated

anomie

-society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness -individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society

general adaption syndrome

-the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress -three distinctive stages in the syndrome: the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE)

social loafing

-the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable -people are more productive alone than in a group -research shows ppl are less critical and less creative in groups

Kinsey scale

0 to 6 scale of sexuality 0 being solely heterosexual 6 being exclusively homosexual

Oral Stage (Freud)

0-18 months, infant uses mouth for gratification and exploration, child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing

Bipolar 1 vs Bipolar 2

1 - manic episodes, depressive episodes common but not required for diagnosis 2 - hypomanic episodes, >1 major depressive episoes required

Anal Stage (Freud)

1-3 years. The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed). Control of elimination

Cannon-Bard Theory

1. In order for the James-Lange theory to adequately describe the process of emotion, there must be different physiological responses corresponding to each difference emotion 2. that physiological experiences do not appear to differ from each other to the extent that would be essential to discriminate one emotion from another based only on our bodily reactions

Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention

1. Inputs from the system enter a sensory buffer. 2. Inputs are selected and filtered, and other sensory information quickly decays. 3. Info enters into short term memory storage

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generativity vs. stagnation 8. integrity vs. despair

Carl Rogers

1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

Solomon Asch

1907-1996; Field: social psychology; Contributions: studied conformity, found that individuals would conform even if they knew it was wrong; Studies: conformity, opinions and social pressures

Stanley Milgram

1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study

major depressive episode symptoms

2 weeks Depressed mood, diminished interest Feeling of worthlessness inc or dec body weight 5% in a month Insomnia or hypersomnia Diminished ability to think muted speech or flat affect fatigue/loss of energy may include suicide clinically significant distress

Phallic Stage (Freud)

3 - 6 years receives pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals, child is both sexually attracted to the opposite sex parent and hostile to the same sex parent

physiological (body), behavioral (action), cognitive (mind)

3 Components of Emotion

semicircular canals

3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance

Hypomanic Episode Symptoms

4 consecutive days Elevated, expansive, or irritable mood diminished appetite Decrease Sleep Racing thoughts Rapid speech increased energy and goal-directed activity Lack of consequential thinking unequivocal observable change in functioning, not severe enough for hospitalization

extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, self control

5 Global factors (Catrell)

Latency Stage (Freud)

5- puberty age. No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

population pyramids

A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex.

innate behavior

A behavior that is developmentally fixed. a behavior that is inherited rather than learned

class consciousness

A belief that you are a member of an economic group whose interests are opposed to people in other such groups

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

16 personality factors

A concept by psychologist Raymond Cattell stating that personality could be described in terms of 16 basic personality factors, or traits. Each factor represents a dimension that ranges between two extremes.

social construct

A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.

role conflict

A conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

alogia

A decrease in speech or speech content; a symptom of schizophrenia. Also known as poverty of speech.

Experimental Design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

socioeconomic status (SES)

A division of population based on occupation, income, and education.

Ecclesia

A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

limbic system

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

internal consistency

A measure based on the correlation of different items on the same test. It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores.

auditory hair cell

A mechanoreceptor cell located in the inner ear (cochlea) that responds to vibrations on a sensitive membrane

tectorial membrane

A membrane located above the basilar membrane; serves as a shelf against which the cilia of the auditory hair cells bend

round window

A membrane-covered opening in the inner wall of the middle ear that compensates for changes in cochlear pressure.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

five-factor model

A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae

Parkinson's disease

A movement disorder caused by death of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, located in the midbrain. Symptoms include slowness of movement, muscular rigidity, and walking and balance impairment.

Eustachian tube

A narrow tube between the middle ear and the throat that serves to equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrum

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Forms memories

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

permissive parenting

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Responsive and loving towards children, lenient rules

Mixed episode

A person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week, symptoms are severe enough to cause psychotic features, hospitalization or impaired work, social or personal function

looking-glass self

A person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others.

null hypothesis

A prediction that there is no difference between groups or conditions, or a statement or an idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong.

Sampling bias

A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.

GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.

Hinduism

A religion and philosophy developed in ancient India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and a supreme being who takes many forms. 14% of world. Shiva and Vishnu

Judaism

A religion with a belief in one god. It originated with Abraham and the Hebrew people. Yahweh was responsible for the world and everything within it. They preserved their early history in the Old Testament.

Cult/New religious movement

A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Many major world religions originated as cults.

role strain

A single status results in conflicting expectations

groupthink

A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

achieved status

A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts

conflict theory

A social structure theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure - Karl Marx Ex. education system

Industrialization

A society moving from farming to manufacturing

reference group

A standard measure that people compare themselves to

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response Reflex, biological reaction, not learned

Cortisol

A stress hormone that releases sugars into the blood, helping to prepare the body to respond to a threat.

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

mental set

A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past but might apply to a current situation.

social cognitive theory

A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their social environment as a basis for behavior.

incentive theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli.

feature detection theory

A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts. The ways in which people's perceptual experience is organized result from how human brains are organized.

Affect (emotion), behavior tendencies, and cognition (thought)

ABCs of Attitude main components

age, disability status, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic class, indigenous background, national origin, gender

ADRESSING; aspects of ones identity

auditory tube

AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal

anterior pituitary gland

AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus

cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

Parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors such as nightmares or sleepwalking that occur during sleep.

Dyssomnias

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep.

Psychologically fixated

According to Freud, if the parent either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child become psychologically fixated at that stage, and will continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage in adulthood.

latent content of dreams

According to Freud, the "disguised" meanings of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

3

Adult personality is largely determined during the first _______ stages of psychosexual stages

primary aging

Aging related to biological factors and the physical body, like molecular changes

secondary aging

Aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise

Sigmund Freud

An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory

habit

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Hindbrain

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord medulla, pons, cerebellum

principle of aggregation

An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act

capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of capital

escape

An individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior. (temper tantrum)

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

ABC model

Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (Behavioral therapy)

anxiety disorder

Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning

food desert

Area where healthy, fresh food is unavailable

social constructionism

Argues that people actively make choices and shape their reality through social interactions and experience.

1. When social influences are reduced (voting on private ballot rather than speak in public) 2. When general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behaviors, are observed 3. When specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered 4. When attitudes are made more powerful through self reflection (time to think)

Attitudes better predict behavior scenarios

Affect (feelings), Behavior, Cognition (thoughts) ABCs

Attitudes have 3 components

EDM: Projection

Attributing ones own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Discrimination

Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group. involves acting a certain way toward a group

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats Skinner box (operant conditioning chamber)

warning colors

Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious

Telencephalon

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system

global inequality

Certain countries hold a majority of the resources. Access to resources among countries seriously impacts social factors such as mortality. The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population.

population-lag effect

Changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations

EDM:Sublimation

Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive, activities

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.

specialized movement

Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks.

Melatonin

Circadian rhythm, sleepiness, sleep initiation Shortages: insomnia

memory declines in recall, time based tasks are challenging, slow info processing

Cognitive declines beyond age 60

Electra complex

Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals

Max Weber

Conflict theory a capitalist system does not lead to conflict but the collapse of capitalism is inevitable there could be more than one source of conflict, such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social statuses

Emile Durkheim

Considered one of the founding fathers of Soc Pioneered modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate from psychology FUNCTIONALISM

symbolic culture

Consists of symbols that carry a particular meaning and are recognized by people of the same culture. These symbols can communicate the values and norms of the culture.

Brocas area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Alfred Binet

Created first intelligence test for Parisian school children to see who was in need of special education,

Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DMS-5)

Current standards for classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders

Manic Episode Symptoms

DIGFAST - Distractability, irritability, grandiosity, flight of ideas, activity increased, sleep decreased, talkative

organ of Corti

Dendrites (from bipolar auditory afferent neurons), hair cells, tectorial membrane

Kübler-Ross model

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance

George Herbert Mead

Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things

ageism

Discrimination based on age

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Distinct from Anxiety disorders in that they involve a pattern of obsessive thoughts or urges that are coupled with maladaptive behavioral compulsions, they are experienced as a necessary/urgent response to the obsessive thoughts/urges creating rigid, anxiety filled routines

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

Done at Stanford; assigned a group of students to play either the role of prison guard or prisoner; prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment - students took their assigned roles perhaps too well, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting o the prisoners

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

mechanical solidarity

Durkheim's term for the unity (a shared consciousness) that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks

mediator variable

EXPLAINS the relationship between 2 other variables Ex. "education" is a mediator variable because it may explain why there is a relationship between self-exam of cancer and social status, aka removing "education" means that this relationship no longer exists

mediating variable

EXPLAINS/LINKS the relationship between 2 other variables Ex. "education" is a mediator variable because it may explain why there is a relationship between self-exam of cancer and social status, aka removing "education" means that this relationship no longer exists

functionalism

Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium. Just as the body has many parts, society does also. Focus on the function of these parts

message characteristics, source characteristics (characteristics of person delivering message), target characteristics (characteristics of person recieving the message)

Elements of a message that have impact of persuasiveness

Social and interpersonal factors

Erikson added this to Freuds theory or developmental stages

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's 2nd stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

identity vs role confusion

Erikson's 5th stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves

integrity vs despair

Erikson's eighth stage. From age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

industry vs. inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage. From age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.

intamacy vs isolation

Erikson's sixth stage of development. Adults seek someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound loneliness and isolation.

Initative vs guilt

Erikson's third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with reservations about doing so

social comparison

Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others. Facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people

Hyperviligence

Excessive alertness that guards against danger (PTSD)

Acetylcholine

Excitation at neuromuscular joint, parasympathetic nervous system activity Shortage: lead to dysfunction of the GI tract and paralysis

taboo

Excluded or forbidden from use or mention

EDM: Rationalization

Explaining and intellectually justifying ones impulsive behavior

EDM-Reaction Formation

Expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling

Experiment doesnt Reflect Real World Selection Criteria Situational Effects Lack of Statistical Power

External Validity Threats

Instincts drives/negative feedback systems arousal needs

Factors that are understood to influence motivation

Type 2 error

False negative- An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that the independent variable does not have an effect on the dependent variable when it does.

Type 1 error

False positive- result from a statistical inference process, in which researchers conclude that there is an effect in a population when there really is none.

Mary Ainsworth

Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants

either micro or macro

Feminism can be

cerebrospinal fluid

Fluid in the space between the meninges that acts as a shock absorber that protects the central nervous system. functions to exchange nutrients and waste with the CNS

Third Wave Feminism

Focused on areas of concern left untheorized by first- and second- wave feminists, who were mostly white, middle-class, heterosexual, and American or European 1980s

First Wave Feminism

Focused on women's suffrage: the right to vote, to own property, to have equal rights within marriage, and to work for wages 1900

EDM: Denial

Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

source monitoring

Forgetting the information's source

Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons

Functionalism theorists

Corpus Callosum

GF: Connection SF: connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres

Midbrain

GF: Eye movement SF: integration of visual and auditory info visual and auditory reflexes wakefulness and consciousness coordinates info on posture and muscle tone

Hypothalamus

GF: Homeostasis and behavior SF: controls homeostatic functions (such as temp regulation, fluid imbalance, appetite) though both neural and hormonal regulation controls primitive emotions such as anger, rage, and sex drive controls the pituitary gland

Thalamus

GF: Integrating center and relay station SF: relay center for somatic (conscious) sensation relays info between the spinal cord and the cerebral cortex

Medulla

GF: Involuntary functions SF: controls autonomic processes such as bp, blood flow, hr, rr, swallowing, vomiting controls reflex reactions such as coughing or sneezing relays sensory info to the cerebellum and the thalamus

basal nuclei

GF: Movement SF: regulate body movement and muscle tone coordination of learned movement patterns general pattern of rhythm movements (control cycle of arm and leg movements when walking) subconscious adjustments of conscious movements

Cerebral cortex

GF: Perception, skeletal muscle movement, memory, attention, thought, language, and consciousness SF: divided into 4 lobes with specialized functions consious thought processes and planning, awareness, sensation preception and processing of the special senses intellectual function abstract thought and reason memory storage and retrieval initiation and coordination of voluntary movement language (speech production and understanding) personality

limbic system

GF: emotion, memory and learning SF: controls emotional stress links conscious and unconscious portions of the brain helps with memory storage and retrieval

Cerebellum

GF: movement coordination SF: integrating center coordination of complex movement, balance and posture, muscle tone, spatial equilibrium

Pons

GF: relay station and balance SF: controls antigravity posture and balance connects the spinal cord and medulla with upper regions of brain relays info to the cerebellum and thalamus

Spinal cord

GF: simple reflexes SF: controls simple stretch and tendon reflexes controls primitive processes such as walking, urination, and sex organ functions

McDonaldization

George Ritzer's term describing the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization -efficiency. calculability, predictability, control

Max Weber

German sociologist that regarded the development of rational social orders as humanity's greatest achievement. Saw bureaucratization (the process whereby labor is divided into an organized community and individuals acquire a sense of personal identity by finding roles for themselves in large systems) as the driving force in modern society.

Multistability

Gestalt principle that states the tendency if ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstably between alternative interpretations in our brains.

Talcott Parsons

He was a sociologist from the functionalist school known for having formulated the Sick role theory in 1951. This theory claims that, when people are labelled sick, they may enter the sick role. This frees them from responsibilities other than treatment-related ones. That is, when in the sick role, individuals cease to be required to engage with their existing social roles, such as working and/or taking care of their family, and are required instead to seek help and address their health problems as quickly as possible. Only after regaining a healthy status, that is, when leaving the sick role are they expected to return to the performance of their other social roles.

90 minutes

How long is a sleep cycle?

hindsight bias

I knew it all along phenomenon

Laissez-faire

Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs.

manifest content of dreams

In Freudian dream analysis, the "surface," or remembered, story line, which contains symbols that mask the dream's latent content (the true meaning).

informational influence

In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Looking to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct reason for group polarization

attended channel

In selective attention experiments, research participants are exposed to simultaneous inputs and are instructed to ignore all of these except one. is the input to which participants are instructed to pay attention. Often contrasted with unattended channel.

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of these cells form the optic nerve.

ethnographic study

In-depth description and interpretation of behavior in an ethnic or a cultural group that includes direct involvement of the researcher with the participants.

feral children

Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

impression management Confounding Varibles Lack of Reliability Samping Bias Attrition Effects

Internal Validity Threats

Broca's area

Involved with speech production; Located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe; Damage results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support

rational-legal authority

Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document. How the United States government operates

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

Less intense, typically more chronic form of depression -Milder symptoms of depression for at least two years, without major depressive episode

fundamentalism

Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination, or sect).

vestibular hair cells

Located in semicircular canals, found in inner ear -Detect acceleration and position relative to gravity

Safety Needs

MHN Need to feel safe and protected, establish routine and familiarity, feel like the world is organized and predictable

Physiological Needs

MHN Need to maintain internal homeostasis (food water oxygen), eliminated waste, regulate internal temp, rest, engage in activity, reproduce

self-actualization

MHN Need to realize ones full potential and find meaning beyond ones self

love and belongingness

MHN Need to receive and give love, affection, and trust, need to be apart of a group or community to avoid loneliness

Esteem Needs

MHN Needs to achieve self esteem and independence, need to receive esteem and respect from others

Physiological Needs Safety and Security Relationships (Love and Belongingness) Esteem Needs Self-Actualization

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

genocide

Mass murder of people to eliminate a social group

individualistic self and social self

Mead believed there were 2 important components to identity

utilitarian organization

Members get paid for efforts such as businesses

Patriarchy/Matriarchy

Men having more authority than women Women having more authority than men

knock-out mice

Mice genetically engineered to disable a particular gene, and used to create strains of mice with specific traits

racial formation perspective

Michael Omi and Howard Winat - explanation of the social construction of race, explaining that race is not genetic but constructed through economic, political, and social forces that have the social control to create categories of race, and ascribe social meanings to these categories

filter model

Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)

Serotonin

Mood, digestion, sleep, memory, sexual desire Shortage: aggression, compulsive behavior, overeating, depression

nuclear family

Mother, father and children living as a unit

polysomnography

Multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep EEG, EMG, EOG

response threshold

Node does not become activated until it receives input signals from its neighbors that are strong enough to reach this

extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness

OCEAN (source traits, McCrae and Costa)

1. The sick person should try to get well 2. The sick person should seek treatment and cooperate with the medical professional

Obligation of Sick Role Theory

Desensitization

Occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes an exaggerated response

Polyandry

One female, several males.

Polygyny

One male, several females.

delusional disorder

One or more delusions for at least one month and counterevidence is generally denied or distorted to keep the delusion intact

coercive organizations

Organizations where members do not have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)

sympathetic nervous system and cognitive system

Parallel systems to respond to stress

mere presence

People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business

Internal Migration

Permanent movement within a particular country.

formal operation stage

Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts

Endorphins

Pleasure, arousal, pain suppression

Affirmative Action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It is an attempt to limit discrimination, but has been accused of perpetuating reverse discrimination

affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination

sexism

Prejudice or discrimination based on gender

racism

Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another

Glutamine

Primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS; involved in learning and memory, long term potentiation Shortage: fatigure, low concentration and energy

Reflexive movements

Primitive, involuntary movements of infants that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more complex movements later in life.

cognitive behavioral therapy

Problem: maladaptive behavior and/or negative self defeating thoughts goal: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self talk general method: reconditioning, desensitization, reversal of self blame

psychoanalytic therapy

Problem: unconscious forces and childhood experiences goal: reduce anxiety though self-insight General method: analysis and interpretation

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination

Process by which classically-conditioned responses are developed and maintained

Illness experience

Process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Can change a person's self identity

New info or discoveries regarding conditions Changing social attitudes or economic considerations development of new medications or treatment

Process of medicalization can be driven by

1. Role playing (prison exp.) 2. Public Declarations 3. Justification of Effort

Processes by Which Behavior Influences Attitudes

Hans Eysenck

Proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation; proposed that a person's level of neuroticism is based on individual differences in the limbic system

Jeffrey Alan Gray

Proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli. Fearfulness and avoidance (flight to fight sympathetic), worry and anxiety (behavioral inhibition system), optimism and impulsivity (behavioral approach system)

micro level theories

Rational choice and social exchange theories

self-actualization

Realizing one's human potential, as long as no obsticle intervenes

survival in daytime, heal body, growth

Reasons for sleep

EDM: Displacement

Redirecting aggressive sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one

Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

optic disc

Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. It is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light.

Leptin

Regulate energy, inhibit hunger

negative punishment

Removal of a desired stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA removes stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior

Alan Baddeley's model

Renamed short term memory working memory. Working memory has four components: -phonological loop -visuospatial sketchpad -episodic buffer -central executive

Harlow, Harry, and Margaret

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits

Harry and Margaret Harlow

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits

suburbs

Residential areas surrounding a city.

horizontal cells

Retinal neurons that mediate lateral interactions between photoreceptor terminals and the dendrites of bipolar cells.

reverse migration

Return Migration, the return of individuals to their former homes.

EDM: Regression

Reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior

1. The sick person is exempt from normal social rules 2. The sick person is not responsible for their condition

Rights of Sick Role Theory

exteroreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as light/heat/pressure/chemicals.

Proprioceptors

Sensory receptors, located in the muscles and joints, that provide information about body position and movement.

Educational stratification

Separation of students into groups on the basis of academic achievement

visuospatial sketchpad

Serves a similar purpose for visuospatial info through the use of mental images.

Dementia

Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging.

K complex

Single but large high-voltage spike of brain activity that characterizes stage 2 NREM sleep.

variable ratio reinforcement

Slowest rate of Extinction but behavior persists longer despite lack of reinforcer

Education, Family, Religion, Government economy and politics, Health and medicine

Social Institutions

ethnogenesis

Social process that results in creation of separate ethnicities

Functionalism (Structural Functionalism) Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism Social Constructionism Rational Choice/social exchange Feminism

Sociological Theories

Mindguarding

Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group

self-handicapping

Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Cortisol

Stress, sympathetic nervous system response

Stanley Milgram

Student of Asch, shock experiments with the "teacher" and "learner", tested obedience (which varied based on circumstances in each experiment)

Non Experimental Designs

Study which the variables are not directly manipulated and no control group

humans ascribe meaning to things Communication via language allows humans to generate meaning We modify meaning through an interpretive thought process

Symbolic Interactionism holds the principle of meaning to be the central aspect of human behavior

state capitalism

System in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

fluid intelligence (Gf)

The ability to think speedily and abstractly, and to solve novel problems; gf tends to decrease over the life span.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years.

optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

genital stage

The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism

teacher expectancy effect

The impact that a teacher's expectations about a student's performance may have on the student's actual achievements.

population aging

The increase in the number or proportion of older individuals in the population

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland. It's part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center outer layer of grey matter

Forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum (diencephalon and telencephalon)

conditioned response

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing.

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

General Fertility Rate (GFR)

The number of births per 1,000 women aged 15-49 years.

life expectancy

The number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population

p value

The probability level which forms basis for deciding if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).

depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Chuncking

The process of grouping items to make them easier to remember

suburbanization

The process of population movement from within towns and cities to the rural-urban fringe.

spreading activation

The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links.

Stage 1 sleep

The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves. EEG dominated by theta waves

sociobiology

The study of how biology and evolution have affected human behavior. Applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors. Additionally, argues that biological predisposition is influenced by social factors, and that the origins of culture lie in human evolution.

belief bias

The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic

prejudice

The thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience. Power, prestige, and class can contribute to the effect that it has on the lives and opportunities of individuals as well as the structure of social institutions. Think: PREJUDGment about a group. involves thinking a certain way toward a group

blue, green, red

The three different types of cones within the retina are sensitive to wavelengths of visible light that are:

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

The total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. below 10- low above 20 - high

paradoxical sleep

The type of sleep encountered during REM when internally, the brain and body are active; while externally, the body appears calm and inactive

social cues

The verbal and nonverbal features of a message that offer more information about the context, the meaning, and the identities of the involved parties

sociocultural evolution

Theories describing the processes through which societies and cultures have progressed over time Includes ideas of modernization and sociobiology

Child Rearing, Identity Formation, Cultural Transmission

Three important functions of the institution of family

catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles

Three main types of stressors

Oxytocin

Trust, formation of social bonds, sexual repro, mother infant bonding

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Two simuliar molecules both involved in fight or flight response, sympathetic nervous system activation (both hormones and neurotransmitters) Shortage: fatigue, lack of focus, apathy

Situational (flying, elevators, bridges), Natural Environment (Thunderstorms), Blood Injection Injury (Injections, blood), Animal (Spiders)

Types of Specific Phobias

behavioral therapy

Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Commonly used to desensitize anxiety patients to phobias or anxiety-provoking stimuli

Psychoanalytic therapy

Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation. Help choose behaviors consciously

minority opinion

When a new idea arises, it's automatically a 'minority opinion.' This idea can spread through the influence of the minority on others accepting this view.

transition shock

When individuals experience changes, such as social changes, that necessitate a period of adjustment

frustration-aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression

Accessibility of Healthcare

Whether or not healthcare resources can be obtained by someone who needs these resources ex: Health insurance

Availability of Healthcare

Whether or not healthcare resources even exist for someone who needs these resources ex: PCP

Durkheim

Which of the following theorists would argue that religion promotes social solidarity and a collective consciousness

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

altruism

a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal

just world belief

a belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

negative feedback

a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

inter-generational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)

neurotransmitter

a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane within the CNA and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.

pheromone

a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species

retinal

a chemical synthesized from vitamin A; joins with an opsin to form a photopigment

hallucinogens

a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distorts reality and fantasy (e.g. LSD, marijuana)

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels

caste system

a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

ganglion

a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS

hegemony

a coerced acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the capitalist class

stereotyping

a cognitive action NOT a behavior

attributional bias

a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors

group

a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole

social isolation

a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary

social institutions

a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.

addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal

Protestant/Puritan work ethic

a concept which emphasizes hard work, frugality and diligence as a constant display of a person's salvation in the Christian faith, in contrast to the focus upon religious attendance, confession, and ceremonial sacraments in the Catholic tradition Max Weber theorized success

schema

a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world

psycological dependence

a condition in which a person believes that a drug is needed in order to feel good or to function normally

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

learned helplessness

a condition where on has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards

reinforcememnt

a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative

protectionism

a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative

interdependence

a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization

habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Adaptation

a decrease in response to a stimulus over time dec in firing frequency with the intensity of a stimulus remains constant

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

case study

a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups

mass hysteria

a diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control

anhedonia

a difficulty feeling pleasure

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease hypochondriasis, the somatic aspect of the illness is not as central or can even be nonexistent

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

personal identity

a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes

ecclesia

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

catatonic schizophrenic subtype

a dramatic reduction or increase in activity, and disturbances in movement

endocrine gland

a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false

hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)

egalitarian family

a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

Presidential Government

a form of government in which the executive and legislative branches of the government are separate, independent, and coequal

charismatic authority

a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)

polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman

polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

monogamy

a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

exocrine gland

a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands

Representative Democracy

a government in which citizens choose a smaller group to govern on their behalf

generation cohorts

a group of people of the same generation

society

a group of people who share a culture and live /interact with each other within a definable area

Schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions split mind, longer than 6 months

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to

out-group

a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with

reference group

a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group

crowds (collective behavior)

a group that shares a purpose, influences individual behavior

pupil

a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light

peptide hormone

a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell

epinephrine

a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system

parathyroid hormone

a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption)

growth hormone

a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk

dual coding hypothesis

a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

Asexuality

a lack of sexual attraction to people of either sex

secondary group

a large and impersonal social group, may interact for specific reasons and for shorter periods of time

organization

a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently

secondary group

a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic needs

action potential

a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane

axon

a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated

Homunculus

a maplike representation of regions of the body in the brain

pulvinar nucleus

a mass of neurons in the posterior thalamus that have widespread reciprocal connections with areas across the cerebral cortex

method of loci

a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be rememebered

functional amnesia

a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common

ennui

a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect

spreading activation

a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions meaning and value attached to symbols

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects (closer)

premenstrual dysphoric disorder

a mood disorder in women characterized by marked depressive, anxious or irritable symptoms, regularly occurring around the time of menstruation feeling on edge, specific food craving, sense of being overwhelmed or out of control, physical symptoms of the bodys preparation of menstruation

manic episode

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

parkinson's didsease

a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal and alertness

interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs

efferent neurons

a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron

multipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system

bipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

a nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional metabolic processes in the body. Patient injected with positron-emitting radionucleotide tracer. Can do PET/CT or PET/MRI to get structural and functional data.

factitious disorder imposed on another

a pattern of falsification or production of physical or psychological symptoms in another individual

personality trait

a pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that is relatively consistent over time and across situations

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

glucagon

a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level

illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )

Specific Phobia

a persistant, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation

long-term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory

Derealization Disorder

a person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal

Manic episode

a person has experienced an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood for at least one week, as well as a marked increase in either goal-directed activity or in psychomotor agitation, which stems from an urge to be engaged in goal-directed activity but without the focus necessary to do so. The surplus of energy causes agitation and irritability

major depressive episode

a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day, for at least two weeks at least five of the following: emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and physical symptoms: depressed mood or decreased interest in activities, significant inc or dec in weight or appetite, excessive or insufficient sleep, agitated or slowed psychomotor activity, fatigue or loss of energy, feeling low self-worth, impaired concentration, thoughts of suicide

introvert

a person who turns his or her attention inward toward himself or herself; a shy person

temperment

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

attitude

a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations

mood

a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life

locus of control

a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment

affect

a person's visible emotion in the moment

multiculturalism

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism

multiculturalism

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism. ABC = ABC

groupthink

a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

iris

a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light

lateral geniculate nucleus

a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve

cognitive behavioral therapy

a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) a persons feelings and behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the persons thoughts about those events

conditioned response

a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

acculturation

a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact

neural plasticity

a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes

Universal grammer

a proposed set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure

dysthymic disorder

a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

a psychological disorder characterized by OBSESSIONS: repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety; COMPULSIONS: repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring or both

conversion disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor

antisocial personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation

dependent personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself

mood disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

dissociative disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness Ex. those afflicted go into a state that removes unpleasant memories

hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness

body dysmorphic diorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia

depersonalization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside

histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior

somatization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual symptoms, and pseudoneurological symptoms

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by accumulation of money or worthless objects

dissociative identity disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time

personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life

dissociative amnesia

a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or trauma

pain disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

bipolar disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme

somatic system disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by distress and decreased functioning due to persistent physical symptoms and concerns, which may mimic physical (somatic) disease but generally are not rooted in any detectable pathophysiology. Symptoms do not improve with medical treatment

borderline personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life Ex. viewing others as either all good or all bad

narcissistic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

avoidant personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn

schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

paranoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal

major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

catatonic-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)

paranoid-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme

schizotypal personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning

Schizoaffective disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month

ADHD

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

panic disorder

a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly

disorganized-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function

cyclothymic disorder

a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years

dissociative fugue

a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey

residual-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms

prison study (Stanford Prison Study)

a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.

attachment theory

a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)

humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in PERSONALITY, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into 5 GLOBAL FACTORS: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control

saltatory conduction

a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier

proprioceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts

photoreceptor

a receptor that responds to light

reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors Ex. the skeptic doesn't believe in supernatural power of a medium, but attends multiple séances where the environment would likely try to convince him otherwise, and eventually his views may likely shift

free recall

a recollection that is not prompted by specific cues or prompts

reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement

sect

a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed

cult (aka a new religious movement)

a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

exogamy

a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. source of energy and instincts, children function on this

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

neobehaviorism

a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments

critical theory

a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society

Subculture

a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society

learned helplessness

a sense of exhaustion and lack of belief in one's ability to manage situations

baroreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure

mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others

chemoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)

psychological disorder/illness or mental illness

a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

culture

a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential

IPSP

a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold

incus

a small anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations between the malleus and stapes.

malleus

a small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus. (attached to ear drum)

anomie

a social condition in which norms are weak, conflicting, or absent (normlessness)

triad

a social group with three members

dyad

a social group with two members

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

social construct

a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class

class system

a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)

meritocracy

a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort

symbolic interactionism

a social structure theory of how individuals in a social structure interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols; 3 core principles to communication: meaning, language and thought; Ex. people can meet to 'have a coffee' but don't have to actually drink coffee. They can have tea and still enjoy the "shared meaning of comfort and spending time with their friends" which is related to the idea of 'having a coffee' Founder: George Herbert Mead

social constructionism

a social structure theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality

matriarchy

a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures

patriarchy

a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family

ethnicity

a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

moral panic

a specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order

physical attractiveness stereotype

a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

operational definition

a specification of precisely what they mean by each variable

conduction aphasia

a speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus

REM sleep

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity waves like beta, sawtooth waves, low intensity and variable frequency

Population Equilibrium

a state of balance between births and deaths in a population

marginal poverty

a state of poverty that occurs when a person lacks stable employment

master status

a status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's general position in society

algorithm

a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving

progesterone

a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning)

neutral stumulus

a stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response

self-handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment

phobia

a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack

meta-analytic study

a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information

secure attachment

a style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room

language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication

welfare capitalism

a system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society

endocrine system

a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood

patrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important

matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage

parallel processing

a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processes simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain

response bias

a systematic pattern of incorrect responses in a sample survey

distraction

a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded

rehearsal

a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory

fad

a temporary period of unusually high sales driven by consumer enthusiasm and immediate product or brand popularity

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics

primacy effect

a tendency to better recall the first items on a list

belief bias

a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic

mental set

a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation

misinformation effect

a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)

functional fixedness

a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

recency effect

a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

confirmation bias

a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion

Conflict Theory

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources. (macro)

attribution theory

a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions

signal detection theory

a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: a hit (signal present and detected), a miss (signal present but not detected), a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)

cognitive dissonance theory

a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.

inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)

incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior

game theory

a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population

cerebral cortex

a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes

aqueous humor

a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). The aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone

luteinizing hormone (LH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone

exposure therapy

a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

continuous reinforcement

a type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs, rapid learning, results in rapid extinction when reinforcement ceases

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events process in which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes

retroactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when NEWLY learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

proactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when PREVIOUSLY learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently

bottom-up processing

a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing

chemical synapse

a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques

independent variable

a variable that isn't changed by any other variables that you are trying to measure, MANIPULATED by the research team. (Diet) CAUSE

deviance

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

social network

a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

negative reinforcement

absence of aversive stimulus

negative punishment

absence of rewarding stimulus

psychosexual stages

acc. to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 stages are: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stages, the latent stage, and the genital stage

psychological fixation

acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage

psychoanalytic theory

acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud

ego

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)

id

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

manifest content

according to Freud, the overt storylines of dreams

latent content

according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)

self-actualization (actualizing tendency)

according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

libido

according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure

death instinct

according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others

behaviorism

according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities

habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

deviance

actions that violate the dominant social norms, whether formal or informal

Control group

acts as a point of reference and comparison

secondary care

acute care (emergency) and specialty care which is often received following a referral from a primary care physician

Bureaucracy

administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks

Genital Stage (Freud)

adolescence, when sexual themes resurface and a persons life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, careers

Neo-malthusianism

advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain

house money effect

after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk

Cannon-Bard Theory

after a stimulus, the physioligcal response and the experience of emotion occur simultanesouly and independently of each other (inc heart rate and fear are independent of each other) Cat experiment

optic tract

after the optic chiasm, the optical axons are called

family, school, peers, the workplace, religion/gov, mass media/technology

agents of socialization

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

behaviorism

all psycological phenomena are explained by describing the observable antecedents of behaviors and their consequences

peripheral nervous sytem

all the parts of the NS except for the brain and the spinal cord

organic solidarity

allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; thus, each movement is distinguishable and separate

phonological loop

allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it

amygdala

almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences

operant conditioning

also known as 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency

basal nuceli

also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement

posterior pituitary gland

also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus

dissociative identity disorder

alternates among two or more distinct personality states (or identities) only one of which interacts with other people at a given time.

behavioral neuroscience

an approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes

food desert

an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find

expressive movements

an attempt to change individuals and individual behavior

ingratiation

an attempt to get someone to like you in order to get them to comply with your requests

capitalism

an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit

socialism

an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)

priming

an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus

personality disorders

an enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in his/her life

physiological arousal

an excitation of the body's internal state

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

manic episode

an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts

deindividuation

an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility

confounding variable

an external variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variable

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

relative poverty

an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus

ostrich effect

an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect

Assimilation

an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a difference culture

Huntington's Disease

an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders

myelin

an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

intermittent reinforcement

an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement, slow learning, resistance to extinction

tase aversion

an organism that eats a specific food and becomes ill a few hours later will generally develop a strong aversion to that food

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

normative organization

an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals (E.g., neighborhood watch)

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present

overconfidence

an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments

social phobia

an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom

drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium

Drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium

Archical study

analysis of historical records for insight into a phenomenon

Twin study

analysis of how traits differ in identical versus fraternal twins

Age-specific birth rate (ASBR) age-specific death rate (ASDR)

annual number of births per 1,000 in an age group

crude birth rate (CBR)

annual number of births per 1000 population; without regard to the age or sex composition of that population 10-20 low 40-50 high

infant mortality rate

annual number of deaths per 1,000 infants under one year of age

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning

mental retardation

another way of saying intellectual disability

prefrontal cortex

anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation

gonadotropins

anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids

Cluster B personality disorders

antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic traits: emotional, dramatic, attention-seeking, intense

operant

any behavior that is voluntary

mnemonic

any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information

social dysfunction

any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

mnemonic

any technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory

Reinforcement

anything that will inc the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated, the behavior is supported by reinforcement

Low frequency (long wavelength), low pitch

apex of cochlea

dissociation theory

approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated

depressive disorders

are characterized by a disturbance in mood or affect. specific symptoms include difficulties in sleep, concentration, and/or appetite, fatigue, and inability to experience pleasure (anhedonia)

incentive

are external stimuli, objects, and events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors.

norms

are the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society

olfactory bulbs

areas of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells

Thomas robert malthus

argued that population is the result of available resources for sustenance

linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world

psychophysical testing

assesses our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties

the peg word method

assigning images to a sequence of numbers then the images of the places could be called upon to bind awareness into the associated topics

Emile Durkheim

associated with Functionalism

George Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley

associated with Symbolic Interactionism

Rational Choice Theory

assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

dramaturgical approach

assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective

Manic Episode Symptoms

at least once a week (nearly every day) Elevated, expansive, or irritable mood diminished appetite Decrease Sleep Racing thoughts Rapid speech increased energy and goal directed activity Lack of consequential thinking severe marked impairment, maybe hospitalization

active movements

attempt to foster social change

signal detection theory

attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all the other sensory stimuli in the background

Bisexual

attracted to both sexes

pansexual

attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex

heterosexual

attracted to the opposite sex

homosexual

attracted to the same sex

fundamental, actor/oberver, self-serving, optimism, just world

attribution biases

charasmatic authority

authority that rests on the personal appeal of an individual leader

reflex

automatic behaviors that occur without thinking

Cluster C personality disorders

avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive traits: Tense, anxious, over controlled

beta waves

awake and alert low amplitudes and higher frequencies

alpha and beta waves

awake waves

self-conciousness

awareness of one's self

self-consciousness

awareness of oneself

consciousness

awareness of self, internal states, and the environment

optic radiation

axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus that terminate in the primary visual areas of the occipital cortex

Insecurely attached

babies are less likely to explore the environment, even when their mother is present Children will appear distressed and cry when caregiver leaves. Will cling to them when they return

High frequency (short wavelength), high pitch

base of cochlea near oval window

Patrilineal

based on or tracing descent through the male line

normative influence

based on social desirability, wanting to be accepted or admired by others reason for group polarization

bottom-up processing

begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

aggression

behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group

self-enhancement

behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others

instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

selective priming

being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected

self-schema

beliefs a person has about him or herself

continuous reinforcement

best way to teach a new behavior, but has fastest rate of extinction

procedural bias

bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon

selection bias

bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen

Ethnocentrism

biases that result when people look at issues from the perspective of a particular cultural background

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

one axon and one dendrite

bipolar neurons

mixed economies

blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership

approach-approach conflict

both options are both appealing

avoidant-avoidant conflict

both options are unappealing

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

brain area that plays a key role in arousal or wakefulness

hypothalamus

brain structure located above the brainstem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR

hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia

theta waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

observational study

broad categroy that includes any research in which experimenters do not manipulate the situation or results no manipulation of variables

self-concept (self-identity)

broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas

rapid eye movement (REM)

bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep

sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep

posttramatic stress disorder (PTSD)

can arise when a person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness after experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event that involves actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence to the self or others.

Social constructionism

can be either a micro-level or macro-level theory of society, depending on the context.

informal norms

casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to

The Hawthorne Effect

changes in research participants as a result of their awareness that they are being observed

intergenerational mobility

changes in the social position of children relative to their parents

schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

characterized by a general loss of contact with reality which can include positive symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations and/or negative symptoms such as flattened affect (monotone vocal expression)

Feeding and Eating Disorders

characterized by abnormal eating behaviors such as severe under eating and purging to maintain unhealthy weight

neurocognitive disorders

characterized by cognitive abnormalities or general decline in memory, problem solving, and/or perception

neurodevelopmental disorders

characterized by developmental deficits varying from specific learning impairments to global impairments of social skills or intelligence

dissociative disorders

characterized by disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception. Many of these disorders are thought to be caused by psychological trauma

personality disorders

characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that depart from social norms, present across a variety of contexts, and cause significant dysfunction and distress. These patterns permeate the broader personality of the person and are typically solidified during late adolescence or early adulthood

anxiety disorders

characterized by excessive fear (specific things or generally) and/or anxiety (of real or imagined future things or events) with both physiological and psychological symptoms

somatic symptom disorder

characterized by symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or substance use and are not attributable to another psychological disorder but that nonetheless cause emotional distress

Chemoreceptors

chemical sensors in the brain and blood vessels that identify changing levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that responds to odor chemicals

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respons to odor chemicals

gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food

securely attached

child uses the parent as a safe base to explore, when separated the child may not cry during absence, seek contact when parent returns, decrease crying if present (~60% of U.S. infants)

depressant

class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates

high culture

classical music, opera, ballet, live theater, and other activities usually patronized by elite audiences

intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

Ganglia

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

nuclei

clusters of neuron cell bodies in CNS

stimulus intensity

coded by the frequency of action potentials

central route

cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument

peripheral route

cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator

B.F. Skinner

coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior

social movements (collective behavior)

collective behavior with the intention of promoting change

transitional substage

combination of movements occur

Stimulus location

communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal

within subjects comparison

compare the same group at different time points

between subjects comparison

comparisons are made between subjects from one group to another

Hierarchies

composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts to remember them

basal nuclei (cerebral nuclei, or basal ganglia)

composed of grey matter and are located deep within the cerebral hemispheres, voluntary motor control and procedural learning related to habits

Wernicke's area

comprehension of speech and written language; located in the temporal lobe; damage results in Wernicke's aphasia where patients can produce speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language

economics

concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of resources, both goods and services

Feminist Theory

concerned with the social experiences of both men and women and the differences between these experiences

Divided attention

concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously

Broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

unconditionally legitimate sick role

condition/illness is incurable (Parkinsons)

conditional sick role

condition/illness is temporary

illegitimate role (sick role)

condition/illness that is stigmatized by others (AIDS, lung cancer)

secondary reinforcers

conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers

Solomon Asch

conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions

Stanley Milgram

conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience

stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, ecstacy)

conscious altering drug that INCREASES arousal, as a result glucose metabolism is increased

depressants (alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines)

conscious altering drug that creates a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

impression management (self-presentation)

conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own image by influencing the perceptions of others

traditional economies

consider social customs in economic decisions; this practice is most common in rural areas and often involves bartering and trading

Republican Government

consider their countries to be public concerns and are thus democratic in nature (the people have the supreme power in these societies)

Emile Durkheim

considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

Carl Rogers

considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy

person-situation controversy

considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or is due to the situation itself

democratic governments

consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation

material culture

consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture)

Authoritarian Government

consists of unelected leaders; the public may have some individual freedoms but have no control over representation eg. totalitarianism

ideal self

constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are

semicircular canals and vestibule (utricle and saccule)

contains receptors and endolymph that help the body maintain its sense of balance (equilibrium)

monoarchic governments

controlled by a single person or small group who inherited their leadership role like kings and queens

Aristarchic governments

controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions

Autocratic Government

controlled by an individual or small group that has absolute decisions making power (dictatorships, fascist gov'ts)

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

hypothalamus

controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as a sweating or racing heart (works with amygdala)

Level 2 (stages of moral development

conventional level of moral reasoning; morality judged by comparing actions to societys views and expectations (acceptance of conventional definitions of right and wrong) (adolescents and adults) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation)

external migration

cross-border or international migration

ethnicity

cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others (not biological)

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

decreased emotional expression, lack of motivation, decreased speech production, reduced pleasure, lack of interest in interacting with others

case study

deep analysis of a single case or ex Detailed exploration of one individual case or occurrence of a phenomenon

Ethnographic study

deep, lengthy qualitative analysis of a culture and its characteristcs

Stage 2 sleep

deeper sleep, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of sleep spindles and K-complexes. Still has theta waves

values

defined as a cultures standard for evaluating what is good or bad

Consciousness

defined as the awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states, and the enviroment

inclusive fitness

defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring support others in a group

application stage

defined more by conscious decisions to apply these skills to specific types of activity, for example a child may choose to play basketball

Stage 3 and 4 sleep

delta waves, deep sleep

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior

stigma

demeaning labels to deviant peopl

functional imaging

demonstrates which parts of the brain are active at any given time and to what extent as experimental participants manifest a behavior

dependent variable

depends on another variable, the output, variable that is measured, NOT MANIPULATED (cardiovascular health) EFFECT

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

mood

describes a baseline of weeks or months, a persons sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life

Caste System

describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they were born into

intragenerational mobility

describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation

race

description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics (biological)

positive reinforcement

desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior

Electromagnetic receptors

detect electromagnetic energy such as light, electricity, and magnetism

Interoceptors

detect internal stimuli

Erving Goffman

developed dramaturgical approach, the perspective within symbolic interactionism that views social life as a drama on the stage

George Herbert Mead

developed social behaviorism

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children 1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory

deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities

Robert Merton's Structural Strain Theory

deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural

Howard Becker's Labeling Theory

deviance is the result of societys response to a person rather than something inherent in the persons actions; behaviors become deviant through social processes

Howard Gardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

Bipolar I disorder

diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition or medication experienced at least one manic or mixed episode

significant difference

difference not due to chance

health care disparities

differences among populations in the availability, accessibility, and quality of health care services

intragenerational mobility

differences in social class between different members of the same generation

Donald Broadbent

discovered attention has limited capacity

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

heterosexism

discrimination or prejudice against homosexuals on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events

monocular cues

distance cues that depend on info that is available to either eye alone and are important for judging distances of objects that are far away

Loudness

distinguished by the amplitude of vibration

death instinct

drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others instinctual drive that motivates human behavior (psychoanalytical theory)

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight), reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment sleep aid

typification

each resource, event, or agent can be related to a resource type, event type, or agent type

duel coding hypothesis

easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

Market Economies

economic decisions are based on the market (supply and demand) and the means of production are often private

Communisim

economic system in which all means of production (loand, mines, factories, businesses) are owned by the people, private property doesn 't exist and all goods and services are shared equally

capitalism

economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for profit

socialism

economic system where resources and production are collectively owned a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

Cultural Comeptence

effective interactions between people from different cultures

law of proximity

elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

medical model of disease

emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness

social model of disease

emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health

17th and 18th centuries

english colonist migrated to the US. indentured servants migrated through this process accounting for more than half of all immigrants from europe

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

enticing people to take small actions, such as signing a free petition or joining a mailing list at first, then stakes are raised to accepting bumper stickers or lawn signs, then involvement is encouraged when donations or volunteer time is requested people agree to the earlier, minimal commitments then receive pressure to consent to a larger request to justify their acceptance of the smaller ones

Gordon Allport

established trait theories describing cardinal, central, and secondary traits that contribute to an individual's personality

formal norms

established, written rules

population projections

estimates of future populations made from mathematical extrapolations of previous data

randomized block technique

evaluate where participants fall along the variables they wish to equalize across experimental and control groups

episodic memory

events you have experienced Ex. such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories

surface traits

evident from a persons behavior

referent power

exerts control by appealing to the individual's desire to belong and tends to appeal to individuals through external factors, such as appearing desirable

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status

Conversion disorder

experience a change in sensory or motor function - such as weakness, tremors, seizures, or difficulty talking or eating - that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and that seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors

bipolar disorder

experience cyclic mood episodes oscillating between the extremes or poles of depression and mania

schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

experienced one or more positive and/or one of more negative symptoms

Robber's cave experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

cognitive dissonance theory

explains that we feel tension (dissonance) whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs (cognitions) that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match

biographical study

exploration of all the events and circumstances of an individuals life

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

internal validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study (How well the study was done)

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Distinctiveness

external causes more likely, internal less likely

consensus

external causes more likely, internal less likely

confounding variable

extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells (rods and cones) and distribute information to the ganglion cells

group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, public response, prior commitment

factors that influence conformity

source traits

factors underlying human personality and behavior. Fewer and more abstract.

hallucination

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus a false sensory perception that occurs when a person is conscious

kinship

familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry

Reproduction, protection, socialization, affection and companion, social status

family serves 5 functions

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy

Albert Bandura

famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning

Ivan Pavlov

famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell

Presbyopia

farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age.

hyperopia

farsightedness; difficulty seeing close objects when light rays are focused on a point behind the retina

popular culture

features of a culture that appeal to the masses, often those communicated through mass social media such as radio and tv

referred pain

feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord

Dependent Personality Disorder (Cluster C)

feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of him/herself

narcissistic personality disorder (Cluster B)

feels grandiosely self-important, with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

avoidant personality disorder (Cluster C)

feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism and conflict.

generalized anxiety disorder

feels tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but does not experience panic attacks. restlessness, tiring easy, poor concentration, irritability, muscle reaction, insomnia

social epidemiology

field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations

REM stage

final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur

tonic and phasic receptors

fire as long as stimulus continues and only fire when begins

Charles Spearman

first coined the term general intelligence, believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive tests

Edward Thorndike

first proposed the idea of social intelligence in the 1920s, defined as the ability to manage and understand people

sensorimotor stage

first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety

Rudimentary movements

first voluntary movement performed by child. movements are pre-programmed genetically. occurs ages 0-2.

aqueous humor

fluid produced by the ciliary body and found in the anterior chamber

anterior chamber

fluid-filled space between the cornea and iris

perilymph and endolymph

fluids in the cochlea

Macro-level theories

focus on large scale social structures

Second Wave Feminism

focused on women's liberation: gender equality, sexual rights, reproductive rights, and resisting patriarchal culture 1960s and 70s

humanistic theory

focuses on healthy personality development; humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will, rather than having their behavior determined by their early relationships provide an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions

hypomanic episode

for at least four days, a person has experienced an abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, but at a less severe level than with mania

immigration controls

formal policies that define and regulate who has the right to settle in an area

general intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities Spearman

Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim

founding fathers of sociology

Herbert Blumer

four main forms of collective behavior

Pitch

frequency of sound that is distinguished by which regions of the basilar membrane vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons

traditional authroity

from custom, traditional or accepted practice (other governments derive power from)

prefrontal cortex

front of brain, controls approach and avoidance behaviors

Megnetoencephalography (MEG)

functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity that records the magnetic fields produced by the brains electrical currents

Macro Theories

functionalism and conflict theory (also social construct sometimes)

peripheral route

functions when people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or the orator

optic nerve

ganglion cell axons that exit through the back of the eye and continue to the brain (occipital lobe)

nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)

semantic memory

general knowledge, facts

egosyntonic

generally in harmony with a person's ego or self-image

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Oligarchic Government

government by the few, sometimes a government in which a small group exercises control especially for corrupt and selfish purposes. The citizen has a very limited role.

direct democracies

governments in which there is direct public participation

publics (collective behavior)

group of individuals discussing a single issue, people share ideas

masses (collective behavior)

group whose formation is prompted through the efforts or mass media; consist of large numbers who may not be in close proximity but share intrests

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways

urbanization

growth of urban areas (as people move from rural to urban) as the result of global change

proactive interference

happens when info previously learned interferes with the ability to recall info learned later

retroactive interference

happens when newly learned into interferes with the recall of info learned previously

projection bias

happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do

depersonalization disorder

has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detacted from his or her body or mental processes as if they are observing themselves from the outside

dissociative amnesia

has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal information, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma

obsessive-compulsive disorder

has obsessions, compulsions, or both

antisocial personality disorder (cluster B)

has several traits that cause problems beginning as a young teen, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation

Schizotypal Personality Disorder (Cluster A)

has several traits that cause problems interpersonally including limited in inappropriate affect, magical or paranoid thinking, and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and preceptions

major depressive disorder

has suffered one or more major depressive episodes

physiological

having to do with an organism's physical processes

primary care

health care at a basic rather than specialized level for people making an initial approach to a doctor or nurse for treatment. ongoing preventative care of disease management or community based care (urgent care)

Nirgostriatal pathway

heavily involved in movement and coordination

delta waves

high amplitude, low frequency

executive function

higher order thinking processes such as planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior, decision making

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

priming

hints activate a closely related node making it easier to retrieve the node being searched for

melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions

extended family

household made up of several generations of family members

incentive theory of motivation

how factors outside the individual, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior

intersectionality

how identity categories (age, gender, sexual orientation) intersect in systems of social stratification

herd behavior

how individuals in a group act without an obvious source of direction

attribution theory

how individuals view behavior; both our behavior and the behavior of others

appraisal

how people interpret the impact of the stressor on themselves or on what is happening and what they are able to do about it

social desirability bias

how people respond to research questions, aka based on the topic of the study participants may respond in a certain way that they felt was most socially acceptable

cognition

how we process our enviroment

ecological theory

human behavior (in this case, health) is influenced by multiple levels including the individual (e.g., the patient's beliefs, personality, past experiences, etc.), the family, community, neighborhood, workplace, school, etc. and institutions

convex

hyperopia can be corrected by what lens

Utilitarianism

idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people 1. individual humans are rational in their actions 2. in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self-interest

Positive self-concept

ideal self and real self are simular

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

recognition

identifying specific info from a set of info that is presented (mc question)

procedural memory

implicit memory of motor skills, actions

Preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 7 years) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities Object permanence, stranger anxiety

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Extinction

in classical conditioning, occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occuring

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response

generalization

in classical conditioning, the response to a stimulus similar (but not identical) to the conditioned stimulus

extinction

in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

punishment

in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

Moro reflex

in response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle

sucking reflex

in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

walking/stepping reflex

in response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk

rooting reflex

in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple

dynamic equilibrium

in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

church

in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers

postganglionic neuron

in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ

preganglionic neuron

in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)

back stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others

front stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

relative poverty

inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

false memory

inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion

federalists governments

include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups

parlimentary governments

include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature

serial position effect

includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented

material culture

includes things that people of a certain culture construct,such as art, houses, sports, food

the new great migration

increase of black migration to the now urban south as racial relations improved

rationalization of society

increasing concerns with efficiency (achieving the max result with min amount of effort)

globalization

increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world

sub-replacement fertility rate

indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, pop. size will not be sustained

Drive Reduction Theory

individuals act to relieve internal states of tension

situational attribution

individuals attribute behavior to external causes

disposition attribution

individuals attribute behavior to internal causes

self verification

individuals want to be understood in terms of their deeply core beliefs

general strain theory

individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors

relative deprivation theory

individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources

B.F. Skinner's behaviorist model of language acquisition

infants are trained in language by operant conditioning

moderator variable

influences the STRENGTH of the relationship between two other variables

crosses over

info from nasal part of eye

does not cross

info from the temporal part of eye

right side of brain

information about the left visual field goes to the

left side of the brain

information about the right visual field goes to the

long-term memory

information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity

frontal lobes

initiate all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving

language acquisition device

innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky

James-Lange Theory

instead of first experiencing the emotion and then the physiological reaction, the theory proposes that we first experience the physiological response and then we experience the emotion. (You are afraid because your heart is racing when you see a scary dog) Autonomic activity induced by emotional stimuli generate the feeling of emotion

Raymond Cattell

intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)

language, games and play

interactionists believe that self is developed by

reciprocal determinism

interactions between a persons behaviors (concious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces,), and enviroment (situational factors)

Francis Galton

interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement

Consistancy

internal causes more likely or if not consistant than external

traits

internal, stable, enduring aspects of personality

positive punishment

introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior

bipolar and related disorders

involve mood swings or cycles (episodes) ranging from manic to depressive, in which manic episodes tend to be followed by depressive episodes and vice versa

parietal lobes

involved in both general sensations (touch, temp, pressure, vibration) and in gustation (taste Recieve input from mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors

mesocoritcal pathway

involved in high cortical functions, thought, planning, and emotional regulation

nonverbal communication

involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words

immigration

involves entering a new area and these people are called immigrants

relearning

involves learning information that you previously learned

social perception

involves the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions

Schizoid Personality Disorder (Cluster A)

is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships even those with family members

psychological disorder

is a set of behavioral and/or physiological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

glutamate

is released by rods and cones onto bipolar cells in the dark to keep them from firing

episodic buffer

is theorized to integrate info from the phono loop and visuo sketchpad with a sense of time, and to interface with longterm memory sources. Combine info from different sources

cultural relativism

judging another culture based on its own cultural standards

justification of effort

just as people may modify their attitudes to match their language, they may also modify them to match their behaviors

experiment does not reflect real world

labratory setup does not translate to real world

infantile amnesia

lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown

Avolation

lack of motivation

EDM: Repression

lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory

Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep

Cerebrum

largest region of the human brain and consist of the large cerebral hemispheres

Christanity

largest single faith in the world, 30% identify. 80% in US

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

nonassociative learning

learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization

latent learning

learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required Ex. learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test

emigration

leaving an old area and these people are called emigrants

urban blight

less functioning areas of large cities degrade as a result of urban decline

libido

life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure instinctual drive that motivates human behavior (psychoanalytical theory)

Short and long-term memory

limited to duration and capacity and retained sometimes indefinitely

C. Robert Cloninger

linked personality to brain systems involved with reward, motivation, and punishment; proposed that personality is linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in three interacting systems. low dop-high impulse low nore-high approval seeking low ser-risk aviodance

parietal lobe

lobe involved in general sensations such as touch, temp, pressure, vibration

temporal lobe

lobe involved in processing auditory and olfactory sensation and is involved in short-term memory, language comprehension (Wernicke's area), and emotion

frontal lobe

lobe that imitates all voluntary movement and involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving

occipital lobe

lobe that processes visual sensation

Cerebellum

located behind the pons and below the cerebral hemispheres, integrating center where complex movements are coordinated

pons

located below the midbrain and above the medula, connection point between the brain stem and the cerebellum, control some autonomic functions and coordinates movement, balance and anti gravity posture

medulla

located below the pons and is the area of the brain that connects to the spinal cord, functions in relaying info between other areas of the brain and regulates vital autonomic functions such as bp, respiratory rythmicity centers found here

limbic system

located between the cerebellum and the diencephalon, contains the amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus, memory and emotion

longitudial study

long term analysis that intermittently measures the evolution of some behavior or characteristics

trends

longer lived than fads and often lead to permanent social changes

life course perspective

looks at how chronological age, relationships, common life transitions, and social change shape people's lives from birth to death and lead to a persons development

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

alpha waves

low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. The first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep.

preventative checks

lower birth rate (birth control, abstinence, same sex marriage)

Amygdala

main structure involved emotion in limbic system

amalgamation

majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

late 20th century (post 1965)

majority of migrants from asia and latin america. high rates. decade with historical numbers: 1990-2000

confabulation

making up memories to fill in gaps and then believing that those memories are true

exercise, biofeedback (relaxation), social support

managing stress

Bipolar II Disorder

manic phases are less extreme, and excludes manic or mixed episodes, although it may include a hypomanic episode has experienced cyclic moods, including at least one major depressive episode and one hypomanic episode, but has not met the criteria for a manic or mixed episode

Endogamy

marriage between people of the same social category

Exogamy

marriage outside the tribe, caste, or social group

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (Cluster C)

may be perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn, with a strong need for control. Resist others authority and will not cooperate with or delegate to others unless things are done his or her way

stimulus duration

may or may not be coded explicitly. Ex. Tonic receptors, phasic receptors

gender conditioning

means by which gender roles are established socialization of gender roles

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)

lack of reliability

measurement tools do not measure what they are supposed to

case fatality rate

measures deaths as the result of a set diagnosis of procedure, sometimes specific to the beginning or late stages

prevalence rate

measures the number of individuals experiencing a disease

correlational study

measures the quantitative relationship between two varibles

modeling

mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer

brainstem

medulla, pons, midbrain

oval window

membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

false memories

memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that we are consciously aware of, such as facts or personal events; can be subdivided into semantic and episodic memory (memory with conscious recall)

semantic memory

memory for factual information

episodic memory

memory for one's personal past experiences

echoic memory

memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

chunking

memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall

implicit or procedural memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something (memory without conscious recall)

implicit (procedural) memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things

short-term memory

memory that is limited in duration and in capacity

explicit memory (declarative memory)

memory with conscious recall

implicit memory (non declarative memory)

memory without conscious recall

schemas

mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

heuristics

mental shortcuts

heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed

taste hairs

microvilli that protrude from taste cells through pores of taste buds; sensitive parts of taste cells

choroid

middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera contains darkly pigmented cells, absorbs excess light within the eye

urban sprawl

migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas

Everett Lee

migration theorist who in 1966 came up with the push-pull model

colonization

migration to settled areas in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state

meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness

Vicarious emotions

mirror neurons responsible for thins, Feeling the emotions of others as though they are one's own, in order to learn from the successes and mistakes of others through observation

Paranoid Personality Disorder (Cluster A)

mistrusts and misinterprets others motives and actions without sufficient cause, suspecting them of deceiving, harming, betraying, or attacking him or her

spotlight model

model for visual attention, with a spotlight representing one's attention and its ability to unlock from a current target, move focus, and lock onto a new target

information processing model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages attention, perception, and storage into memory

elaboration likelihood model

model of persuasion stating that people will either elaborate on the persuasive message or fail to elaborate on it and that the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than those who do not explains when people will be influenced by the logic of the arguments, and when people will be influenced by other, more superficial characteristics like the appearance of the speaker

attenuation model of selective attention

model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect

elaboration likelihood model

model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument

Anne Treisman's Attenuation Model

model that states that the mind has an attenuator that "turns down" unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it tried to account for cocktail party effect

information processing models

models for cognition that assume that information from the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including: attention, perception, and storage into memory

Relative motion

monocular cue, As we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move

light and shadow

monocular cue, Closer objects reflect more light than distant objects. The dimmer of two identical objects will seem farther away

texture gradient

monocular cue, change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance

relative size

monocular cue, if objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image on the retina appears more distant

interposition

monocular cue, if one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer

linear perspective

monocular cue, parallel lines appear to converge with distance

Relative hight

monocular cue, we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as further away

depressive disorder

more than acute moodiness, it is a persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal distress and or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep

mid 19th century

most migrants came from north europe

early 20th century

most migrants came from south and east europe. jews came during WW2. Peak of european migration - 1907 then great depression

normative organizations

motivate membership based on morally relevant goals

identification

motivated by the desire to be like another person or group way that behavior is motivated by social influences

compliance

motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment way that behavior is motivated by social influences

internalization

motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system; this is the most enduring motivation of the three way that behavior is motivated by social influences

conversion disorder

motor or sensory symptoms linked to stress Ex. blindness from a tragic event

Voluntary Migration

movement in which people relocate in response to perceived opportunity; not forced.

rural flight

movement of rural youth and middle class to more urban areas

fundamental movement skills

movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)

polysomnography (PSG)

multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye

concave

myopia can be corrected by a what lens

mesolimbic pathway

natural pathway for feeling of reward and pleaure

brain lesion

naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

myopia

nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects when light rays are focused on a point in front of the retina

social exclusion

negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.

feral children

neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

neural networks

networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output immature brain does not have

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action

mirror neurons

neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

noninvasive method of gathering functional info about brain activity, electrodes placed on scalp to measure voltage fluctuations in the ionic currents of brain neurons

emmentropia

normal vision

3 Types of Organizations

normative organization- ppl join voluntarily coercive organization- ppl are forced to join (ex. prison) utilitarian organization- ppl are compensated for their involvement (ex. work)

folkways

norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)

folkways

norms that are not strictly enforced

mores

norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance, strictly enforced

incidence rate

number of new cases of a disease

Gestalt law of common fate

objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a group or unit

Albert Bandura

observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; modeling, Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

fundamental movement

occurs between 2-7. Child learns to manipulate body through actions such as running, jumping, throwing, catching.

penis envy

occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis

penis-envy

occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis

projective identification

occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person

Avoidance

occurs when a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented (acting sick so the child avoids the confrontation)

amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

dynamic equilibrium

occurs when multiple interdependent parts in a society working together to make the society function

retrograde amnesia

occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded

attrition bias

occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

self-reporting bias

occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers

top-down processing

occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information

overgeneralization

occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

Malthusian Catastrophe

occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population, resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine

Dishabituation

occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed. after removed, person will react to it as a new stimulus

role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in the society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person Ex. 'male' and 'nurse' or a student feeling at conflict as both a student and a worker

false concensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

false consensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

projection bias

occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others

gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness

Matrilineal

of or based on kinship with the mother or the female line

double-blind study

of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.

psychological

of, affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and emotional state of a person.

SES (socioeconomic status)

often defined in terms of power; the ability to get other people to do something, property (sum of possessions and income), and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society

Schachter-Singer Theory

once we experience physiological arousal, we make a conscious cognitive interpretation based on our circumstances, which allows is to identify the emotion that we are experiencing (inc heart rate when we see the dog, interpreted as the result of fearing the dog, behavioral response) stimulus--physiological response--cognitive interpretation--emotion

Schwann cells

one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron

sleep cycle

one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min

altruistic behavior

one that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual

extrovert

one who is outgoing; one who is energized rather than drained by interactions with others

self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth

personality identity

one's own sense of personal attributes

real self

one's perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities

ideal self

one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

taste pore

opening that exposes taste cell microvilli (gustatory hairs) to oral cavity

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

coercive organizations

organization in which members do not have a choice in joining

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list first has had more time to be transferred to long term and last are still in phonological loop

acting out

overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behavior

Nociceptors

pain receptors

nociceptors

pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain

positive punishment

pairing an undesirable stimulus with the behavior

Cluster A personality disorders

paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal Traits: irrational, withdrawn, cold, suspicious

night tremors

parasomnia where one wakes up abruptly with automatic arousal, but no recall of dream

authoritarian parenting

parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. This style is demanding and often relies on punishment.

permissive parenting

parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children

authoritative parenting

parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children

authoritative parenting

parents listen to children, encourage independence, place limits on behavior and consistently follow through with consequences when behavior is not met, warmth and nurturing

episodic buffer

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory

attribution effects

participant fatigue, drop out of study

impression management

participants adapt their responses based on social norms or perceived researcher expectations

demand characteristics

participants change their behavior based on what they perceive the experiment to be about

attrition

participants dropping out of the study before it is completed

demand characteristics

participants interpret what the experiment is about and subconsciously respond in ways that are consistant with the hypothesis

universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people;

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

central route

people are persuaded by the content of the argument

deterministic (Behaviorism)

people begin as blank slates and that environmental reinforcements and punishment

social cognitive theory

people learn by watching others Ex. if they see someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too

looking glass-self

people shaping their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them Ex. If the man feels bias from society and/or police, the looking-glass self theory states that he will internalize the bias/stigmatization directed towards him

Yerkes Dodson Law

people tend to perform their best when they're moderately emotionally stimulated

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

fundamentalists

people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs

category

people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group

category

people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way

age cohorts

people who were born at roughly the same time and who pass through the life course together

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

dissociative figure

person may wander aimlessly during the episode or experience it as a kind of journey

culture shock

personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life

humanistic psychotherapy

personal growth through self-insight; a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis

behaviorist perspective

personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment

social-cognitive perspective

personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

psychoanalytic theory

personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories

cocktail party effect

phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention

cones

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision

rods

photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision

fovea centralis

pinpoint depression in the center of the macula lutea that is the site of sharpest vision area consisting of a small depression in the retina containing cones and where vision is most acute

primary group

play a more important role in an individuals life; those groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long term, emotional ways

drop in death rate = ? drop in birth rate = ?

population growth, population stabilization

charles cooley

posited the idea of the looking-glass self

level 3 (stages of moral development)

post conventional level of moral reasoning; morality judged by internal ethical guidelines; rules views as useful but malleable guidelines the post-conventional (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

Herbert Spencer

postulated that just as organs work together, structures and institutions of a society work together to keep the society functioning

Level 1 (stages of moral development)

pre-conventional level of moral reasoning; morality judged by direct consequences to the self (no internalization of right and wrong). (children) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)

law of connectedness

predicts that things that are joined or linked or grouped are perceived as connected

experimental hypothesis

predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV

racism

prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another

positive reinforcement

presence of a rewarding stimulus

postive punishment

presence of aversive stimulus

situational effects

presence of lab conditions changes outcome

group pressure

pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs

group pressure (peer pressure)

pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs

Pacinian corpuscles

pressure receptors deep in the skin

meaningful encoding principle

principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information

non-governmental organization (NGO)

private group that pursues self-defined goals outside of government; common activities are publicizing issues, lobbying, making demands on government, and providing direct services

humanistic therapy

problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance goal: personal growth through self-insight general method: active listening and unconditional positive regard

Temporal lobes

process auditory and olfactory sensation and are involved in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion

classical conditioning

process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them

associative learning

process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning

associative learning

process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include: CLASSICAL and OPERANT CONDITIONING

occipital lobes

process visual sensation

encoding specificity principle

proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding

mindfulness-based stress reduction

protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety

structural imaging

provides a picture of the brain, they show anatomical regions and where they are located with respect to each other, no insight on what is activated

fixed-ratio schedule

provides the reinforcement after a set number of instances of the behavior

fixed-interval schedule

provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is constant, bahavior will inc as reinforcement interval comes to an end,

variable-interval schedule

provides the reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time,

variable-ratio schedule

provides the reinforcement after an unpredictable number of occurrences

Gestalt Laws of Grouping

proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, connectedness

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD and marijuana, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (hallucinations)

id, ego, superego

psychic energy is distributed among 3 personality components that function together

reverse culture shock

psychological process of readapting to one's home culture

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

positive checks

raise death rate (disease, hunger, war)

cued recall

receive significant hints about the material and recall the info

Experimental group

receives treatment

superior colliculus

receives visual sensory input

electroencephalogram (EEG)

recording of electrical impulses in the brain

electrooculogram (EOG)

recording of eye movements

electromyogram (EMG)

recording of skeletal muscle movements

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

sterotype threat

refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

neural plasticity

refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, the environment, and neural processes

Morbidity

refers to the nature and extent of disease in a population

Generalization

refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response (bell or chimes)

Acquisition

refers to the process of learning the conditioned response

social stratification

refers to the way that people are categorized in a society, race, education ect

institutional discrimination

refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.)

pineal gland

region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences slepp/wake cycles and seasonal functions

nasopharynx

region of the pharynx at the back of the nose and above the soft palate

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior

reconstructive bias

related to memory, aka our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress

Yerkes-Dodson Law

relationship between performance and arousal is a upside-down U shaped correlation: people perform best when they are moderately aroused

midbrain

relay for visual and auditory info and contains much of the reticular activating system (RAS) (arousal or wakefulness), part of brain stem

secularization

religion loses significance in society/culture

reproductive memory

remembering something exactly (not generally how we process things) storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

gentriflication

renovation of the urban areas in the process of urban renewal

compulsions

repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules, in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring

obsessions

repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety

prestige

reputation in society

projective personality assessment

require the participant to respond, and then their response is assessed for meaning

Thermoreceptors

respond to changes in temperature

Photoreceptors

respond to light, rods and cones

mechanreceptors

respond to mechanical pressure or deformation of the receptor and adjacent tissues

social recipricity

responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action

summation

response threshold is reached by the ___________ of input signals from multiple nodes

Institution of Medicine

responsible for defining and treating illness (physical and mental) among members of society

cis double bond, optin, sodium channel

retinal has one ______________ in the dark when the rods and cones are resting, retinal is associated with ________ to keep a ___________ open (depolarized).

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond NIGHT VISON

recognition

retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format

recall

retrieving information from memory; free _____ involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued _____ prompts retrieval with a cue

positive reinforcement

reward immediately following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior; e.g. praise

Dopamine

reward, mood, pleasure, smooth motor movement, focus, attention Shortage: depression, lethargic, difficulty coordinating movement

sanctions

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

informal sanction

ridicule or ostracism can realign a straying individual towards norms

macula

round darker area of the ocular fundus that mediates vision only from the central visual field

Aristocracies

ruled by elite citizens, like those with noble births

dictatorships

ruled by one person (north Korea)

Fascist government

ruled by small group of leaders; type of autocratic government

meritocracies

ruled by the meritorious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions

static equilibrium and linear acceleration

saccule and utricle detect what

Hypomanic Episode Symptoms

same as mania but less severe >4 days do not impair functioning

lack of statistical power

sample groups have too much variability, sample size too small

public declaration

saying something publicly can become believing it in the absence of bribery, coercion, or some other blatant external motive

resource model of attention

says that we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific resources and general resources

Islam

second largest religion in world. Muslims, 20-25% of world.

sampling bias

selection criteria is not random

Phenomenological study

self-observation of a phenomenon by researcher or small group of participants A study primarily concerned with identifying the "essence" or the "invariant theme" of a phenomena as experienced by people. studies that attempt to understand conscious experiences from a first-person perspective

kinesthetic sense

sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other

hair cells

sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance

Tertiary care

services requested by a specialist from another specialist

gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

Sleep spindles

short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep

Hippocampus, prefrontal cortex

short term memory is found in the ___________ and working memory is found ___________

Hormones

signaling chemical for endocrine system

Neurotransmitters

signaling chemical for the nervous system

disorganization schizophrenic subtype

significant impairments in their ability to maintain the activities of daily living, but hallucinations and delusions are less pronounced

acute stress disorder

similar to PTSD but its symptoms last between 3 days and 1 month

cyclothymic disorder

similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme, with symptoms not meeting the criteria for either manic or major depressive cyclic moods, multiple hypomanic episodes, depressed mood milder than major depressive disorder, for at least 2 years

stereotype

simplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics

cultural lag

situation in which some aspects of the culture change less rapidly, or lag behind, other aspects of the same culture

states

situational, unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by the external environment

narcolepsy

sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min

sleep apnea

sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath

somnambulsim

sleep walking

normative behavior

social behaviors that follow norms and meet ideal social standard

gender

social characteristic that is based on behavior role expectations

Micro Theories

social constructionist and symbolic interaction

social identity

social definitions of who you are-race, ethnicity, religion, gender, occupation.

Medicalization

social process whereby human conditions (behavioral, physiological, or emotional) come to be defined and treated as medical conditions

class system

social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement

statuses, social roles, groups, social networks, organizations

social structures are composed of five elements:

anarchy

societies without a public government

arousal

some behaviors are motivated by a desire to achieve an optimum level of what?

latent learning

something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required

Abraham Maslow

sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs

air, bones, liquid

sound vibrations are conveyed how

posterior chamber

space between the back of the iris and the front of the vitreous chamber or in front of lens; filled with aqueous humor

attraction aggression attachment social support

specific social behaviors

communism

specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies

non-material culture

specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values

resource model of attention

states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously

dramaturgical perspective

stems from symbolic interactionism and posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others

stapes

stirrup; last of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear, contacts the oval window

fundamentalists

strict, literal believers; usually related to religion

Histronic Personality Disorder (Cluster B)

strongly desires to be at the center to attention and often seeks to attract attention thought personal appearance and seductive behavior

neuritic plaques

structural changes in the brain produced when damaged and dying neurons collect around a core of protein

nucleus accumbens

structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior

hypnotism

structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions

reticular formation (aka reticular activating system or RAS)

structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal as in wakefulness

gender schema theory

study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society

behavioral genetics

study the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

insecure attachment

style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Einsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room

insight learning

sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

borderline personality disorder (Cluster B)

suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in his or her impulse control, mood, and image of self or others

Drive reduction theory

suggest that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior Need (food) --- Drive (hunger) ---- DRB (eat)

social exchange theory

suggest that individuals assign rewards and punishments to interactions and prefer those with the greatest personal benefit

Stress-diathesis theory

suggests that while genetics provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, environmental stressors elicit the onset of the disease

self-identity (self-concept)

sum of an individuals knowledge and understanding of his or herself

somatic symptom disorder

symptom not linked to a medical condition Ex. back pain from stress

cultural universals

tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as food and shelter, and pertain to events that every human experiences

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

iron law of oligarchy

tendency of organizations to become increasingly dominated by small groups of people

reality principle

tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet

just-world phenomenon

tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

belief perseverance

tendeny to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence

role strain

tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single role Ex. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough"

Diencephalon

thalamus and hypothalamus A portion of the embryonic forebrain that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland.

ossicles

the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea

fertility

the ability of a woman to reproduce

social cognition

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems

power

the ability to control the behavior of others

divided attention

the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously

empathy

the ability to identify with others' emotions

social mobility

the ability to move up in social class

social mobility

the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

eidetic memory

the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

social perception

the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial info. we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

retention interval

the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled

crude death rate

the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population

crude birth rate

the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population

general fertility rate

the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

agents of social control

the authorities and social institutions that enforce norms and rules, attempt to prevent rule violations, and identify and punish rule violators

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

neuron

the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness

internal locus of control

the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions

optimism bias

the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to ourselves

Heteronormativity

the belief that heterosexuality is and should be the norm

external locus of control

the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces

mind-body dualism

the belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body

self-schemas

the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

race

the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, wand includes the following U.S> census categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander

optic disc

the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

iconic memory

the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second

fluid intelligence

the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.

soma

the cell body of a neuron

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

population momentum

the children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce. there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall regardless of the number of births per woman

cornea

the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil

human population

the collection of people in a defined geographical area, also refers to the number of people in the area.

generalized other

the common behavioral expectations of general society

collective conscience

the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society

relative deprivation

the conscious feeling of a negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present actualities

impression management or self-presention

the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of information or the social interaction

rehersal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

beliefs

the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold

cochlea

the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials

cilary muscle

the curvature of the lens is varied by the

choroid

the darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer)

mortality

the death rate in a population

face validity

the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants

construct validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring; the manner in which the terms of the study are defined; whether a test measures the intended variable

identity formation (individuation)

the development of a distinct individual personality

rate of population change

the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate

dissociative disorders

the disruptions of awareness, memory, and identity are extreme and/or frequent and they cause distress or impair the persons functioning

economic interdependence

the division of labor on a global scale; countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production

parasympathetic nervous sytem

the division of the autonomic nervous system known as the "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacram, it is also known as the craniosacral system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

social facts

the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society

incongruity

the emotional result when the real self falls short of ideal self

behaviorism

the environment controls us

acetylcholinesterase

the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft

similar

the exp and control group must be as _____________ as possible

religiosity

the extent that religion influences a person's life

global inequality

the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population

construct validity

the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure (produce stable and consistent results)

gender expression

the external manifestation of gender roles

bystander effect

the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

replacement fertility rate

the fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

oral stage

the first Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing

basilar membrane

the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch

meditation

the focusing of attention to clear one's mind and produce relaxation

racialization

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

latency stage

the fourth of Freud's five psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports

reinforcement schedule

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval

migration

the geographical movement of individuals, families, or other small or large groups of peopl

looking-glass self

the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

principle of aggregation

the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

social behaviorism

the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others

Gestalt Psychology

the idea that the whole exceeds the sum of its parts, when humans perceive an object, rather than seeing lines, angles, colors, and shadows, they perceive the whole

Religiosity

the importance of religion in a person's life

absolute poverty

the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare

agnosia

the inability to recognize familiar objects.

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

personality

the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person

hidden curriculum

the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in school

sensory memory

the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays

actualizing theory

the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism

retina

the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs (utricle and saccule)

manifest functions

the intended and recognized functions of an institution

manifest function

the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure

Intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

intersectionality

the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

Transgenesis

the introduction of an exogenous or outside gene into an organism; alter genotype of an animal so that researchers can study the effect of a gene

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

corpus callosum

the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

operant conditioning

the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses

retention interval

the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

organic amnesia

the loss of memory due to biological factors such as brain disorders, tumors, strokes, degenerative diseases, or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

vitreous chamber

the main interior portion of the eye, filled with vitreous humor

belief perseverance

the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary

adjustment disorder

the maladaptive response is to a stressor (romantic break up, job issues, marital issues) rather than trauma. 3-6 months

oval window

the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear

representativeness heuristic

the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things

social behaviorism

the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

difference threshold (just noticeable difference)

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time (difference between 5lb or 10lb and 100lb and 101lb)

gambler's fallacy

the mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

mere presence

the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business

Alzheimer's Disease

the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia

Alzheimer's disease

the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia

white flight

the move of white city-dwellers to the suburbs to escape the influx of minorities.

depolarization

the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential

optic nerve

the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina

acetylcholine (ACh)

the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic (spinal cord neurons) neurons of the sympathetic nervous system.

norepinephrine (NE)

the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse)

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility

cultural capital

the non-financial social assets, like knowledge, skills, education etc., that promote social mobility

socioeconomic gradient in health

the notion that socioeconomic status can influence health

personality

the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person

replacement level fertility

the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people int he population who die

life expectancy

the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates

phenotype

the observable characteristics and traits of an organism

master status

the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc)

Discrimination

the opposite of generalication, occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli, the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimulus

effector

the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron

conditioned stimulus

the originally neutral stimulus (bell)that, through pairing with the unconditioned (food) stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response (salivating)

adrenal cortex

the outer region of the adrenal gland. It produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity.

outer ear

the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals, strives for higher purpose

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

dopamine hypothesis

the pathway for neurotransmitter dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia. Due to both an overabundance dopamine and hypersensitive receptors

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

social support

the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

relative refractory period

the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)

conformity

the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others

social facilitation effect

the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; also called familiarity principle

hypophysis

the pituitary gland

optic chiasm

the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye "crosses over" to the appropriate side of the brain for processing

healthcare disparities

the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups

midbrain

the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes

outer ear

the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)

diencephalon

the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus

medulla oblongata

the portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing

malthusianism

the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase

social capital

the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility

endogamy

the practice of marrying within a particular group

paranoid schizophrenic subtype

the presence of auditory hallucinations or prominent delusional thoughts about persecution or conspiracy. However, people with this subtype are often more functional in their ability to work and engage in relationships than other subtypes

mindguarding

the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity

estrogen

the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain Shortage: stress and anxiety, depression, ADHD, Panic Disorder

retrieval structure principle

the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in the long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search

binding problem

the problem of explaining how an object's individual features become bound together rather than something else in the visual field

Consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

integrative reminiscence

the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts

cultural transmission

the process by which one generation passes culture to the next

selective attention

the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment

avoidance learning

the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language

language acquisition

the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native languagek

assimilation

the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group

informational social influence

the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something I don't know

role exit

the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role

relearning

the process of learning material that was originally learnt

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Encoding

the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system

encoding

the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system

socialization

the process through which people learn the expectations of society

socialization

the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture

reconstructive memory

the process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

meninges

the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater)

population growth rate

the rate of population change in a specified time period, reported as a percent of the initial population

cerebellum

the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity

primary visual cortex

the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state low amplitudes and high frequencies

collective behavior

the relatively spontaneous social behavior that occurs when people try to develop common solutions to unclear situations. social norms are absent or unclear

negative reinforcement

the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior

negative punishment

the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior

deception

the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be

dishabituation

the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation

congnitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

psycometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

anal stage

the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

residential secgregation

the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences

social identity

the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like

social network

the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

organ of corti

the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials

social reproduction

the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs

sociobiology

the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors

social epidemiology

the study of how health and disease are distributed throughout a society's population

sociology

the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live

Demography

the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration

demography

the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration

micro level theories

the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups

social epidemiology

the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts and culture to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

behavioral genetics

the study of the effects of heredity on behavior

central nervous system

the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord

Sociology

the systematic study of human society

Buddhism

the teaching of Buddha that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

homophily

the tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our success to ourself and our failures to others and the external environment

self-reference effect

the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourself, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

learned helplessness

the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

negativity bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

Ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture

ethnocentrism

the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards, values, and beliefs of one's own culture

self-reference effect

the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself

activation-synthesis theory

the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful

Thomas theorem

the theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation

phallic stage

the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals

prejudice

the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that someone holds about a group that are not based on an actual experience; a pre-judgment or biases thinking about a group and its members an attitude NOT a behavior

medicalization

the transformation of a human condition into a matter to be treated by physicians

modernization

the transformation of traditional societies into industrial societies

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

cultural diffusion

the transmission of elements or features of one culture to another

Cornea

the transparent layer forming the front of the eye.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina refracts light

central and peripheral route

the two basic ways to persuade people are the

Karl Marx and Max Weber

the two sociologist associated with conflict theory

division of labor

the type of arrangement in which each worker specializes in a particular task or job. doctors and mechanics

stimulus modality

the type of stimulus. CNS determines this based on which type of receptor is firing.

object permanence

the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight

latent functions

the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5)

latent functions

the unrecognized and unintended consequences of an institution

overconfidence

the use of intuitive heuristics and a tendency to confirm preconceived beliefs combine to lead to

norms

the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal _____ are generally written down; laws are examples of formal _____. Informal _____ are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

circadian rhythm

the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day

social stratification

the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things

sclera

the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball

educational segregation

the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods due to taxes

Schachter-Singer Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of psychological arousal occurs first, and is followed by a conscious, cognitive interpretation/appraisal that allows for the identification of the experiences emotion stimulus --> physical response --> cognitive interpretation --> emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory

theory of emotion that asserts that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction stimulus --> physiological response AND emotion

James-Lange Theory

theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy) stimulus --> physiological response --> emotion

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

structural poverty

theory that poverty is due to inadequacies in societal and economic structure

social influence theory

theory that powerful social influences can produce a state of hypnosis

overpopulation

there are more people than can be sustained

Sensitization

there is an increase in responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus. Cannot tune out the stimulus (habituation), produces exaggerated response

pull factors

things about an area that are attractive and pull people there

push factors

things that are unattractive about an area and push people to leave

Oedipus complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival.

Electra complex

this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

this guy sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs

Sapire-Whorf hypothesis

this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world

frustration-aggression principle

this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggressionk

cortisol

this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness

double blind

this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group

psychoanalytic therapy

this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties

difference threshold (aka the just noticeable difference or JND)

this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time

behavioral therapy

this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction

minorities

those demographic groups that receive differential treatment through processes of prejudice and discrimination due to their shared characteristics

ascribed status

those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts

achieved status

those statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts

ascribed statuses

those that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts

refugees

those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement

settlers

those who migrate to unsettled areas

dominate groups

those with social power to assign labels

preconscious mind

thoughts in the minds that are unconscious but can be recalled if necessary

illness anxiety disorder

thoughts of having a specific condition Ex. hypochondriac

endolymph

three semicircular canals are filled with what

escape learning

through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus

ego defense mechanisms

to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop defense ego mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud

Selection Criteria

too restrictive of inclusion/exclusion criteria for participants (the sample does not represent the population)

cognitive psychology

tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors

nomadism

traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance

demographic transition

transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of the countrys development from a preindustrial (agri) to industrial framework sue to both economic and social changes. both fertility and mortality rates decrease.

telecommunications

transmitting information and communicating electronically

tonic neck reflex

turning the head to one side, extending the arm and leg on that side, and flexing the limbs on the opposite side

dizygotic twins

twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time

conformation bias and fixation

two cognitive tenancies that can lead us astray when looking for solutions

cerebral hemispheres

two halves of the cerebral cortex, each of which serve distinct yet highly integrated functions connected by a thick bundle of axons called the corpus callosum

double approach-avoidant conflict

two options with both appealing and negative characteristics

Weber's Law

two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different 2% for humans

primary reinforcers

unconditional consequences that are innately satisfying of desirable; maybe biologically driven

ego defense mechanisms

unconsciously deny or distort reality- mild dissociation. - repression- lack of recall of painful event -denial-forceful refusal to acknowledge something painful - reaction formation- expressing opposite of one feels - projection- blaming; attributing unacceptable to something else - displacement- redirecting impulses to less dangerous one (kicking dog instead of boss) -rationalization- intellectualizing impulsive behavior -regression- reverting to earlier, less sophisticated behavior. - sublimation- channeling impulse to constructive behavior

negative reinforcement

undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior (electric shock removed after hitting lever again)

totalitarianism

unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coecive means of control

scapegoats

unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed

trauma and stressor related disorders

unhealthy or pathological responses to one or more harmful or life threatening events including witnessing such an event. Subsequent symptoms include patterns of anxiety, depression, depersonalization, nightmares, insomnia, and/or a heightened startle response

discrimination

unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics/prejudices (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability)

relexes

unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

grey matter

unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons

Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others

Computerized Tomography (CT) or CAT scan

use a computer to combine many cross sectional images generated from the differential absorption of x-rays of an anatomical part (brain) quick, lower cost, no prohibition to implanted medical devices

survery

use of series of questions to allow participants to self report behaviors and tendencies

Raymond Cattell

used FACTOR ANALYSIS to identify clusters of traits that he considered the basic components of personality. 16 trait theory. identified source and surface traits

Insight learning

used to describe when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

Evolutionary game theory

used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

uses a computer to combine a series of magnetic resonance images taken less than a second apart to provide a functional picture of how brain activity changes overtime safer than PET, precise, cost effective, patient completely still

mixed methods research

uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques, in an effort to build convincing claims about the relationships between attributes and outcomes

Meritocracy

uses merit to establish social standing

operant conditioning

uses reinforcements (pleasurable consequences) and punishment (unpleasant consequences) to mold behavior

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

uses strong magnets which cause protons to align, spin, and generate a detectable radio-frequency signal that is measured by antennas close to the anatomy being examined safer, but slower, better imaging, detail of tissue

reverse discrimination

using race or sex to give preferential treatment to some people

night terrors

usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning

social cues

verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions

utricle, saccule and ampullae

vestibular complex (three semicircular canals) contain hair cells that detect motion

non-normative behavior

viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion

adoption studies

way to study the effect of genetics and environment on phenotype

ecological validity

ways that the experiment applies to the environment Ex. there might be differences between this experiment and actual prison conditions

social constructionism

we actively shape our society though social interactions social actors define what is real, knowledge about world based on interactions

back stage

we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves

front stage

we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

law of continuity

we prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and disjointed ones

fundamental attribution error

we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a persons character or personality

availability heuristic

whatever comes to mind first is what we believe to be common and prevalent Ex. judging an event to not be risky because friends have not suffered consequences

photon, all trans-form

when a ___________ is absorbed, retinal is converted to ________________ and the codium channel closes (hyperpolarize)

group think

when a group is insulated from outside opinions and make choices irrationally, without truly considering available evidence

theory of cognitive appraisal

when a person considers the threat posed by and the resources needed to minimize the stressors affecting them

sick role

when a person is ill, they cannot contribute to society (Talcott Parsons)

generalized other

when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the ____. (George Herbert Mead/ Symbolic interactionism)

variable-ratio

when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval

when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

law of closure

when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line, complete logical entity

spontaneous recovery

when an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of time

nonassociative learning

when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

instinctual drift

when established habits, learned using operant conditioning , are eventually replaced by innate food-related behaviors. Aka learned behavior "drifts" to the organism's species specific, instinctual behavior

ion channels, neutrotransmitters

when hair cells are bent by the tectorial membrane what opens and what is released

Please Principle

when its primitive drives build up, the id seeks immediate gratification to relieve the tension

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information

positive transfer

when old information facilitates the learning of new information (someone who knows how to play football makes it easier for them to learn rugby)

approach-avoidant conflict

when one option has both positive and negative aspects

environmental injustice

when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being

justification of effort

when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort

group polarization

when people who agree with each other get together to discuss an issue, the group tends to push the views of each member to be more extreme than the original view

individual discrimination

when prejudicial attitudes cause certain individuals to be treated differently than others Ex. female applicant is not chosen for a promotion due to gender

informational social influence

when someone looks to others in their group for info on what is correct

long-term potentiation

when something is learned, gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

self-fulfilling prophecy

when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes Ex. when a medical student has a difficult time performing their first procedure because she embodies the 'stereotype' that medical students are inefficient etc.

medicalization

when the definition of a problem and the therapy intended to improve it are described in medical terms Ex. smoking is an addictive behavior that can be treated via the use of pharmaceutical interventions

normative social influence

when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

normative social behavior

when the motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

incongruity

when the real self falls short of the ideal self

incongruence

when there are experiences in life that contradict our self-concept, we feel

fundamental attribution error

when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality on their behavior Ex. someone cuts us off, "he must be a jerk"

stereotype threat

when women perform worse when in a room with males

reaction formation

when you express the opposite of your true motivations or desires Ex. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise

criterion validity

whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome

Sclera

white of the eye

Kitty Genovese

woman whose murder in front of witnesses led to research on bystander effect

social facilitation effect

working harder when in a group than when working alone

negative feedback system

works by maintaining stability or homeostasis, a system produces a product or end result, which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the product or end result within tightly controlled boundaries