Memory and cognition

What are the similarities & differences between each approach to concept formation?

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What is a negative effect of schemas and scripts on cognitive processes?

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What is the nature of long term memory? There is a common misconception here!

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What is Anderson's ACT-R model of semantic memory?

Adaptive control of thought rational intended to explain all of cognition links between nodes becomes stronger with more use. Proposition: John believe he will pass the exam John believes anna will pass the exam anna passed the exam Indivdual networks can connect to make sentences.

What are the explanations for infantile amnesia? What does each explanation involve?

Brian isnt fully developed - this is not fully developed in infants so you cant form memories Language Development- begin verbally recounting experiences, coincides with development of autobiographical memory Development of self- still trying to figure out who you are still figuring out that they have toes. Social - cognitive devel.- incorporates importance of brain lang and self-concept.

What is the self-reference effect?

Deep processing, especially well remembered words. Explantations for this would be: you link info with memory representations and because of distinctiveness and preferential rehearsal. , It is when we relate new information to personal experiences and our personal situation in some way, we are more likely to remember it.

Rosch and Mervis (1975) conducted some important research. What did they do, what did they find, and what did they conclude?

Did a study to test typicality effect. So they were given a list of things in a category and had to rate them 1 to 7 based on prototypicality. Found that most people used the most common forms of the category when asked. (so for example asked for a vehicle most people say car) answers can very based on social context and geography.

What is reality monitoring?

Did something really happen? Internal versus external. and your thoughts/ imaginations versus perceived events. So an example of this would be did I turn off the coffee pot or did I think about it turning off?

What is the misinformation effect?

Distorts memory for the original event. Forms of retroactive interference. Causing difficulties in producing memories. The recall between the actual witnessed event is misleading. Cause: source monitoring error.

What is infantile amnesia? When does it occur?

Do not remember events that happened early in life (0-3) yrs

What is source monitoring?

Eg. Who said that? Where did this memory come from? someone told me this was it the police officer or my mom who told me this?

What is transfer-appropriate processing?

Emphasis is not about the context, the emphasis on the processes used at encoding and retrieval.

What are the explanations for the reminiscence bump? What does each explanation involve?

First big events happen during this time, brain is at prime development for this type of thing and a lot of these events relate to identity formation.

Loftus & Palmer (1974) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

Had participants watch a series of 7 videos each depicting a traffic accident- then asked a question about the speed of the car when it _____ the other car. They gave higher speeds when the words were more violent. People who had more violent verbs then reported seeing glass but there was never any glass.

What are characteristics of Prototypes?

Have privileged status Prototypes are judged faster - think some are automatically better for a category. Semantic priming effect- some people respond faster to an item if it was preceeded by an item with a similar meaning.

Novick (2003) conducted some important research. What did they do, what did they find, and what did they conclude?

He did a study centered around 9/11 (just out of luck) and asked about 10 vehicles in terms of typicality. The results for the airplane were more typical right after the 9/11 attacks. This concludes that society and culture can impact how typical things are of a given category.

Posner et al. (1967) conducted some important research. What did they do, what did they find, and what did they conclude?

He presented people with two different groups of dots that could maybe look like a triangle. He then had a prototype of an actual triangle that no one ever saw. He presented the prototype to the people and they said that yes they had seen that image before when in reality they had not. We can conclude that we extract a prototypical representation based on presented examples.

What is the typicality effect?

In a category one object better fits than another example is with the birds. A robin and a pernguin which better exemplifies a bird.... answers can very based on where you live how many birds you have seen what you classify a bird as etc.

What are intentional and incidental memory tasks? Know examples of each.

Intentional memory tasks- you know youre going to be tested and it involves consciously bringing info to mind. You recall things- this is like essay questions Recognition- true/false multiple choice. Incidental - indirect assessment of memory and conscious recollection of event or episode not necessary. Priming- study and word stem completion

Roediger & McDermott (1995) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean? What are other examples of how researchers have created false memories?

Introduced the DRM methodology. They presented participants with a list of words that were related and unrelated to a critical lure (ex smell) took a recognition memory test. Test included four options, sure old, probably old, sure new, probably new. They found that they made false memories for things that werent even studied when it was in the sure new.

How is decay theory limited?

It doesn't tell you the cause of forgetting

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Curve and what does it mean for eyewitness memory?

It is a curve that measures arousal Moderate arousal improves memory and high arousal impares memory so you want that sweet spot. High arousal can disrupt the quality of encoding.

What is the classical view of concept formation?

Items belong to certain categories if they contain certain features, must contain certain features. HAVE TO BE BOTH NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT. example: reality show, has to be not scripted, has to have real actors

Who is Patient K.C.?

K.C. was a patient who had gotten into a motorcycle accident and who had lost his episodic memories (so memories of his own personal events) and could only remember facts about things.

What is the exemplar view of concept formation?

Membership based on similarity to exemplars Exemplars chosen depends on context Can explain: typicality effects context effects but the problem is we cant store all of these things- cognitive economy. Example: Every single dog you have seen stored.

What are flashbulb memories? What information is commonly reported and what are the typical properties?

Memories for circumstances surrounding when you first heard a shocking bit of news. Examples are assassinations, disasters and terrorists attacks. Typical properties are the source, loaction, emotion, aftermath, activity, who you were with, they are usually detailed, vivid, held with high confidence, impervious to forgetting???

What are the differences between autobiographical memories and facts?

Memories- you have the experience of remembering, personal interpretation, context specific sensations and you have self-reference and long duration. Facts- are accurate, self referenced and have long duration.

What is context dependent memory? How much does it influence your memory?

Memory , physical location, odors and background music, many of which produce a sense of familiarity, retrieval is better when the external context of the original memory matches the retrieval context. (studying vocal words under water)

What is the prototype view of concept formation?

New object- match against prototype Review- typicality (example of this is what fits best in a category... well there are many different examples): degree to which objects are representative of their category Have privileged status Prototypes are judged faster Semantic priming effect

What autobiographical memories are remembered later in life (30-50 years old)? What is this time period called?

Only ones that happen recently its called forgetting

What is the social contagion effect?

Others memories infect our memories and this can produce false memories.

What are retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia?

Retrograde- loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage; the deficit is especially severe for events that occurred during the years just before the damage. Anterograde- loss of ability to form memories for events that have occurred after brain damage.

How do schemas and scripts influence memory? Brewer & Treyens (1981) conducted some important research. What did they do, what did they find, and what did they conclude?

Schema theories propose that they guide us to your recognition and understanding of new examples because you say to yourself, this is just like when this happened. Brought partcipants into a lab and left them in the researches office for 35 seconds ... then were taken out and were asked to remember everything in the researchers office. They found that most people only remembered items consitant with office schema and forgot items inconsitant with office schema.

What is Semantic memory?

Semantic memory refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences. The conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world[1] is generally thought to be independent of context and personal relevance. Semantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of the two major divisions in memory.

Loftus (1974) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

She found that eyewitness testimony play a huge part in convictions With an eyewitness they were more likely to convict a person as guilty.

Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

She held a study of a red car at a stop sign and then later hitting a pedestrian. They were then asked: did another car pass the red car was stopped at the stop sign (consistent ) or did another car pass the red car while it was stopped at a yield sign. (inconsistent) They found that with a consitent view they remember more and were more accurate than misleading group.

What is the structure of categories?

Superordinate level- vehicle Basic level (car truck)- special status, generally most useful most often used to name objects most likely to produce semantic priming effect. Subordinate level- (chevy ford -more specific)

How do researchers investigate autobiographical memory? What techniques do they use?

Targeted event recall- recall particular events or well-defined periods of life (big events) Diary Technique- keep track of daily events (can look at differences for which events you can remember) Cue-word technique generates memories in response to word cues - tell me about a success.

What is the reminiscence bump? When does it occur? What does it influence? Does it differ between cultures?

The age at which you remember most memories. It occours from 14-30. It influences big memories. It does not differences in cultures.

What are the theories of forgetting?

Theoretical perspective- failure to encode, failure to encode. Decay theory- Lose info over time. Describes memories but dont tell us why it happens. Interference- information currently being processed is negatively influenced other information.

What is meant by the term "fuzzy boundaries"?

There is never a real cutoff point between categories. So its never really 100% clear where and object belongs. A great example of this would be the question is it a sport or a game? and the examples are darts, cheer, soccer, poker etc.

What are explanations for flashbulb memories?

They are susceptible to forgetting They are prioritized processing Repeated rehearsal Narrative construction Goal is to have story

Talarico & Rubin (2003) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They conducted studies the day after 9/11 and asked about the events that had happened. then also asked about every day memory. they were then tested either 1 week later, 6 weeks later or 32 weeks later. Found that people remembered everyday events and flashbulb memories just the same.

Soderstrom & McCabe (2011) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They did the same study but they used a predator task and a zombie task. The words they have best remembered were the words for the zombie task. This means that is questions the evolutionary relevant processing is the deepest level of processing.

Richardson-Klavehn & Gardiner (1998) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They had participants study two lists of words one was phonemic and one was semantic. Then gave them a word stem completion task and measured number completed. The incidental group was told to comply word stem with what comes to mind and the intentional group was told to complete word stem from words on the list. The intentional group had the most words remembered. Means that depth of processing doesnt always matter. - more important for intentional memory tasks.

Principe, Kanaya, Ceci, & Singh (2006) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They held a study asking preschoolers if the rabbit who had gotten loose in their school was found eating lettuce or carrots. Only one group had actually seen the rabbit run loose in their classroom. The rest only heard rumors or heard nothing it all. They found that when they had actually seen the rabbit did correctly report it but for those who didnt they still reported it.

How should an eyewitness be treated? What should an interview involve?

They should be treated like a witness an important piece of evidence. It should involve open ended questions and mneomic instructions. They should not be highly suggestive, increases info gained, decreases erroneous info.

Usher & Neisser (1993) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They used the target event recall method. They completed questionnaires about memories from childhood. Found more reported memories for sibling births and hospitalization. SO when it comes to infantile amnesia the type of event matters.

Nairne, Thompson, & Pandeirada (2007) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They wanted to see if there was an evolutionary perspective as to why we remember good things and not bad things. So they gave them a list of words and had them rate them 1-5 on pleasentness. and then had them write down the words they remembered. They then gave them a survival test. Most people reported the words of survial as most pleasent. This means that we have distinctive processing which makes some information stand out. Elaboration even at deep level of processing more elaboration is better. This is very contrieversal.

Craik & Tulving (1975) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They wanted to test level of processing so they ask different questions at each level. The questions were about words that were shown one at a time. They were then given a surprise memory test for the list of words. They found that people did increasing well with each level. so in other words they started low and got higher (the highest question was about meaning) This concludes that it matters what you do during encoding.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) conducted important research. What did they do, what did they find, what does it mean?

They wanted to test the encoding specificity principle. So they had students study in a context then take test in a different class and then they had them study and test in same condition. They found that students did better when the context is the same. This means that encoding context can matter.

What is the levels-of-processing approach to long-term memory? What does it suggest, how is it limited, what are explanations for it?

You process memories in different levels. 1. Perception 2. appearance 3. sound 4. category 5. meaning. This suggests that it matters what you do during encoding. You need to think deeply for this because you need deep encoding.

What is the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model of semantic memory?

approach proposes that cognitive processes can be represented by a model in which activation flows through networks that link together a large number of simple neuron like units.

What is the implicit association test (IAT)? (chapter 8)

based on the principle that people can mentally pair two related words together much more easily than they can pair two unrelated words.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

basically states that if the encoding context matches the retrieval context then memory will be better.

What is procedural memory?

knowledge about how to do something.. abilities to preform well-learned skills are not verbal.

What is storage?

maintaining representations in memory consolidation can be affected by sleep

What is episodic memory?

memory that contains personal information not readily available to others; like time places emotions and birthdays

What is the positivity effect? What does research on this effect suggest?

people tend to rate unpleasant past events more positively with the passage of time. Study with depressed and undepressed kids.

What is retrieval?

recalling representations from memory can be affected by encoding and storage and can also be affected by available cues and use of strategies

What are they types of interference?

retroactive- later information inferences with ability to retain infro encountered earlier (remember earlier stuff) Proactive - previous info interferes with learning info later on.(have to learn new info first learned automaticlly now have to learn to stick)

What is the Pollyanna principle?

states that pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items. Holds true for a variety of phenomena.

What is graceful degradation? (chapter 8)

the brains ability to provide partial memory. Example : you may know the targets first letter and the general sound of the word even though the word itself refuses to leap into memory.

What is encoding?

translating external infro into mental representations