memory and cognition
Conceptual knowledge is impressive and likely contains
All of the answer options are correct.
What does Paivio's Dual Coding theory predict about people's memory performance?
Words that are easy to image (e.g., dinosaur) should be better remembered than words that are more difficult to image (e.g., oxygen).
Researchers' conceptualization of memory has been revised in recent years, but a few key components remain from the earlier "modal model." Which of the following is NO LONGER an accepted aspect of memory?
Working memory holds on to its contents independent of the current focus of the person's thoughts.
Which of the following is an example of external cognition?
Writing due dates of tests and reminders to study on a calendar
Choose all of the characteristics of explicit (declarative) memory:
Can be communicated flexibly, Includes memories of personal experiences, Includes memory of facts, Can be verbalized
Wason developed the four-card selection task as a method to test people's ability to deductively reason. You are shown a set of four cards on a table, each of which has a number on one side and a colored patch on the other side. If a card shows an even number on one side, then it must have a red patch on the other. Which card(s) do you have to turn in order to determine whether or not the rule is true for this set of cards? Here are four cards:
Card 2 and Card 4
It has been suggested that mental categories have a family-resemblance structure, and usually don't have definitions. What is the basis for this claim?
Categorization is usually a matter of degree, not an all-or-none process.
Which of the following is the most plausible way to improve performance on the Wason four-card task?
Change the context of the problem so that the participant imagines he or she is a cop searching a bar for underage drinkers.
Which of the following theories claims that concepts are defined by necessary and jointly sufficient features?
Classical View
The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of knowledge is
Cognitive Psychology
In the multi-store model________ are flexible strategies that people use to deal with tasks, like rote rehearsal and elaboration.
Control processes
What causes proactive and retroactive interference?
Cue overload
We cannot prevent memory errors, but can they be detected?
Currently there is no reliable way to detect memory errors.
Tversky and Kahneman (1981) asked participants to imagine that the US is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Participants chose between two alternative programs to combat the disease: Treatment A and Treatment B. In the positive frame, most participants chose Treatment A, which "saves 200 lives" instead of Treatment B, which was "a 33% chance of saving all 600 people, and a 66% possibility of saving no one." This preference demonstrates what aspect of irrational decision making?
Decision makers tend to be risk averse; they prefer to hold on to what they already have
Deep processing may lead to improved memory performance because it facilitates retrieval. How exactly does this happen?
Deep processing forms many connections between the current item and previous knowledge.
In imagery research, some critics (Pylyshyn, a proponent of the Propositional View, in particular) argued that that results from mental rotation studies that show longer response times for larger angles of rotation are caused by people's interpretation of what they thought the researcher wanted them to do, or the ____________ of experiments.
Demand characteristics
Scientists have observed that children with larger shoe sizes have better handwriting than children with smaller shoe sizes. Therefore, big feet improve fine motor control necessary for handwriting. Which fallacy has been committed?
Denying the consequent
In distributed memory systems, a mental state is a pattern of activation over multiple units (neurons). What are the advantages of distributed memory systems?
Distributed memory systems are robust to damage; memory shows graceful degradation when individual neurons or synapses are damaged.
Which statement best reflects the bulk of research comparing the effects of distributed versus massed practice on memory?
Distributed practice is better than massed practice, no matter what types of materials are being studied.
Imagine you are shown the word "dog" and asked one of the following questions about that word. Which of these questions is going to lead to the best memory performance?
Does it fit into the following sentence: "The speeding car swung around the corner, music blaring, and screeched to a halt before seeing the ________"?
Doctors suspect that Paolo has a tumor in his brain, and they hope to learn the exact position of the tumor. For this purpose, they are likely to rely on
MRI
According the Quasi-Picture View, imagery and perception are similar processes because images and percepts are functionally analogous. Which of following statements support this idea? Select all
Mental images share the same characteristics (color, size, shapes) as percepts, Mental images can be rotated, scanned, and zoomed into, like percepts
Select ALL the correct answers. What are the advantages of distributed memory systems?
Networks allow generalization to novel, similar stimuli, Networks show robustness to damage
Which of the following is the best example of an ad hoc (impromptu or improvised) category (as proposed by Barsalou, 1989)?
Objects you need to pack for an upcoming camping trip
Which of the following claims about memory accuracy is FALSE?
Participants are sometimes mistaken in their recollection of an event's minor details, but do not create an entirely new false memory.
What is an example of behavioral evidence that supports the existence of hierarchical organization of chunks?
People's speech patterns during recall are normal within a chunk, but slower between chunks
Which of these is a function of imagery? (select all that are true)
Perceptual memory, such as for color and sounds Correct! Mental practice, such as in sports or music Correct! Improving memory, through dual coding
Peter has a higher working-memory capacity than Josh. Given previous correlational evidence, who would you expect performs better on standardized tests, such as intelligence tests?
Peter
Which of the following statements provides the most serious obstacle to the use of introspection as a source of scientific evidence?
When facts are provided by introspection, we have no way to assess the facts themselves, independent of the reporter's perspective.
A behaviorist, like John Watson, is LEAST likely to believe which of the following statements?
When it comes to collecting data, introspection is as valuable as behavior.
Wang, Thomas, and Ouellette (1992) compared the effectiveness of the keyword method versus rote rehearsal on people's memories for words immediately after learning or after one week. Which of the following describe the findings of their study? (select all)
When tested immediately after learning a list, recall was better using the keyword method than rote rehearsal., When tested a week after learning a list, recall was the same for keyword method and rote rehearsal groups.
The seminal work of ________ was instrumental in the development of experimental psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt
Which part of the brain is typically affected first in patients with Alzheimer's Disease?
hippocampus
Patients suffering from clinical amnesia are characterized by
memory dysfunction
Knowledge of how one's memory functions (including how to optimize learning and memory) is known as:
metamemory
Controlled or willed processes:
modify behaviors and attention when habits are inappropriate
Consider the following argument, "If the city gets 10 inches of snow, school will be cancelled. The city got 10 inches of snowfall." A person validly concludes that school is cancelled. This is an illustration of:
modus ponens (affirming the antecedent).
In a new version of the Wason four-card task, participants are given the rule: "If you read the textbook, then you will get an A on the exam." Each card has a YES or NO on one side, indicating whether or not the student has read the textbook, and an exam grade on the other side. Compared with the original version of the task with just numbers and letters, participants should make
more accurate decisions about which cards to flip over in the new version, likely because the new content makes the problem more concrete and relatable to everyday life.
Bradley suffers from the pattern termed "visual neglect." He is asked to imagine that he is looking at the front of his home and to describe everything he can see. His response will be
more detailed for the right side of the scene.
Words that easily evoke imagery, like "ball," are ________ relative to words like "hope."
more easily remembered
The term "basic-level category" refers to the
most natural level of categorization, which is neither too specific nor too general.
________ techniques allow us to scrutinize the precise structure and moment-by-moment pattern of activation in the brain.
neuroimaging
Expected value theory is a _______ theory; it prescribes what people should do, not what they actually do.
normative
Amnesia can provide insight into the role of memory in our everyday lives. For example, if H.M. was having a conversation with a friend and noticed the friend looking off in the distance and smiling, he was most likely to
not know why his friend was smiling.
In image-scanning procedures, evidence suggests that demand characteristics are
not the likely the cause of why participants show the pattern of longer response times.
Memory schemas, or schemata, serve as representations of our ________ knowledge.
semantic, or generic
During encoding of new verbal information, the anterior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is activated for tasks that involve ______________ processing, while the posterior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is activated for ______________ processing
semantic; phonological
Which of these is LEAST important for encoding and acquisition?
shallow processing
The frontal lobe has many functions. Which of the following is LEAST strongly associated with the frontal lobe?
shape processing
According to exemplar-based theories of mental categories, participants identify an object by comparing it to a
single remembered instance of the category.
You should be skeptical if someone says they have "recovered" a memory that was once repressed because
some "recovered" memories turn out to be false memories.
Dr. Doofenshmirtz researches the cognitive abilities of the platypus. He knows that the platypus is an intelligent, semi-aquatic mammal that lays eggs and is found in Australia, but he has forgotten specifically where and how he learned these facts. This is because he is experiencing:
source amnesia
The misinformation effect can usually be understood as an example of
source confusion.
In memorizing new material, the pattern of "dual coding" refers to
steps that lead to both a verbal memory and a visual memory.
_____ is the operation of holding or retaining information.
storage
An experimenter discovers that the time for people to detect a string of letters on a computer screen is 400 milliseconds, and that the time to push one of two buttons as to whether that string of letters is a legitimate word (e.g., travel) versus a nonword (e.g., terhil) is 575 milliseconds. Which technique would be most useful in figuring out the time for word recognition, independent of letter-string detection?
subtractive method
Which of the following is an example of a question that leads to deep processing?
What is the meaning of the word "tantalizing"?
An inductive judgment is one in which a person
tries to make predictions about upcoming events on the basis of evidence already available.
Concepts defined by conjunctive rules are easier to learn than concepts defined by disjunctive rules.
true
Feeling-of-knowing judgments are reasonably accurate predictors of later memory performance.
true
In a free recall task, subjects' better memory of the first items in a list of words is called the primacy effect.
true
Interference (not passive decay) is the primary cause of information loss in memory.
true
The memory advantage of high meaningfulness words is because they have a richer network of associations that can serve as mediators to retrieve the to-be-recalled item.
true
A CT or computerized axial tomography scan
uses X-rays to study the living brain's anatomy.
Studies of moment-by-moment brain activity indicate that
when participants are visualizing, activity levels are high in many of the brain regions crucial for visual perception.
The fMRI evidence suggests that the brain areas that are activated when someone is thinking about inanimate objects will
be different from the active areas for animate objects.
What sort of processing is driven primarily by factors in the environment or in the stimulus?
bottom up
Which of the following statements about priming is true?
Priming occurs without intention or awareness
Behaviorists study organisms'
responses
The development of computers facilitated research in cognition by
suggesting hypotheses that framed the steps of cognition as stages of information processing.
Although mnemonics can be helpful for remembering a small number of specific items (like a grocery list), it does have some drawbacks. One such problem is that
using a mnemonic involves a trade-off with less attention spent looking for memory connections that can help you understand the material.
Evidence from fMRI studies indicates that people show similar patterns of activity in the brain when viewing objects as they do when ________ the objects.
visualizing
Flashbulb memories are extremely detailed, vivid memories usually associated with highly emotional events. The accuracy of these memories seems
vulnerable to error, especially if the memory is discussed frequently.
Which of the following statements is LEAST likely to apply to patient H.M.?
"He remembered that it was only a week ago that he'd heard the sad news that his uncle had died."
Which of the following observations is most likely an illustration of context-dependent learning?
"Last month I went to my 20th high school reunion. I saw people I hadn't thought about for years, but the moment I saw them, I was reminded of the things we'd done together 20 years earlier."
The claim that mental categories have graded membership is most compatible with which of the following claims?
"Some dogs are 'doggier' than others."
Which of the following statements is an example of a recognition test?
"Which one of these individuals is the person you saw at the party?"
In Trial 18 of a sentence verification task, participants see the sentence "A robin is a bird." In Trial 42 they see "A penguin is a bird." According to prototype theory, we should expect faster responses to
"robin" because participants more readily see the resemblance between "robin" and the bird prototype.
The duration of iconic memory is approximately:
0.3-1.0 seconds
The Galton-Crovitz curve shows the distribution of autobiographical memories across the lifespan. The greatest numbers of recollections are for events that occurred during the reminiscence bump. How old are people (approximately) when they encode these events?
16-25 years old (adolescence/young adulthood)
The duration of echoic memory is approximately:
2-4 seconds
At recall, how is a memory retrieved from a distributed memory system?
A familiar stimulus partially reinstates of a pattern of activation over a group of neurons
Hermann Ebbinghaus repeats a list of nonsense syllables 10 times before he has memorized it perfectly. After an hour, he needs to repeat the same list 6 times to relearn the same list. As he learns the list, he avoids adding meaning to the nonsense syllables. He used a __________ approach to learning the list, and had a savings of _________.
Bottom-up; 40%
Which of these is NOT true for an information-processing view of memory?
All the steps of the model run in parallel
Sue and Jane are talking about Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, a former professional wrestler and current actor. Sue would like The Rock to run for president in 2024, because she believes he is likeable and a gifted communicator. Jane calls Sue an idiot if she thinks someone who was a professional wrestler could be a good president. Which fallacy has Jane committed?
Argumentum ad hominem
What technique did Ceci and colleagues use to convince children that traumatic events had happened to them, such as getting their finger stuck in a mousetrap?
Asking them about the supposed event once a week for 10 weeks
Why did the Working Memory Model replace the Multi-store model?
B and C
Basic-level categories have which of the following traits?
Basic-level categories are usually represented in the language by a single word.
What brain pathologies lead to the symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease? (select all)
Beta-amyloid plaques, Neurofibrillary tangles
Hermann Ebbinghaus repeats a list of nonsense syllables 10 times before he has memorized it perfectly. After an hour, he needs to repeat the same list 8 times to relearn the same list. As he learns the list, he avoids adding meaning to the nonsense syllables. He used a __________ approach to learning the list, and had a savings of _________.
Bottom-up; 20%
Which part of the brain is associated with higher-order executive functions (like manipulating stored information) and appears to correspond functionally to the Central Executive in the Working Memory model?
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)
During the controlled search of episodic memory, which part of the brain is activated?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Jenny watches a documentary about the side effects some children suffer after immunization shots. She decides not to vaccinate her daughter against polio (thereby increasing the chance that her daughter will contract polio during her lifetime, and then suffer paralysis). Jenny's decision is an illustration of:
Dread risk
People who eat more tomatoes are less likely to get cancer in comparison to people who don't eat tomatoes. Which of the following accurately restates this pattern?
Eating tomatoes covaries negatively with cancer risk.
What cognitive changes characterize mild Alzheimer's Disease?
Episodic memory disruptions
Which of the following statements regarding explicit memory is FALSE?
Explicit memory is typically revealed as a priming effect.
Which of the following theories emphasizes that categories are based on similarity of category instances to each other, rather than some rule or principle?
Family Resemblance Theory
What is a virtue of deductive reasoning?
For valid deductive reasoning problems, conclusions are guaranteed to be truth preserving; the conclusion must logically follow from the premises.
Which of the following groups is most likely to remember the material it is studying?
Group 4 has no intention of memorizing the words and attempts to determine how the words are related to one another.
We studied the famous case study of H.M., a patient who had severe epilepsy. H.M. underwent surgery that involved removing the hippocampus and a portion of the temporal lobes of both hemispheres in his brain. After the surgery, his epilepsy was cured but his memory was impaired. Which of the following best describes the effect that surgery had on H.M.'s memory?
H.M. developed an inabilito form new declarative memories.
The Word Frequency effect in memory is the finding that _______________ words are typically better RECALLED, whereas ________________ words are typically better RECOGNIZED.
HIGH frequency; LOW frequency
According to Barry Schwartz's ideas in The Paradox of Choice, which of the following statements are true?
Having more choices and options available to us does not make us happier; people tend to be less satisfied with their decision when they have more options
Marigold Linton tested her autobiographical memory for two memorable events per day for six years. Which of the following statements best characterizes her findings?
Her autobiographical memory for events became more schematic. Similar events were confused with each other, and the gist of the information was retained more than individual details.
Select ALL the correct answers. The phrase "cells that fire together, wire together" describes:
How associative learning occurs,Long-term potentiation, Hebbian Learning
Finke, Pinker, and Farah (1989) asked research participants to imagine a letter K, imagine a square next to the K on the left side, put a circle inside the square, and then rotate the whole figure 90 degrees to the left. Afterward, most participants reported "seeing" a TV with antennae. Which claim of the Analog (Quasi-Picture) view did this result support?
Images can be manipulated and reinterpreted, just like pictures.
Which type of imagery activity is associated with activity in the auditory cortex?
Imagining the marching band (TBDBITL) playing Carmen Ohio
Which of the following statements is FALSE?
In models of working memory, the central executive is only a small player compared to the other components of the working memory system.
If a person suffers a stroke, and consequently is diagnosed with anterograde amnesia, what is most likely to be her symptoms?
Inability to learn new information, including the names of contemporary movie stars or politicians
What is the self-reference effect?
Information bearing on the self is processed more deeply and remembered better
Ebbinghaus posited that over time, memory for information that we have learned decays. What does this mean?
Information that is unused will fade in intensity, becoming harder to retrieve over time.
What is the primary cause of forgetting?
Interference
Henry Bahrick and his family members (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993) learned vocabulary from foreign languages. They learned some of the words in 13 sessions, and others over 26 sessions. The interval between training sessions was 14, 28, or 56 days between sessions. Which variable led to best recall performance over five years later (the longest retention interval)?
Interval between the study sessions (e.g. the spacing effect)
Which of the following benefits does a hierarchical network provide?
It allows the option for information to be stored at higher levels, reducing redundancy in information storage.
Which of the following statements is NOT true of executive control?
It is needed for habitual responding but not for goal-directed behaviors.
What are the necessary circumstances to produce false memories in research participants?
It would require a few brief interviews.
What is knowledge, according to the traditional analysis of knowledge?
Knowledge is belief supported by objective evidence
Which of the following is most likely to lead to an echoic representation in the sensory store?
Listening to part of a song's melody
Alyssa wants to be a psychologist but is unsure which topic within psychology most interests her. Which of the following topics would be LEAST likely to lead her into cognitive psychology?
Lyme disease
Mark moves into an apartment with some friends who have lived in the apartment for several months. Soon after Mark moves in, the microwave oven stops working. Mark's roommates accuse him of breaking it. They tell Mark that the microwave worked fine until he moved in. Which fallacy have they made?
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
An experienced driver can drive while holding a relatively complex conversation. This combination of activities is difficult, however, for a novice driver. Which of the following explanations most likely explains the difference?
Practicing a task leads to a decline in the resource demands for that task.
Lisa is an American and travels to Switzerland. She needs to learn to use a new currency, the Swiss Franc. She wants to buy a pretzel at the train station, but she can't remember how much each coin is worth. Her familiarity with US currency makes it hard for her to learn the new values of coins and bills in Swiss Francs. What kind of forgetting is Lisa suffering from?
Proactive Interference
Which of the following is an example of a semantic memory?
Recalling that Thomas Paine was the author of the revolutionary war era pamphlet Common Sense
Bartlett asked participants to read unusual and unfamiliar folk tales and then write down the story from memory after a retention period. Bartlett's research showed that participants' recollections differed from the original folk tales in predictable patterns. Which of the following memory errors that Bartlett observed are consistent with top-down processing?
Recollections included incorrect elaborations that were not in the original story
What are positive functions of forgetting?
Reduce interference
Zanini (2008) asked patients with frontal lobe damage to describe what typically happens when one goes to see a movie at a cinema. In what aspect of script memory were these patients most deficient?
Remembering the correct sequence of events/actions of scripts
False memories for events that never happened can be created in adults and children. What condition(s) make false memories more likely to occur? [Mark all]
Repeated, leading, or suggestive questioning about the event Correct! The person must misattribute the event to personal experience than an image they created (source amnesia) Correct! The person must accept the suggested event as plausible
_____" is the process by which stored information is extracted from memory. [Check your spelling! Don't get burned by a typo!]
Retrieval
Glenberg, Smith, and Green (1977) conducted a study examining incidental memory for words after rote repetition. In the study, participants repeated words 3 to 27 times during a retention interval, while trying to remember a 4-digit number. Which statement about memory after incidental rote rehearsal is true?
Rote repetition helps people recognize stimuli to which they have been exposed, but it does not help them recall those stimuli.
Which of the following claims regarding schema-based knowledge is FALSE?
Schema-based knowledge relies on recall of specific information within a memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin's multi-store (or modal) model (MSM) was a classic example of an information processing model of memory. What are the three forms of memory in the MSM?
Sensory store, short-term store, long-term store
Which of the following learning tasks was the famous amnesic patient H.M. NOT able to perform as well as normal controls (e.g. healthy people)?
Serial recall task of a list of words
Neisser (1976) criticized laboratory studies of memory forlacking ecologically validity. How does typical laboratory research on memory lack ecological validity?Mark all that are correct.
Subject attrition makes longitudinal research to test memory over the lifespan difficult Testing occurs over a relatively short period of time, compared to the duration of many memories Stimuli, like CVC nonsense syllables, are not relevant to subjects Too many confounding variables are controlled in lab research
According to the Classical View of concept formation, what would be the easiest concept to learn?
Superheroes wear a cape AND are strong
Where in the nervous system might iconic memory occur?
Superior Temporal Sulcus
A LOAFER is a kind of SHOE, which is a kind of CLOTHING. CLOTHING is an example of which category level?
Superordinate
Which of the following statements seems to be the best illustration of encoding specificity?
Susan has learned the principles covered in her psychology class, but she has difficulty remembering the principles in the context of her day-to-day life.
Consider the following argument: All birds have hollow bones. An emu is a bird. Therefore an emu has hollow bones. This is an example of what type of reasoning problem?
Syllogistic reasoning
Damage to which lobe is most likely to cause impairments in identifying and/or retrieving information about living AND non living objects?
Temporal
Which of the following statements about the Short Term Store (STS) and memory span is true?
The STS has a limited capacity; adult memory spans are typically estimated to be 7±2 digits or 4±1 chunks.
Which of the following is/are consistent with the Distributionist viewpoint about where memories are located in the brain?
The amount (and not location) of brain tissue damage influenced rats' ability to remember a maze
Which of the following statements is true about the role the hippocampus plays in memory?
The hippocampus plays an important role in establishing new memories.
According to the data presented in the textbook, how does the intention to memorize influence how well we learn?
The intention to memorize on its own adds nothing to our ability to learn.
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that memory for information was dependent on the type of processing that the information received, and that information is processed through a series of stages. Which of the following is the deepest level of encoding?
The meaning of the stimulus
Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed subjects a video of an accident between two cars. Some subjects were asked "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other" whereas other subjects were asked "How fast the cars going when the contacted each other?" What did Loftus and Palmer learn?
The phrasing of the question changed people's memory of the video. Estimated speeds were faster for "smashed" than for "contacted".
A physician has just read an article about a recently developed drug. Which of the following is LEAST important in determining whether the physician will remember the article later?
The physician expected to need the information later and therefore employed a maintenance memorization strategy that had helped her memorize material in the past.
DeGroot (1965) and Chase and Simon (1973) studied expert and novice chess players. They found that chess masters have better memory of the visual placement of chess pieces than novices when:
The placement of pieces reflected actual chess-masters' level games.
After a witness identifies a suspect, what is the effect of receiving feedback (e.g., "that's correct")?
The witness becomes more confident in his or her answer.
To prevent false identifications of innocent people as criminals, changes to lineup procedures in criminal investigations have been suggested. What suggestion(s) would protect eyewitness memories?
The witness should be told and frequently reminded that the perpetrator may not be in the lineup
Which of the following statements about the relationship between eyewitness accuracy and confidence is true?
There are circumstances in which confidence and accuracy are highly correlated.
In a Spreading Activation Model of Semantic Memory, why would "An apple is a FRUIT," be verified faster than "A papaya is a FRUIT?"
There is a stronger association between APPLE and FRUIT than between PAPAYA and FRUIT.
Matt is shown pictures of two three-dimensional shapes and asked to determine if the shapes are identical, but simply viewed from different angles. Answering this question requires Matt to imagine one of the shapes rotating into (possible) alignment with the other. Which of the following statements about Matt's task is true?
There is a systematic correlation between the required rotation and reaction time.
Shepard and Metzler (1971) conducted studies in which participants were presented pairs of visual stimuli. They had to mentally rotate the shapes to report whether the shapes were the same or different. Why was this an influential study? (Select all)
They objectively studied a mental event-- mental imagery, They learned that the larger the angle of rotation, the longer the response time, They observed that images have transformational equivalence to percepts
It would seem sensible to use ________ when making judgments that are not particularly important and ________ for more crucial decisions, but evidence on the dual-process system suggests this is NOT the case.
Type 1 thinking; Type 2 thinking
Which of the following is correct regarding dual-process models?
Type 2 thinking is more likely to be used if people are given training or cued by the situation.
Sam remembers that he was sitting in history class during the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, and that his history teacher told him the news. This is an example of:
a flashbulb memory.
In general, any technique designed to improve memory is referred to as
a mnemonic strategy.
The claim that a memory can be "repressed" refers to
a painful memory that is stored but cannot be consciously recalled.
H.M. had much of his hippocampus removed to alleviate seizures. An unfortunate side effect was impaired explicit memory, even though later testing revealed that his implicit memory was spared. This result provides one half of a double dissociation. In order to complete the double dissociation, which of the following patients would need to be found?
a patient with intact explicit memory and impaired implicit memory
Ravi is shown a picture with many different breeds of dogs and is asked to discover the rule connecting all of the items in the picture. He believes the rule connecting all of the items is "must be a living thing," but before he announces his guess, he is allowed to propose a new addition to the picture. If Ravi is searching for disconfirming evidence, which of the following items will he propose?
a rock
Olivia has sustained damage to the prefrontal area. As a result, she is most likely to have
a variety of problems, including problems planning and implementing strategies.
A base rate is defined as information
about the broad likelihood of a particular type of event.
Of the following, our "self-schema" is LEAST likely to include
accurate memories about poor grades.
Which of the following is most likely to occur during the recall of everyday, moderately emotional events?
accurate recall of the most central aspects of the event, but relatively poor recall of the event's background details
By using leading questions and misinformation, researchers have been able to
alter virtually any aspect of participants' memories and have even been able to create memories for entire events that never took place.
H.M. had part of his hippocampus removed. The resulting disruption primarily involved
anterograde amnesia.
When we say, "There is a family resemblance among all the members of the Martinez family," we mean that
any pair of family members will have traits in common, even though there may be no single trait shared by all of the family members.
Early estimates of working-memory capacity relied on the digit-span task. The data indicate working-memory capacity to be ________ items.
around 7
Concepts that are composed of objects that are human-made, e.g., TOOLS, are known as _____________ concepts.
artifactual
In a peg-word system, participants help themselves memorize a group of items by
associating each item with some part of an already memorized framework, or skeleton.
Collins and Quillian proposed that conceptual knowledge is represented in the mind through a hierarchy of concepts. In their model, the property "eats food" would be stored
at a high level, linked to the node within the network that represents all things that eat.
The memory that contains the full recollection of our lives is referred to as ________ memory.
autobiographical
Noam Chomsky criticized ________ and noted that it failed to explain ________.
behaviorism; language development
____________ are tendencies to think a certain way that can lead to systematic deviations from rationality
biases
In the process of memory consolidation, memories are
biologically "cemented into place."
If asked to name as many birds as they can, participants are most likely to name
birds resembling the prototype (e.g., robin, sparrow).
The misinformation effect refers to the fact that false information, presented after a participant has encoded an event, can alter the participant's subsequent recall of the event. This "planting" of memories
can produce memories that are entirely false but nonetheless recalled with confidence.
When thinking of a list of digits in terms of racing times, one person is found to report up to 79 digits. Evidence suggests that this person
can remember this information due to a unique chunking strategy.
A participant who is asked to recall a series of numbers chooses to think about the numbers as though they were years (e.g., 2, 0, 1, 6 becomes "The year I turned 16"). The participant is organizing information into the memory unit known as a(n)
chunk
Modern psychology turned away from behaviorism in its classic form for many reasons, including the fact that
classical behaviorism failed to consider the mental processes underlying cognition.
Contemporary cognitive psychologists are MOST interested in examining the relationship between ________ and ________.
cognitive processes; behavior
The Information Processing approach within cognitive psychology uses the metaphor of the mind as a(n) computer , whereas the Parallel Distributed Processing approach is based on a metaphor of a telephone switchboard ?
computer, the nervous system
People tend to be more alert and responsive to evidence that supports their preexisting notions and beliefs than to evidence that challenges them. This effect is called
confirmation bias.
Kahneman and Tversky (1983) presented participants with a description of a fictional person named Linda. "Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken and very bright. She majored in Philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Is it more likely that Linda is a bank teller, or is it more likely that Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement?" Approximately 85% of participants thought that it was more likely that Linda is bank teller and a feminist. This response illustrates what kind of irrational thinking?
conjunction fallacy
Which of the following refers to the hypothesis that memories fade or erode with the passage of time?
decay
Lexical decision tasks require participants to
decide whether a letter string is a word or a nonword.
Which of the following methods seems LEAST likely to be evidence of an implicit memory?
declaring that George Washington was the first president of the United States
Data indicate that, all things being equal, recall performance will be best if materials are encoded with ________ processing.
deep
Bobby wants to be a "good participant" in an experiment, so he tries to perform in a way that will impress the experimenter. Bobby is sensitive to the experiment's
demand character
In some cases, participants (often unknowingly) change their responses to what they think the experimenter is looking for. Here participants are said to be sensitive to the ________ of the experiment.
demand character
What evidence supports Edward Tolman's belief that it is possible for rats to acquire new knowledge?
development of a cognitive map
Participants in Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser's (1978) study memorized a map with multiple landmarks, and then mentally scanned from one landmark to another. Scan times were a function of:
distance between the two landmarks.
Knowledge of some sorts is likely to be represented by a broad pattern of activation spread across a network. This reflects
distributed representation.
What part(s) of the brain become(s) active when you intentionally try to forget something? (Mark all)
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, hippocampus
A researcher asks a participant to memorize a city map. On the map, the library and the school are 2 inches apart; the school and the hospital are 4 inches apart. The researcher now instructs the participant to form an image of the map and to scan from the library to the school. The researcher then asks the participant to scan from the school to the hospital. It is most likely true that the scanning time from the school to the hospital is ________ the scanning time between the library and the school.
double
According to the dual-coding framework proposed by Paivio, a word like "chair" is ________ than a word like "faith."
easier to memorize
Someone versed in memory research could plant false memories in his or her friends or family. Imagine that you want to perform such an (unethical) act. Which technique is LEAST likely to be effective in planting the false memories?
electric shock treatment
In list-learning experiments, participants' performance in the pre-recency portion of the curve will be improved by
employing more common, familiar words.
Participants are asked to memorize a list of words. In addition to the words themselves, participants will remember some aspects of the context in which the words appeared. This tendency to remember a stimulus within its context is referred to as
encoding specificity.
The _______ part of working memory brings together phonological, visual, spatial, and other information to create a single, integrated memory trace.
episodic buffer
Which of the following is a type of declarative memory?
episodic memory
The creation of false memories in someone is possible
even for the creation of large-scale, entirely false events.
Mark suffered a blow to the head many weeks ago, causing retrograde amnesia. Which of the following is Mark LEAST likely to remember?
events that took place just prior to his injury
Behaviorism's idea of Stimulus-Response (S-R) chains provided an accurate theoretical framework to explain complex cognitive processes (like problem solving or learning your native language).
false
Crime victims' testimony tends to be accurate because their autobiographical memories of traumatic events are flashbulb memories.
false
The more concrete and specific the goals or plans that must be maintained in working memory, the more anterior the localization of their function within the frontal lobes.
false
When compared to the statement "A canary is an animal," the reaction time for "A bird is an animal" will be
faster
On Wednesday, the local weather channel forecast a 25% chance of rain, so Lisa took her umbrella to work. On Friday, the same station reported a 75% chance of no rain, so Lisa left her umbrella at home. The difference in Lisa's behavior between Wednesday and Friday illustrates the effect of
framing
Herbert says, "I can't figure out where I've seen that person before, but I know that I have seen her before!" Herbert
has a sense of familiarity but no source memory.
Matt is an avid video game player and he reads about new game systems for fun. He and his friend are in a store looking at new systems. Matt gives his friend a complete breakdown of the pros and cons of each of the different video game systems on display. According to Levels of Processing theory, Matt is able to accurately remember all this information because he _____.
has deeply processed this information
As a general rule, the intention to learn
has no direct effect on learning.
Current evidence indicates that patients suffering from Korsakoff's amnesia
have preserved implicit memory despite severe disruption in explicit memory.
Dual-process models state that people
have two ways of thinking: one is a fast and automatic process, whereas the other is slower but more accurate.
A Gestalt psychologist is likely to focus on which of the following?
how elements of an experience interact to form new wholes
In several studies, participants have been asked to estimate the frequency of occurrence for various causes of death. The evidence suggests that participants' frequency estimates are strongly influenced by
how often the cause of death is discussed in the news media.
Which of the following does NOT name a hypothesis concerning why we forget?
hyperthymesia
In cognition, as in other sciences, we develop claims that can be tested. These claims are generally referred to as
hypotheses
A researcher hypothesizes that high doses of caffeine can produce context-dependent learning. To confirm this hypothesis, the researcher would need to show that
if participants study the material while drinking a great deal of coffee, they will remember the material better if they drink a great deal of coffee while taking the memory test.
After participants have witnessed an event, being asked misleading questions can influence their
immediate reports of the event as well as their recall of the event if they try to remember it sometime later.
"Context reinstatement" refers to
improved memory if we mentally re-create the context that was in place during learning.
Training in statistics
improves participants' abilities to make judgments so that judgment errors will be less likely.
Collins and Quillian (1969) suggest that information about mental categories is organized
in a hierarchy.
Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) presented people with a list of words composed of several categories (e.g., minerals, fruits, body parts, names of rivers), but the words were presented in random order. How did people spontaneously recall the words?
in category clusters
Intrusion errors in memory are errors
in which other knowledge intrudes into the remembered event.
Week after week, Solomon watched his favorite TV show. He never planned to memorize the characters' names, and he never took any steps to memorize them. Nonetheless, he soon knew them all. This sort of learning is called
incidental
Illusory covariations can be documented in
individuals who have years of training in the domain being judged.
Solomon remembers how Jacob acted last weekend and the weekend before that. On the basis of this, Solomon is trying to figure out whether there is a pattern to Jacob's actions. Solomon is working on a problem of
induction
A participant is asked to look within himself or herself and report on his or her own mental processes. This method is called
introspection
Genie wonders why she can never remember the names of new acquaintances. In search of an answer, she examines and reflects on her feelings about meeting new people. Genie is engaged in which process?
introspection
Castel, McCabe, Roediger, and Heitman (2007) asked American football fans to memorize a list of animal names which happened to correspond to the names of professional football teams (e.g., lions, bears, broncos). Many football fans incorrectly remembered names of animals that corresponded to teams, but had not appeared on the list (e.g., eagles, panthers). What type of memory error did the participants experience?
intrusion
Some researchers have suggested that highly painful memories can be repressed. This theory
is controversial and doubted by many researchers.
According to family resemblance/prototype theory, the mental representation for each concept
is likely to represent a 'center of mass' or ideal for the category's members.
Reading your notes, or the textbook, over and over again is NOT recommended as a study strategy because
it is a passive form of learning.
The term "top-down processing" is sometimes legitimately replaced with the term "________ processing."
knowledge driven
Will has been to the zoo many times, usually with his family but also once on a school field trip. When Will tries to remember the field trip, his recollection is
likely to include elements imported from memories of other zoo trips.
After Maria witnessed a hit-and-run car accident, a police officer asked her, "Did you get a good look at the driver's glasses as he drove by you?" Based on the results of many studies, we expect that if Maria is asked about the driver again a day later, she will be
likely to recall that the driver was wearing glasses even if he was not.
Ira is asked to remember the order of a previously presented list of words; the experimenter asks him to recall the words immediately after hearing them. Devon is asked to remember the same list, but his recall is delayed by 20 seconds after the list presentation; during that time, Devon is given no other task to form. We would expect
little or no difference between Devon's performance and Ira's.
"Bottom-up" (or "data-driven") mechanisms are
mechanisms for which activity is primarily triggered and shaped by the incoming stimulus information.
Damage to brain areas needed for vision
often has disruptive effects for visualizing similar to the disruption observed for visual perception.
In experimental studies of incidental encoding, participants do not expect a memory test, and are instructed to process material in various ways (ex. Does this word rhyme with WEIGHT?). When experimenters want to control the encoding operations in a specific way to study incidental learning, they use a(n):
orienting task
Categorization models based on family resemblance rely on
overlap in the features of the various members of a category.
How does information get into the Permastore? (Mark all)
overlearning, distributed practice
When participants are asked to report on their imagery experience, we discover that
participants differ widely in how they describe the experience.
Participants viewed a series of slides depicting an automobile accident. Immediately afterward, half of the participants were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The other participants were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" One week later, all participants were asked more questions about the slides, including whether they had seen any broken glass in the slides. A comparison of the two groups of participants is likely to show that
participants who were asked the "smashed" question gave higher estimates of speed and were more likely to remember seeing broken glass.
The availability heuristic is a strategy in which
people base their estimates of frequency on how easily they can think of examples of the relevant category.
In a study by Brewer and Treyens (1981), participants waited in an experimenter's office for the experiment to begin. After they left the room, they learned that the study was about their memory of that office. This study demonstrated that
people make assumptions using prior knowledge about what an academic office typically contains.
Evidence from the four-card task suggests that
people's thinking can be improved if a problem contains the right triggers.
The term "illusory covariation" refers to an error in which participants
perceive two variables as being somehow linked to each other when in fact they are not.
The four-card task, in which participants must evaluate a rule by deciding which cards to turn over, provides an example of how
poor we are at reasoning about some conditional statements.
The more concrete and specific the goals or plans that must be maintained in working memory, the more_______ the localization of their function within the frontal lobes
posterior
An experimenter reads a list of 30 words to a group of participants at the rate of 1 word per second. This is immediately followed by a free-recall test. A second group of participants hears the same 30 words presented at the faster rate of 2 words per second. We should expect that the group hearing the slower presentation will show improved memory performance for the
pre-recency portion of the list, but there will be no impact on the recency effect.
Evidence suggests that interference
probably explains more forgetting than decay does.
The mirror tracing task is a test of:
procedural memory
Top-down mechanisms suggest that
processing can be driven by knowledge and expectations.
Within working memory, "helpers" like the visuospatial buffer and the articulatory rehearsal loop
provide short-term storage of items likely to be needed soon by the central executive.
Double dissociations in memory are important because they
provide strong evidence for separate memory systems
Thinking that is maximally effective in enabling us to achieve our goals, and may also conform to the rules of logic or to mathematical or statistical laws can be described as:
rational
Wilhelm Wundt would be LEAST interested in an individual's
reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
Like patients with Korsakoff 's syndrome, H.M. has difficulty with
recall
Free recall refers to
recalling words from a list in any order.
The figure below shows a serial position curve from a free recall task of a 30-word list. Which part of the curve does the arrow point to?
recency
A student wishes to memorize an essay so that he will be able to recall the content later. Which of the following is likely to be LEAST helpful to him?
repeatedly reading the essay aloud
An individual suffering from unilateral neglect experiences an impaired ability to do which of the following?
report the details on the left side of space when describing both what they see in the real world and what they visualize
Historically, the movement known as behaviorism was to a large extent encouraged by scholars' concerns regarding
research based on introspection
A great deal of forgetting may be caused by an inability (perhaps temporary) to locate target information that is stored in memory. This sort of forgetting is called
retrieval failure.
According to the work of Tversky and Kahneman, people are likely to be ________ when dealing with potential losses, and ________ when dealing with potential gains.
risk seeking; risk averse
What memory strategy did Ebbinghaus use to memorize trigrams—consonant-vowel-consonant combinations—that do not make up a word?
rote rehearsal
Herb Simon suggested that humans do not try to maximize decision-making outcomes, but rather engage in _____by picking a strategy that that meets our standards for an adequate (not optimal) solution.
satisficing
Information that is perceived as relevant to the self is better remembered. This is referred to as the
self-reference effect.
A psychologist asks her experimental participants to describe their experiences using mental imagery. The psychologist is collecting
self-report data
According to the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory, the code of the long-term store is assumed to be:
semantic
Free recall is a test of:
semantic memory
Marge is planning a vacation. She thoroughly gathers information, both about the interesting tourist locations of several countries, and the safety of traveling to those countries. Marge picks South Africa, but then remembers reading an article about one tourist who visited South Africa and died after contracting malaria. If Marge decides not to go to South Africa because of her memory of anecdotal evidence about the dangers, she has probably been influenced by:
the availability heuristic
"I can easily think of the names of several dishonest politicians, so I'm certain there are a lot of dishonest politicians!" This is an example of a judgment relying on
the availability heuristic.
Many of us overestimate our own popularity. This could be because we surround ourselves with people who like us, rather than with people who do not. Therefore, it is easier for us to think of the names of people who like us than it is to think of the names of our enemies. This overestimation of popularity seems to derive from using
the availability heuristic.
People are more likely to judge a syllogism to be valid if
the conclusion in the statement is believed to be true based on prior knowledge.
One difference between working memory and long-term memory is that
the contents of working memory depend on the content of one's current thinking, but the contents of long-term memory do not.
According to the multi-store (modal) model of memory, words presented early in a list are easier to remember than words presented later because
the early words receive more of the participants' attention than the later words.
When we encounter a highly unusual event, we are particularly likely to notice and consider the event. As a consequence
the event will be easy to recall, leading us to overestimate the likelihood of this type of event.
When asked to recall a list of 25 words, participants are likely to remember only some of them. The words they can recall are likely to include
the first few words on the list and also approximately the last 5 or 6 words on the list.
The "cognitive revolution" is named as such because
the focus changed from behaviors to the processes underlying those behaviors.
Participants are given a task that requires them to zoom in on a mental image in order to inspect a detail. Evidence indicates that
the greater the distance to be zoomed, the more time is required.
When selecting a course of action framed in terms of either losing lives or saving lives following an epidemic of a serious disease, people typically choose
the more risky option for lost lives and the less risky option for saved lives.
For 10 days, a group of rats is simply allowed to explore a maze. On Day 11, food is introduced at a specific location within the maze, and the rats find it. On Day 12, the rats move to the food's location just as quickly as rats who had been trained for many days with food in that location. The most plausible explanation for this result is that
the rats permitted only to explore learned the layout of the maze.
The strategy of maintenance rehearsal involves
the repetition of the items to be remembered, with little attention paid to what the items mean.
Current theory suggests that the central executive may be
the set of processes that govern the selection and timing of other mental steps.
The term "covariation" refers in general to
the tendency in a pattern of data for observations of one sort to be linked to observations of another sort.
Studies of image scanning indicate that
there is a linear function linking scanning distances and scanning times.
Which of the following statements is FALSE about automatic tasks?
they require executive control
Imagine you are putting together a puzzle. You have a broad idea of what the finished puzzle will look like, and you're guided by that idea as you work. Your broad idea is acting as a
top-down influence
If knowledge that you already have (e.g., about psychology) influences your memory for new material that you learn (e.g., after reading a Timemagazine article about new research), this is an example of:
top-down processing
Baddeley, Turner, & Buchanan (1975) presented word lists of either 1-syllable or 5-syllable words to participants. They observed that recall was better for lists of short, 1-syllable words than long, 5-syllable words. The better memory of the short words due to rehearsal is the:
word length effect
Stroop interference demonstrates that
word reading is automatized.
Abigail saw the stimulus "cla--" and was asked to think of a word that began with these letters. This task is called
word stem completion
