Mercantilism, Capitalism, Ideologies, and the Industrial Revolution
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, premarital sex: Was prohibited and kept at a minimum by social controls present in small communities Resulted in a high illegitimacy rate in rural areas Became increasingly socially acceptable as England became more secular Did not result in a high illegitimacy rate due to the new birth control methods
During the Industrial Revolution, as more and more people left the social controls of small agrarian communities, premarital sex and illegitimacy rates increased. By 1860, approximately one out of every five (20%) of children were born outside the confines of marriage. Illegitimate children were viewed as inferior and were looked down upon.
Which of the following statements describes of Europe's population size during the eighteenth century? The population of Eastern Europe doubled, but the population of Western Europe remained the same The population of Western and Eastern Europe doubled In the eighteenth century, population increased due improvements in sanitation and medical care Neither Western Europe nor Eastern Europe experienced a dramatic change in population size The population of Western Europe doubled, but the population of Eastern Europe remained the same In the eighteenth century, population increased due to improved agricultural techniques, fewer famines and plagues, and lower death rate
During the eighteenth century, AND again in the nineteenth century, the population in Europe DOUBLED. Beginning in the eighteenth century, children's life expectancy increased (lower death rate) and drastically fewer children died before the age of five; in addition, fewer famines, a decline in the plague, and improved agricultural methods contributed to the population boom. In the nineteenth century, improvements in medical care and sanitation improved life expectancy and contributed to the population increase.
Which of the following social developments took place in England during the Industrial Revolution era? (Check all that apply.) Citizens gained increasing access to public education Social mobility, working up the social class ladder, became a reality for more and more people England outlawed slave trade in 1807 and slavery in 1833 England's population decreased in size The size of the middle class grew
Enlightenment ideas caused many in the middle and upper classes to rethink the deplorable conditions in urban England factories. Many industrialists had become wealthy at the expense of cheap, exploited, overworked laborers. In addition, laborers began to form movements and threatened to strike. Although reform didn't happen overnight, the life of the worker slowly began to improve as the government mandated changes and factory owners worked to make their factories safer and cleaner.
Karl Marx's (1818-1883) communist theory used Georg Hegel's _______________dialect, which theorized that in each period in history, progress and change come when contradicting ideals (an antithesis and a thesis) struggle against one another; when the thesis and antithesis merge, a synthesis, or new ideal, emerges and becomes the thesis of the next historical period.
Hegelian
Karl Marx wrote two well-known books to support his theories; Das ______ (1867) criticizes the capitalistic economic system and predicts its overtake by socialism, and the Communist Manifesto (1848) identifies industrialization as the cause of the impoverished proletarians (working class) and calls for proletarians to overthrow the ruling capitalists.
Kapital Marx co-authored the Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels.
____ ___ (1818-1883) contributed greatly to modern socialist thought, believing that a utopian society can exist only when the industrial working class, the proletariat, is freed from the oppressive capitalist system (in which a small group of individuals benefit from the work of many), the class system is abolished, and private property ownership ceases to exist.
Karl Marx Marx's Communist Manifesto (1848) described this utopian society and its new economic and social system. Western Europe was influenced by Marxist thought but did not put these ideas widely into practice. Most socialists in Western Europe worked toward gradual societal reform (as opposed to Marx's call to use revolution as a change agent) and did so with a practical, not idealistic, outlook.
This quote is by economist Thomas _______________: "Population, when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the second. By that law of nature which makes food necessary to the life of man, the effects of these two unequal powers must be kept equal. This implies a strong and constantly operating check on population from the difficulty of subsistence."
Malthus Economist Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) believed that the population rate grew geometrically while food supply increased arithmetically. Malthus believed that overpopulation was an inevitable outcome of economic expansion and that measures should be in place to control population overexpansion. Malthus was against social welfare, believing that these programs only worsened the problem of overpopulation.
Economist Thomas ______ (1766-1834) believed that overpopulation and poverty were inevitable outcomes of economic expansion in the greed-driven capitalist system and that government should not provide social welfare as a way to alleviate hunger, famine, or disease, since these problems corrected overpopulation patterns.
Malthus Malthus also attempted to explain why Adam Smith's theories of allowing natural laws to dictate the capitalist economy had not resulted in the prosperity that Smith predicted; due to this economist's pessimistic views, the term "dismal science" was used to describe classical economics.
Karl Marx adapted Hegelian dialectic into Dialectical ____________ in order to form the theoretical foundation for Communism; according to this philosophy, society reflects its current economic system and is in a constant state of change brought about by the struggle between contradicting ideals.
Materialism Marx used Dialectical Materialism to trace how society had progressed to its current capitalistic state; Marx believed that society would continue to struggle and progress to socialism, and then again struggle and progress toward communism, where all social classes would be eliminated.
___________, the belief that the world possessed only a limited amount of wealth and that the government ought to store as much gold and silver (bullion) as possible in its national treasury, was a prevalent macroeconomic policy in the 17th and 18th century Europe.
Mercantilism In the majority of mercantilist economies, governments often highly regulated and incentivized the economy.
Scottish textile manufacturer Robert _______, who is associated with utopian socialism, (1771-1858) sought to improve the working conditions of those in his factory by decreasing the length of the workday and offering free education and clean housing to workers.
Owen Owen created the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834 in order to petition for an eight-hour workday. Around this time, other labor unions also emerged; for example, the Amalgamated Society of Engineers was a labor union that provided union workers with unemployment benefits in exchange for workers paying the union small weekly dues. Other laborers reacted quite differently to the change in working conditions brought about by the Industrial Revolution; for example, a group of early nineteenth-century workers living in northern England, known as the Luddite, attacked machines and factories to show their opposition to these changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.
The construction of _________ in England in the early- to mid-19th century transformed England's social and economic structure by allowing workers to move from rural areas to cities, decreased shipping costs, helped to grow markets for production and consumption, and made new sources of raw goods available.
Railroads Britain's first railroad was made possible by the production of iron and steel, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt.
In the mid-19th century to early 20th centuries, feminist movements emerged as women grew weary of their child-rearing roles and of menial jobs available to them. These early women's rights movements focused on: Gaining legal equality, voting rights, and equal opportunities for women Gaining educational opportunities for women Achieving gender equality for women Providing opportunities for women to work from home Gaining improved working conditions for women
While the second wave of feminism, which occurred in the 1960s, focused on gaining gender equality for women, the mid-19th and early 20th century women's movements focused on gaining voting rights, work opportunities, and legal equality for women.
The agricultural revolution, which occurred in Britain and was related to the Industrial Revolution, included mechanization, selective better animal breeding methods, the four-crop rotation system, and the ____ movement, which took common land, combined it with other properties, fenced it off, and moved it to private ownership.
enclosure This "enclosed" land was often used for sheep raising. The enclosure movement caused many farmers great hardships; many people who had previously lived off the land were then forced to move into cities where they worked as laborers in the Industrial Revolution. As fewer farmers remained, farming became more productive and profitable. The four-field crop rotation system invented by Charles "Turnip" Townsend (1674-1738) involved planting crops in different fields in different years in order to prevent the soil from becoming depleted of minerals (different crops deplete different minerals).
Eighteenth-century factories dedicated to the production of cotton cloth were made possible by the invention of the spinning ____, a machine that allowed the production of much more cloth than had been possible when cotton was spun into fabric by hand.
jenny Know that cotton was one of the primary commodities of the Industrial Revolution and was primarily imported from the U.S. As the textile industry grew, many more jobs became available; often, people who had formerly worked on farms came to work in the textile industry. Textile industry growth was strongly related to arrival of steam-powered machines in Europe.
English philosopher and social reformer Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) stated, "Each individual bestowing more time and attention upon the means of preserving and increasing his portion of wealth, than is or can be bestowed by government, is likely to take a more effectual course than what, in his instance and on his behalf, would be taken by government," which reflects the philosophy of classical ___________.
liberalism Classical liberalism supports individual rights and a self-regulating society. Bentham demanded that the government stay out of the economy; allow individual freedoms, support social equality, end slavery; and operate very cautiously and prudently any time it intervened in society or the economy.
Laissez-faire economist Adam Smith, whose 1776 book Wealth of Nations laid the foundation for classical economics overtaking mercantilistic economics by arguing that: there was an unlimited availability of wealth in the world poverty was a natural outcome of man's greed for wealth natural wages are merely sufficient to maintain workers' basic needs natural laws of supply and demand, not government regulation, should run the economy
natural laws of supply and demand, not government regulation, should run the economy
Karl Marx, who greatly influenced the development of modern socialism, believed that class struggle would inevitably lead to ________________ in which the proletariat (working class) would overthrow the middle- and upper-class capitalists due to economic depression imposed by the capitalists in the lower class.
revolution Karl Marx saw Communism as an inevitable outcome that would follow after the socialist state was established by the revolutionary proletariat; Marx viewed Communism as a system in which economic exploitation ceased, peace and justice existed, the class system was eliminated, property was shared, there was no need for central government, local democracies existed, and a perfect society known as utopia was formed.
In order to address the problems in society, French social theorist Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), an early founder of the economic system of _______, proposed a welfare state where industry was highly planned out, owned by the government, and run by scientists and technical experts known as technocrats.
socialism Comte de Saint-Simon envisioned a socialist welfare state in which war, poverty, and class systems were ended through widespread, highly planned industrialization.
The early 19th-century philosophy of _______ socialism, which is derived from reformers such as Charles Fourier (see quote below) (1772-1837) and Robert Owen (1771-1785), and supported by men such as Louis Blanc, envisioned communal living in which class inequalities were ended, wealth equally distributed, and people were living in peace and unity. "The three classes, being associated and united in interest, would forget their hatred . . . attractive labor would put an end to the drudgery of the people and the disdain of the rich for inferiors . . . There would be an end to the envy with which the poor regard the idle . . . there would no longer by any idlers, or poor, and social antipathies would disappear . . ."
utopian Utopian socialists believed that Adam Smith's laissez-faire economic liberalism allowed factory owners and wealthy business owners to become wealthy at the expense of their workers. The workers were exploited, made to work for minimal wages, and placed in deplorable living and working conditions. Socialists believed that if the government stepped up, that the injustices in the economy and society would end and the perfect utopian world would emerge. Socialism became popular through the work of German philosopher Karl Marx.
Which of the statements are true of Industrial Revolution-era England c. 1830? (Check all that apply.) Women often received lower pay than men In increasing numbers, married middle and upper class women remained at home to raise children Women often took jobs in factories, teaching, shopkeeping, or domestic services Early attempts of workers to unionize were well-received by industrialists who were aware of the deplorable working conditions in factories The standard of living for the average worker declined Legislation was passed to reduce the working hours of children Men were the primary breadwinners
Although women and children were both part of the workforce early in the Industrial Revolution, as men made more money, middle- and upper-class women began to stay at home in a domestic role. Early unionization attempts by industrial laborers met great resistance and hostility from the government and factory owners. Around 1830, the standard of living for industrial workers finally began to improve; by 1900, a factory worker was expected to outlive a farmer. Wages increased for workers in cities, causing people to move from rural areas into cities. However, in spite of these improvements, great disparities continued to exist between the upper and lower classes and between the equality of men and women.
Overall, the most important outcome of the Industrial Revolution was: Increased numbers of manufactured goods were produced and made available for consumption Britain became a center for culture and the arts Eastern Europe advanced technologically and joined the industrialization of Western Europe Britain returned to its agrarian roots
As goods were produced in greater numbers and with greater efficiency, the price of goods dropped, making them more affordable. As more people could afford to buy more goods, more jobs were needed to keep up with the increased demand.
The _________ method of steel, which was invented in the 1850s, involves converting molten iron into steel by using compressed air to burn out the iron's impurities.
Bessemer In the 20th century, the Bessemer method was replaced by the open-hearth method, which used an open-hearth furnace to quickly produce large amounts of steel. Steel and oil became the primary commodities of the Second Industrial Revolution (aka technological revolution), which began in the mid-nineteenth century, was centered in the U.S., and spread throughout Europe.
As gold and silver poured into Europe from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries, and manufacturers' subsequently increased production of goods led to a commercial revolution, the economic system known as ___________ emerged in Europe.
Capitalism As wealth poured into Europe from the Americas, high inflation occurred. Because they could charge higher prices for their goods, manufacturers and merchants increased production, which stimulated a commercial revolution. Although traditionally, increased income was used to purchase labor, changes occurred: merchants used their increasing "capital" (money) to invest in business ventures such as chartered companies, joint-stock companies, and the bourse (similar to a stock exchange). As the investments returned, money was reinvested in business ventures; money grew, science and technology advanced, and European nation-states grew.
Which of the following was not a social or economic effect of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, particularly in Britain? As a result of the poor working and living conditions, people living in cities often bonded together and a sense of community emerged Young children were subjected to long working hours in unsafe conditions and workers were often overworked and abused As rapid urbanization growth occurred due to the growth of factories in industry and the enclosure movement in agriculture, cities became overpopulated, polluted, and unsanitary Disease spread quickly through overpopulated cities Overall, incomes of laborers rose due to work being less dependent on weather (as was the case in agriculture) and a middle class emerged in Europe in the nineteenth century.
In reality, the sense of community formerly enjoyed by people living in villages was lost as people moved to cities. Ironically, the sense of community seemed to decrease as people lived closer to one another, as was the case in overcrowded cities with factory workers living in barracks or crowded rooms. Just as the Industrial Revolution began in England, reforms aimed at the industrial economy also started in this island nation.
Which of the following statements are tenants of the theory of mercantilism? (Check all that apply.) Nations should acquire overseas colonies in order to gain raw materials for the mother country Nations could live in a state of peace and co-existence with one another A nation's wealth is measured by its productivity A nation's wealth is measured by the amount of bullion (precious metals) that the nation possesses Nations should have a trade surplus and export more goods than they import Mercantilism allows nations to become self-sufficient entities
In the theory of mercantilism, nations measure their wealth by the amount of gold they possess. Importing more goods than a nation exports causes wealth (gold and silver) to flow out of the country. By having overseas colonies, nations had access to a wealth of raw materials. Instead of importing raw materials from other nations (which takes gold and silver wealth OUT of a country), having raw materials readily available allowed countries to create goods, which they could export and acquire wealth. Also, by not relying on other nations, nations could become self-sufficient—the ultimate goal of mercantilism. As nations rushed to colonize and acquire the limited quantities of precious metals in the world, war remained on the horizon as an inevitable outcome.
The ______ Revolution (1780-1830), which began in England, shifted the work force from rural agrarian farms to urban factories, resulted in machines overtaking production by hand, and caused tremendous advancements and transformations in European societies.
Industrial Familiarize yourself with the various factors that contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain: 1-Britain possessed extensive resources, such as coal, iron, and water power 2-Britain hosted an adequate transportation system 3-There was an increasing demand for manufactured goods 4-Labor was readily available 5- The entrepreneurial class that developed in Britain believed in hard work, progress, and technology, values that are often associated with the Protestant work ethic 6—The banking system allowed private investment in industry; also, Britain supported a stable economy and political system
__________, the decreased purchasing power of money, occurred in Spain and spread throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries as a tremendous amount of gold was brought to Spain from colonial conquests and discoveries in the New World.
Inflation Gold poured into Spain as Columbus and other explorers ventured into the New World, established colonies, raided the stores of Native Americans, and mined gold. Initially, an increase in the money supply was not matched with an increase in production, causing the price of goods to increase (inflation). However, as inflation ensued and merchants and manufacturers realized that they could get higher prices for their goods, they responded by increasing production (known as "inflation-stimulated production), leading to a commercial revolution.
Which of the following were developed or advanced during the Industrial Revolution? (Check all that apply.) Railroads and coal mining techniques Textile manufacturing The steamship and railroad steam engine The telephone The internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engines were developed around the end of the 19th century (the Industrial Revolution ended in England around 1830). These engines allowed refined petroleum to be used for heating and to power railroad locomotives, ships, and automobile; this led to improved productivity AND to improved quality of life. Coal: advances in coal mining machinery led to a plentiful coal supply; coal was then used as fuel in heavy industry. The steamship (steamboat) was invented by the American Robert Fulton in 1807; the railroad steam engine was invented by George Stephenson in 1829. Railroads improved transportation and changed the social and economic culture (addressed more fully in previous question). Textile manufacturing was improved by the cotton gin, by the water frame (which improved the making of thread), and by the steam engine (which required textiles to be produced in factories using powered looms). The telephone was invented in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Classical economist David Ricardo (1772-1823) proposed the ____ Law of Wages, the belief that attempts to improve workers' real income were futile because wages will naturally stabilize at subsistence level (that which allows a worker to meet basic needs).
Iron Ricardo wrote The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), in which he examined the distribution of wealth between the lower, middle, and upper classes. Ricardo concluded that when demand for pig iron increases, workers' wages increase, population grows, more workers compete for a limited number of jobs, and the food supply will not be enough to meet the demand for food.
The Enclosure Acts, which were passed by aristocratic landowners in England's Parliament after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, had which of the following outcomes? (Check all that apply.) During the 18th century, Britain's population decreased by one-third as many farmers were left with no work and many died of hunger Urban areas grew as surplus crops produced by landowners were sufficient to feed those working in industry During the 18th century, Britain's population doubled in part due to improved agricultural techniques Crop and livestock production increased as landowners prospered and invested capital in farming technology
The Enclosure Acts took common land, combined it with other properties, fenced it off, and moved it to private ownership; this action displaced many farmers and the farming industry became more profitable. The displaced farmers moved to cities to work in industry. Because landowners' farming ventures were becoming more profitable, they had capital to invest in improved technology (such as improved breeding techniques and machinery), which caused increased crop yields and livestock production. This increased production was able to provide food to those residing in cities. Britain prospered and its population doubled during the 18th century.
Which of the following groups did not benefit from the rapid inflation and increased money supply brought about by the influx of gold to Europe from the colonization and exploration efforts in the 16th and 17th centuries? None of these Nobles who made money from collecting rent and fees from peasants Farming peasants who could obtain a large amount of money for their excess crops The merchant class (bourgeoisie) who could sell their good for high prices
The nobility suffered from the inflation as their standard of living decreased, while the middle and lower classes often benefitted. A strong middle class (bourgeoisie) emerged as merchants and manufacturers set high prices for their goods. Slowly, the standard of living for the bourgeoisie improved and this rising middle class of merchants invested their money in business ventures.
The following quote reflects the philosophy of _________: "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingmen of all countries, unite." Rationalism Marxism Socialism Labor unions Nationalism
This quote is from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' pamphlet Communist Manifesto, which theorizes that widespread poverty among the working class (proletariat) exists due to the industrialization led by the oppressive ruling class capitalists; the Manifesto calls for the proletariat to overthrow the capitalists.
During the rapid influx of workers into cities during the Industrial Revolution, cities became overcrowded and unsanitary. City planners and reformers were influenced by Bentham's philosophy of _____________, which called for using "the greatest good for the greatest number"; therefore, they instituted reforms in many European cities aimed at making city dwellers' lives better through public health improvement and city redesign.
Utilitarianism Remember that English philosopher and social reformer Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) advocated utilitarianism, an ethical doctrine that utilizes the "greatest good for the greatest number."
