MESAS Crusaders

Final expulsion of Crusaders

Eventually Europe loses it's taste for crusading, and violence is no longer condoned. In 1291, the last of the Crusaders were expelled from the Middle East by the Mamluks (a class of slaves who became rulers) the same group that had stopped the Mongol advance at Ayn Jalut in 1260 and brought an end to the Ayyubid Dynasty in Egypt.

Abd al-Rahman I

Founded the Umayyad Dynasty in Spain; attacked and defeated the governor of Al-Andalus in 755 and made Cordoba his capital; secured his realm against external attack by defeating armies sent by Charlemagne and the Abbasid caliph; faced a series of rebellions by muslim spaniards, Imazighen from the mountainous areas, and various arab clans, but still remained firmly in power; known as the al-Dakhil (the entrant), Saqr Quraish (the falcon of the Quraysh) and the falcon of Andalus

Isabella and Ferdinand

Heralded as the ultimate crusaders because they initiated the "Reconquista" or the unifying of Hispania under Christian rule by recapturing the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims in 1492 (when the last Islamic state in Iberia fell)

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

In 1212, disunited Spanish christians took advantage of offers of northern European military help against the Almohads. Was one of the few real incidents of the "Reconquest"; the Christians won marking a clear beginning of the end, as muslim losses and retreats followed this Almohad defeat

Crusader sack of Constantinople

This event was the climax of the 4th Crusade. In 1204 the Crusaders captured and destroyed Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire.This is important because the Byzantine Empire was a Christian empire and Constantinople was the largest Christian city—they were just Eastern Christians, but the Crusaders were Western Christians. This immediately became controversial and showed that western Christians viewed Eastern Christians as foreigners.

Edessa

Modern day Turkey; one of the Kingdoms/States established by the Crusaders during the Second Crusade. It was taken from the Byzantine Empire by Baldwin of Boulogne in 1097 AD.

Ilkhanids

Mongol dynasty that ruled Iran in the 13 and 14th Centuries. Persian for "subordinate Khan", started by Helegu who managed to capture Baghdad and then rest of Iran by consolidating all of the previous dynasties that existed. It was a separate dynasty from the other Mongol dynasties that existed in China, and the rulers of the Ilkhanids embraced Islam from 1295 after the ruler Ghazan converted to the religion. In the 1330s the black death had heavily damaged the Ilkhanid dynasty, and the presence of rival kingdoms in the region led to the disintegration of the state.

Reynald de Chatillon

Ruler of the Crusader Kingdom of Antioch that was able to do what Saladin and Nur al-din could not — unite all muslims. He did this during the Battle of Hittin because there were 2 factions: the old families and the newcomers. The old families were under Raymond of Tripoli (good crusaders who had been there for generations) and the newcomers were under Reynald de Chatillon (bad crusaders who were anxious for the benefits of the crusades). The newcomers under Reynald were aggressive and violent toward muslims, thus unifying them in jihad against the crusaders.

Nur al-Din

Second son of Zangi; reorganized armies of Syria and laid down foundtions for Saladin's success; Before his rule, a major reason for the success of the Crusaders was the disunity of the Muslim rulers of the region, who were unable to present a unified military front against the invaders. Nūr al-Dīn waged military campaigns against the Crusaders in an attempt to expel them from Syria and Palestine. His forces recaptured Edessa shortly after his accession, invaded the important military district of Antakiya in 1149, and took Damascus in 1154; known for his piety, he would use the financial rewards of his conquests to build schools, mosques, and hospitals. .Considered a saintly king, fighting for allah. Under Nur al-Din the idea of jihad really takes off. He seems himself as champion of the faith. The propaganda of the jihad was exploited in every possible way: the obligation to reconquer the coastlands, esp. Jerusalem, from the Christians, and the conviction that this could only be achieved through Muslim religious and political unity; challenges the division of the islamic world through jihad/holy war ideology. First Islamic fundamentalist?

Maimonides

Sephardic Jewish scholar who became one of the most influential and prolific scholars of the Torah during the medieval ages. Was born during the reign of the Almoravid dynasty in Spain and was revered by the Jewish community from all over the near East - spanning from Egypt to Iran. Was a prominent polymath and philosopher in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds.

Speech of Urban II

Speech preached on Clermont on 27th November 1095 by Western Christian Pope Urban II to clergy members. Pope Urban II's speech has two elements: a) discord in Europe over ecclesiastical rights, outlet of violence elsewhere; b) growing vilification of the Muslims; c) aspirations for Jerusalem, the holy city; d) call by Byzantines on the western church to help out against Seljuks. His speech was to incite people to a God-willed war to recover holy land from the Muslims and reunite East and West Christians.

Ayyubids

Sunni Muslim dynasty founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt; became the leading Muslim state in the region; remembered for both fighting and negotiating with Christian Crusaders. Saladin and al-Kamil signed treaties with the Crusaders, the latter returning to Jerusalem to Christian rule for ten years. The sultanate decentralized after Saladin's death, which ultimately proved to be their fundamental weakness.

Crusader Kingdoms/Castles

(Latin) Kingdoms Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem were the crusader kingdoms/states. These kingdoms were secured after the First Crusade. Byzantine Emperor Alexius I assumed that the crusaders would return the Byzantine territories (Antioch) back to him when asking the crusaders for help against the muslims, but the crusaders never returned the territories and instead established a kingdom there. Castles This is the main impact of Franks/crusaders on Middle East; they didn't as much cultural influence on the Middle East as the Middle East had.

Sultanate of Rum

1077 ~ 1307, Turko-Persian state in Anatolia established on land captured from Byzantines;The Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Great Seljuk Empire in 1077, following the Battle of Manzikert It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking Byzantine key ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate absorbed other Turkish states and reached Lake Van; The Seljuq sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol Invasion in 1243. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuqs acted as vassals of the Illkhanate. Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. . The dissolution of the Seljuq state left behind many small Turkish principalities among them that of the Ottoman dynasty, which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire

Richard the Lionheart

King of England; Central Christian commander during the third Crusade; wins multiple victories against Saladin but is unable to retake Jerusalem; partakes in a treaty with Saladin where Saladin agrees to allow Christian access to Jerusalem.

Sinan

Known as the old man of the mountain, was the leader of the Syrian branch of the Nizari Ismaili State. His chief enemy was the Sultan Saladin whom he tried twice to assassinate. His last act was the successful assassination of the newly crowned king of Jerusalem, Conrad of Mountferrat in 1191 but whether the assassination happened in coordination with Richard the Lionheart or Saladin remains unknown.

Almoravads

A Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over North Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century; preceded the Almohads; were invited by Muslim rulers in Iberia to aid them against the Christians. Along with holding back the Christian advance, they overthrew the Muslim princes whom they denounced as religiously lax thus extending their empire even further; ousted by the Almohad dynasty who claimed that their interpretation of Islam was even purer; had taken control of Marrakech and established Morocco; considered Andalusian muslims weak because of their diplomatic relations with Christian states and promotion of Jews in their government and society; defeated Alfonso VI and became the new tyrants of al-Andalus

Usamah b Munqidh

A Muslim nobleman. Emir of Shaizar, a stronghold overlooking the Orontes in Syria who exemplifies the situation during the crusades. (the river nicknamed al-Asi, the rebel, for flowing northward) He lived throughout the first century of the crusades. Usamah himself born in 1095, shortly before Urban made his fatal speech and died in 1188 just after the watershed battle of Hittin He wrote an autobiography filled with anecdotal information about his Muslim and Frankish contemporaries. Munqidh family holds this fort and surrounding land since 1080s, shortly before the crusades Usamah's dad strikes alliance with "Franks" when they first arrived in Syria (see Gabrieli p. 9)—this anticipates Usamah's own somewhat ambiguous relationship with the crusaders.

Almohads

A berber, muslim dynasty that was founded in the twelfth century and conquered all northern Africa together with al-Andalus; were Islamic revivalists who set themselves the task of eradicating laxness and enforcing a strict and pious observance of Islam's rituals and laws; They chose an interpretation of the Quran that frowned upon the type of religious tolerance and inter-religious exchange for which al-Andalus had become renowned, and reversed the policy of previous rulers who had enabled this, resulting in Christians and Jews emigrating elsewhere.The dynasty originated with Ibn Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribe of the Atlas mountains

Alhambra

A palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Andalusia, Spain; after the Christian reconquista in 1492, it became the royal court of Ferdinand and Isabella; completed towards the end of Muslim rule of Spain by Yusuf I and Muhammad V, sultan of Granada; a reflection of the culture during Nasrid rule of Al Andalus

Assassins

A religious sect of Ismaili Shi'a Muslims during the twelfth century ce. This secret society was known to specialize in terrorizing the Crusaders, against whom they executed political assassinations. They also directed their efforts Muslims rulers and figures whom they saw as impious usurpers. Followers of Al-Hassn i Sabbah who began the Assassins. The origins of this group can be traced back to just before the First Crusade

Abu Sa'ad al-Harawi

A sunni qadi in Iraq during the time of the crusades; Led the first manifestation of populace outrage against the Frankish invasions and became the Muslim world's leading religious authority. Was killed by the Assassins in the great mosque of Hamadan, 1125.

Al-Mansur (Spain)

A vizier and De facto ruler of Muslim al-Andalus under the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba; his rule marked the peak of power for al-Andalus; exercised strong influence over the mother and regent of the king of al-Andalus at the time, the twelve year old Hisham II; undertook raids against Christian strongholds in the north

Taifa Successor Kingdoms

After the Umayyad Caliphate collapses in the civil war, the various provinces of al-Andalus local governors designated themselves as autonomous Taifa rulers. They would try to establish courts that attempted to equal the splendor of Cordoba in every way. These leaders lacked significant power because of their constant feuding, which eventually led to their downfall by the almovarids. Continued the practice of princely patronage and building monumental palaces.

al-Aqsa mosque

Also known as "the farthest mosque"; it is located in Jerusalem and seen as the 3rd holiest site in Islam. Muslims believe that this was the place that muhammad was transported to during his holy journey and ascension into heaven. When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, they used the mosque as a palace and the Dome of the Rock as a church, but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin in 1187.

Berbers

An ethnic group indigenous to North Africa; majority of Berbers are Sunni muslim; live in scattered communities across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Niger, and Mauretania; the Arabs enlisted Berber warriors for the conquest of Spain; two Berber dynasties are the Almoravids and the Almohads

Jihad

Arabic word that means to struggle or to strive against unbelievers in islam; Jihad is classified into inner ("greater") jihad, which involves a struggle against one's own base impulses, and external ("lesser") jihad, which is further subdivided into jihad of the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) and jihad of the sword (war). Important in context of the crusades because an outcome was the Rise of Jihad-Holy War ideology: lead to rise of warriors on Muslim side in defense against Crusaders.

Battle of Hittin

Battle in northern Palestine that marked the defeat and annihilation of the Christian Crusader armies of Guy de Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, by the Muslim forces of Saladin; paved the way for the Muslim reconquest of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli, and Antioch, thus nullifying the achievements made in the holy land by the leaders of the first Crusades and alerting Europe to need for a third Crusade

Dome of the Rock

Built by Caliph Abu al-Malik, a ruler of the Umayyad dynasty in 692; located in the southeast corner of the old city of Jerusalem;stands over a rocky outcrop (the rock is often associated as the place of Adam's burial; the site where God tested Ibrahim by demanding Ibrahim sacrifice Ismail; the location of the holy of holies of the ancient Jewish temple; and the spot where Muhammad began his night journey); announced to Jews and Christians that Islam was here to stay; the glory of the building was its mosaic decoration; when the Dome of the Rock was captured by the crusaders, it was given to the Augustines and became a church. It was recaptured by Saladin and reconsecrated as a Muslim shrine

Alexius of Byzantium

Byzantine emperor at the time of the first Crusade, founded the Comnenian dynasty and partially restored the strength of the empire after its defeats by the Norman and Turks in the 11th century; his appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that likely contributed to the convoking of the Crusades; was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery of the empire

Crusades, motives and outcomes

CRUSADES: a series of events (8 military expeditions by western Europeans against Muslims in the East à 1096-1291) that have marked world history in multifaceted and indelible ways; the opposite of convivencia which we talked about last time. Spurred by Pope Urban II's speech. It means to take up the cross; "Deus vult! (God wills it) became the battle cry of the Crusaders. MOTIVES: Religious fervor: the documentary points to the central role of the burning of the church of the Holy Sepulcher by Fatimid caliph al-Hakim in 1009 ("Nero of Islam"). A strange episode that was an abomination in Islam. It was a pretense. The enmity and fear of Islam was already there! Economic conditions in Europe (crusades an outlet) Justified by God against horrible enemies (Pope Urban's speech) Goal is capture of Jerusalem OUTCOMES: The First Crusade was the most successful from a military point of view. Establishment of Crusader kingdoms. A region 600 miles from north to south. Some of the results of the first crusade were not expected. Alexus I thought that the Byzantine territories would be returned to him and the Eastern Empire, but instead the European conquerors established four independent Latin kingdoms. [map of crusader states: Edessa; Antioch, Tripoli, Jerusalem] In addition, three military orders (Hospitallers, Templars, and Teutonic Knights) came into power. The stated purpose of these orders was to protect pilgrims and holy sites. Exchange of ideas and material goods, esp. from Middle East to Europe. Main impact on Middle East was crusader castles. Widening ideological gaps between western and eastern Christianity; and between Christians and Islam Rise of Jihad-Holy War ideology: lead to rise of warriors on Muslim side

Military Orders (Hospitallers, Templars, Teutonic Knights)

Came into power after the first Crusade. The stated purpose of these orders was to protect pilgrims (Western Christians/crusaders) while engaging in islamic conquests in the Holy Land and Iberian Peninsula and holy sites. Also referred to as a "monastic society" or "quasi-monastery"

Seljuks/Selcuks

Central Asian, Turks in the Middle East who had been in Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia since the time of the Abbasids; great patrons of architecture. An unprecedented number of madrasas (institutions of higher learning) were erected throughout the Seljuk realm; The Seljuk played a major role in medieval history by creating a barrier to Europe against the Mongol invaders from the East, defending the Islamic world against Crusaders from the West, and conquering large parts of the Byzantine Empire — they were the ones who crushed the "People's Crusade" led by Peter the Hermit

Conquest of Jerusalem by Crusaders

Conquest that took place during the first Crusade, after the siege of Antioch. This was spurred by the burning of the Church of Holy Sepulcher by the Fatimids and due the importance of Jerusalem as a center of Christian and Jewish pilgrimage and Muslim piety.

Pax Mongolica

Describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural, and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th century; the end of pax mongolica was marked by the disintegration of khanates (parts of the mongol empire) and the outbreak of the Black Death

Visigoths

Dismantled and then resettled what had once been the roman empire; infamous for the sack of Rome in 410; eventually ended as the overlords of the former province of Hispania after battling over the territory with the Vandals and then among themselves; in 589 the Visigoths joined the Roman Church, however paganism was still prevalent in Visigothic Hispania; their rule preceded muslim rule of that area

Mongols

East-Central Asian ethnic group that ended the Golden Age of Islam through a series of invasions; when they sack and occupy Baghdad, they used the city as a cultural and parttime capital and converted to Islam (the land conquered the conquerors), making legitimacy of islamic rulers through Genghis Khan and not Muhammad; Pax Mongolica

Saladin

Founder of the Ayyubid dynasty and was a Sunni Muslim of Kurdish descent. Led the Muslim military campaign against the Crusader states in Levant. Greatest triumph was the Battle of Hittin in 1187 against the European crusaders, which paved the way for Islamic re-conquest of Jerusalem and other holy cities in the Near East. In the 3rd Crusade. Saladin was unable to defeat Richard the Lionheart resulting in the loss of most of his land; however, he was able to negotiate a truce that continued the Muslim control of Jerusalem.

Maghreb

Land of the Berbers (Northern Africa); Islamic lands west of Egypt: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco (Almohads), and sometimes Spain.After Turkic and Mongol invasions, they became increasingly isolated as power shifted further east, developing a distinct islamic culture. Important because the 1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa happened here; during this battle, Christians fought against the Berber Almohads of the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula; Christians won, hastening their decline in the Maghreb; major turning point in the Reconquista.

Al-Andalus

Means "to become green at the end of the summer"; refers to the territory occupied by the muslim empire in modern day Spain and Portugal. This civilization spanned from the 8th century to the 15th century; Christian and jews were subjected to a special tax in this region (called Jizya) which in return gave them internal autonomy in practicing their religion; beacon of learning; existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms in the north

Mongol sack of Baghdad

Marks the end of the Islamic Golden age; The Abbasid caliph challenged the Mongols to try and storm his city, if they dared. The nomadic army from Asia—led by Hulagu Khan, one of Genghis Khan's grandsons—did indeed dare. Doing what they are most famous for, the Mongols thrashed Baghdad. In 10 days of unremitting violence and destruction, Baghdad and its inhabitants were completely, and utterly vanquished. Almost without exception, the population was either put to the sword or sold into slavery. The River Tigris ran red—to cite one of the most over-quoted, and overwrought phrases in history—with the blood of slaughtered men, women and children; the House of Wisdom was destroyed in this sack

Zangi

Namesake of the Zengid Dynasty; led the first important counter attacks against the Crusader kingdoms in the Middle East; captured the Crusader state Edessa, which led to the second crusade; under the seljucks, he was given control over Mosul and eventually by military force Aleppo; He was charged by the sultan with the duty of defeating the Christian Crusaders, and he saw himself as the champion of Islam. He was opposed, however, by Muslim princes who refused to accept his authority as well as by the Crusaders. To both Zangī reacted with equal harshness. By diplomacy, treachery, and warfare he steadily extended his authority, with the immediate goal of securing control of Damascus—a goal he never achieved. He did, however, capture Edessa, an important focal point of Frankish authority, in 1144—the Crusaders' first serious setback. Zangī could not press his advantage. Returning to Iraq to repress a revolt there, he was killed by a servant who bore him a personal grudge.

Dhimmi

Non-Muslim citizens of an islamic state; had their rights fully protected in their communities; The word literally means "protected person." According to scholars, dhimmis had their rights fully protected in their communities, but as citizens in the Islamic state, had certain restrictions,and it was obligatory for them to pay the jizya tax, which complemented the zakat, or alms, paid by the Muslim subjects.Dhimmis were exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims, and did not enjoy certain political rights reserved for Muslims, but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation.

Isidore of Seville

Notable Churchman who understood the extent to which some sort of Christian order had to fill the terrible vacuum left by the collapse of Roman civil institutions; wrote In Praise of Spain as an attempt to bring the ruling Visigoths in tune with the cultural continuum that the visigoths had ruined by conceiving their history as a continuation of the Roman's own; also wrote Etymologies, which was an intellectual effort to preserve and transmit the remains of ancient world knowledge to the future

Peter the Hermit

One of the preachers of the Crusade in France; he led the prelude to the First Crusade which is also known as the "People's Crusade" because many of the crusaders included the downtrodden and the poor (both men and women). The army was destroyed by the Seljuk forces of Kilij Arslan (the Seljuk sultan) because the Byzantine did not want to care for them and redirected them to the Seljuks in Anatolia. The main crusade followed shortly after and was successful

Ma'ara

Present in what is now modern day Syria. The siege of Ma'ara occurred during the first crusade and was famous for the claims of widespread cannibalism by the Crusaders during the winter months - as there were food shortages,

Burning of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Refers to when Fatimid caliph al-Hakim in 1009 ( also known as the "Nero of Islam") ordered that the Church of the Holy Sepulcher be burned as a direct offense against Christians and an attack on the idea of dhimmis. A strange episode that was an abomination in Islam. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was built over the site of "Golgotha" or "Calvary", where Jesus was crucified.

Al-Hakim

The Fatimid Caliph (Egypt) who was known as the "Nero of Islam" for being cruel, merciless, and tyrannical; was the caliph who issued the order for the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to be burned; was considered an anomaly to the islamic faith and fatimid caliphs

Fatimids

The Fatimid caliphate was an Ishmali Shia Islamic caliphate that claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was a dynasty of Arab origin that shifted the center of power of the Islamic world to Cairo, Egypt (909-1171) where they established themselves in 969. A little more than a century later, the Fatimids will be confronted by the European Crusader invasion of Palestine; fought against the crusaders; Jerusalem was taken from them by the Crusaders and they were defeated by the crusaders in the battle of Ascalon

Tripoli

The last of the Crusader states to be captured (northern Lebanon and parts of Western Syria). In 1289, the County of Tripoli fell to Sultan Qalawun of the Muslim Mamluks of Cairo. The county was absorbed into Mamluk Egypt.

Convivencia

The period of Spanish history from the Muslim Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the early eighth century until the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. It describes a period of creative coexistence between muslims, christians, and jews. This was under the operation of dhimmis in islamic spain.

Cairo Geniza

This was a collection of manuscripts that outlined a 1,000-year continuum of Jewish Middle-Eastern and North African history. In addition to Jewish biblical texts, it gives a detailed account of economic and cultural life in that area. The collection was written in various languages, especially Hebrew, Arabic, Aramaic. This was under the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt (Shia muslims)

Timur

Timur, also known as Tamerlane, was a Turkish-Mongol conqueror (ca. 1330-1405). He married into Genghis Khan's family to be seen as a legitimate muslim ruler (which was defined as relation to Genghis Khan, not muhammad, after takeover by the Mongols). He was known for reconquering the eastern Islamic world after the decline of Ilkhanids, which occurs after about 100 years.

Mamluks

Turkish slaves who were transported to Syria and Egypt and became rulers. They were enslaved, transported to Syria or Egypt, educated in war and peace, attached to service of sultan, rose in ranks, freed, and, as emirs and army commanders, became members of ruling class. A state within a state. Overthrew Ayyubid rule. They were also the ones who conquered the last crusader stronghold at Acre in 1291, expelling the crusaders.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

When the Ottoman Empire was defeated in 1918, the Arab population was met with what it perceived as betrayal by the British. The British and French governments concluded a secret treaty (the Sykes-Picot Agreement: a secret agreement between the governments of the UK and France, with the assent of Imperial Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in west Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during WWI. It was largely a trade agreement with a large area set aside for indirect control through an Arab state or a confederation of Arab states.) to partition the Middle East between them.

Balfour Declaration

a public statement issued by the British government during World War I announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine. This declaration was created November 2, 1917

Mosque of Cordoba

congregational mosque (masjid al-jami`), had been the church of San Vicente—built in 785 by Abd al-Rahman I. Its story represents both the vitality and creative dynamism of the convivencia and the abrupt severance of the Reconquista. ii. Several phases of subsequent expansion: the bell tower, that was the minaret given to the building by Abd al-Rahman III (caliph 926) iii. You will see a glorious mihrab, put in by al-Hakam II (final sideways expansion by al-Mansur) iv. horseshoe arches, forest of columns, imaginative brickwork; some of this was echoing late Roman Mediterranean models that the builders could see everywhere in Spain (especially the alternating colored brickwork of the arches; and the reused classical column capitals on many of the columns). v. Insertion of cathedral in the late 16th century; a revival or an act of violence?

Reconquista

the unifying of Hispania under Christian rule by recapturing the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims and expanding Christian Kingdoms in 1492 (when the last Islamic state in Iberia fell). This was done under the reign of Isabella and Ferdinand who were known as the ultimate crusaders

British Mandate of Palestine

was a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I. British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948. During its existence the territory was known simply as Palestine, but, in later years, a variety of other names and descriptors have been used, including Mandatory or Mandate Palestine, the British Mandate of Palestine and British Palestine.

Nasrids

was the last Arab Muslim dynasty in Iberia ruling from 1230 until 1492.The Nasrid dynasty rose to power after the defeat of the Almohad Caliphate in 1212 at the Battle of las novas de tolas. Twenty-three emirs ruled Granada from the founding of the dynasty in 1230 by Mohammed I Ibn Nasr until January 2, 1492, when Muhammad XII surrendered to the Christian Spanish kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. Today, the most visible evidence of the Nasrids is the Alhambra palace complex built under their rule.