Mexican Revolution Unit 1 Key Terms

War Paint

Who: A character from the Underdogs What: She's an armed female soldier. Similar to a soldadera, though she does not represent all of the Adelita ideals, because she is not exactly a "proper" woman. When: 1913-1915-ish in the book Where: Throughout Mexico Why: It's to provide insight into females being involved in the actual revolution rather than just being taken advantage of upon sight when men are storming their village. How: She was a camp follower and a female thug who joined. So what: She is an example of how female soldiers were treated during the revolution.

Luis Cervantes

Who: A city aristocrat conscripted into the Federales who then deserted to join Macias. What: Like representative of Mariano Azuela himself, as they both served as doctors in an army of Villa's. Overall, he represents the conscript Federale and his feelings toward the revolution. When: Since the time of Diaz, federales existed. Huerta's exile disbanded his Federales, but Carranza's troops kept the Federales name. So it's hard to pinpoint a timeline. Where: All over Mexico Why: Under Huerta, press-gangs mass conscripted men as they left church, went to the cinema, etc. He did this because he wanted to stay in power amidst massive public outrage. How: Most Federales were conscripted and deserted. Huerta attempted to raise morale by increasing pay, but that didn't really work. Corruption was rampant. Huerta militarized society in the Prussian style, with all schoolboys and government employees forced to wear military-style clothing and having military drills on Sundays. He ultimately attracted some former rebels, like Pascual Orozco, but not enough to sustain his regime. So what: These Federales helped keep Huerta in power, though obviously not very successfully. The forced conscription as well as rampant corruption, low morale, and poor leadership convinced many to desert and defect to the revolutionaries' sides.

The Punitive Expedition

Who: Involved John J. Pershing, Pancho Villa, The U.S. and Mexican governments What: This was a military operation carried out by the the United States to fight against the troops of Pancho Villa, and to capture Pancho Villa. The government run by Carranza "allowed" U.S. forces to enter the country to pursue Villa. When: The expedition lasted 9 months from 1916-1917. Where: Mainly Chihuahua Why: The expedition was launched to capture Pancho Villa because of his raid of U.S. town, Columbus, where he looted and killed U.S. citizens, which angered the U.S. How: Woodrow Wilson sent Pershing's troops to persecute Villa. Carranza never gave them explicit permission to do so, but did not stop them until Villa used it to claim that Carranza is working with the U.S. So what: This expedition was very unpopular among the Mexican people because Pancho Villa was a very popular figure, and Americans were not very popular in Mexico So, this hurt Carranza's image because it was an unpopular decision to allow the U.S. to enter. So, it hurt the public opinion of the Carranza regime.

1917 Constitution

Who: Carranza and other delegates What: -Article 3: Stripped Catholic church of political power and mandated free public secular education. -Article 27: Radical land reform, nationalizing all land, water, and natural resources. -Article 123: Radical labor reform. Right to strike and organize, minimum wage, 8-hour workday, employer liability for work accidents, limited overtime, at least 1 day of rest a week, paid in legal currency, worker share in profits, 3-months severance pay for laying off someone, equal pay for equal work, maternity leave, physical labor limits for pregnant women, child labor laws, social security, etc. -Article 130: Stripped Catholic Church of economic power. Obligated state registration of churches/religious institutions. Ministers can't hold public office or endorse publicly a candidate. Can only inherit from close-blood relatives. Can't wear clerical garb in public. Religious institutions have to pay taxes. When: Congress held from Nov 20, 1916 to Jan 31, 1917, published on Feb. Where: Queretaro Why: Many delegates were radical and took the congress to measures beyond what Carranza imagined. How: Carranza called for a Constitutional Congress because he felt like the old Constitution was insufficient. So what: Article 27 paved the ground for PEMEX, article 123 was one of the trademarks of Cardenas' regime, article 3, though not enforced, was important in a country where 85% of the people were illiterate, and article 130 played a role in pitting Catholic peasants against the anti-Catholic officials, leading to the Cristero war.

Demetrio Macias

Who: Character in the Underdogs What: He is a general in the Mexican revolution but has no real desire to fight for any cause. He continues to fight because there's nothing left for him to do. He's a general under Natero who is essentially under Villa. When: 1913-1915-ish Where: They travel throughout Mexico Why: He is a general and follows the fights so there's no specific location. How: He was an incredible fighter, looted a lot of towns though and treated women like objects. So what: He is the stereotypical example of many army officers who have no personal ambition to win the revolution but continue to fight anyways.

Zapata

Who: Emiliano Zapata What: Zapata was a leader in the Mexican Revolution who inspired the agrarian movement, led the peasant revolt, fought against Díaz and Madero, and allied with Villa. When: 1879-1919 Where: Mexico Why: Zapata was a man of the people and sincerely just wanted them to have the land reform they desired even if that meant putting up with Villa's crazy tactics. He would basically just chill in a hotel somewhere while Villa was fighting a bloody battle. At first he supported Madero, but then because Madero would not truly enact land reform, he turned against Madero. How: He issued the Plan de Ayala that explained how to restore land to the peasants of Mexico by confiscating land from hacienda owners. So what: He is the iconic hero of the Mexican Revolution because of his idealized view of social justice, and he inspired Article 27.

Battle of Ciudad Juarez

Who: Forces loyal to President Porfirio Díaz against Madero rebel forces. What: Orozco and Villa commanded Madero's army, after 2 days they took control of the town. Díaz was convinced that he could not defeat the rebels and agreed to the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, resigned, and was exiled to France. Interestingly, Madero had told Orozco and Villa to wait for Zapata, who was battling in the south at the time. When: April and May 1911 Where: Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua Why: Díaz was a tyrant of a president. He wanted all Mexican tradition to simply be replaced with that of Europe's tradition. He imprisons any of his political adversaries. Madero had enough of it and with his famous Plan de San Luis Potosí, he armed an uprising against the Porfiriato which succeeded at the Battle of Ciudad Juarez. How: There was a battle and Orozco and Villa were better than Díaz. So what: It was the end of Díaz's long reign and the conflict between Madero and Díaz ending the first phase of the Mexican Revolution. It created the treaty that stated Díaz and his VP Corral were to step down and be replaced by interim president Barra until the next election would be held. Interestingly, Madero did not put anything about land reform in the treaty like he promised.

Madero

Who: Francisco Madero What: He was a reformist who removed Porfirio Diaz from office and became president whereupon he got assassinated. He also wrote the Plan de San Luis Potosi inspiring people to join his cause and kick Díaz out of office. He studied at UC Berkeley and came from a long line of wealthy landowners When: 1837-1913 Where: Mexico Why: He believed that Mexico should not be run by a dictator who was bent on removing Mexico's national identity and was an overall tyrant How: When Madero ran against Díaz for president after Díaz stated in an interview that he was not opposed to democracy, Díaz threw him into jail, Madero escaped, wrote Plan de San Luis Potosi, declared previous election null, galvanized forces, exiled Díaz. Elected with 51% of the votes. So what: Madero is seen as a hero who kickstarted the Mexican Revolution when he galvanized forces against the dictator Díaz.

Veracruz

Who: Huerta, Woody Wilson, etc. What: April 9, 1914, 9 U.S. sailors were mistakenly arrested by Huerta's soldiers while the sailors stopped in Tampico to purchase fuel. The soldiers were released, but the U.S. demanded a 21 gun salute. Woodrow Wilson got pissed that Huerta refused to do the salute, so he asked Congress for authorization to occupy the port of Veracruz. Meanwhile, Wilson was notified that Huerta was awaiting arms delivered by a German ship on April 21. (Of course, the weapons turned out to have been sourced by an American and a Russian, not a German.) Also notable about Veracruz: This was the port that Huerta took Porfirio Diaz to before he left for France. This is also one of Carranza's go-to places as he got kicked out of Mexico City by Villa and Zapata after Aguascalientes. When: US Occupation from April 1914 - November 23, 1914 Where: Veracruz. Why: Pride, etc. The Tampico thing was also because the Huerta soldiers were already on edge from Constitutionalist attacks in the past two days. How: The defense of the port was hindered by lack of central organization and supplies. So what: The U.S. refused to recognize Huerta, embargoed arms to Mexico, and supported Carranza. Strong anti-American sentiments brewed in Mexico. Seriously damaged U.S.-Mexico relations, and also was one of the reasons why Mexico stayed neutral during WWI instead of helping the U.S. in Europe.

Murales

Who: Key ones include Diego Rivera--least surrealist--(Revolution: Fructification, Agrarian Leader Zapata, The Uprising, Flower Seller, The Exploiters), David Alfaro Siqueiros (De Porfirismo a la Revolution, Mining Accident, Portrait of the Bourgeoisie, The Peasant), and José Clemente Orozco--most surrealist--(The Trench, The Zapatistas, Reaching Out, Maternity) What: These artists painted murals often commissioned by the Obregon regime under Vasconcelos' Ministry of Education. When: 1920s to 1970s Where: They painted on federal buildings, palaces, schools, parks, everywhere. Why: To establish a national Mexican identity in an effort to unite the people after the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution. How: Drew upon Mexican roots like folklore and indigenous factors. Often depicted the daily lives of Mexican peasants and workers. While some glorified revolutionary leaders, others depicted the bloodshed of war. Most told the story of Mexico. Many painted murals with a technique called fresco, so that the murals became permanently engrained into the buildings. So what: Helped foster a national identity for Mexico built on pride for all races and classes. Inspired Sergio Eisenstein's Que Viva Mexico!

The Cardenas Regime

Who: Lazaro Cardenas What: Nationalized railroads in 1937 and the oil industry in 1938. He distributed almost 45 million acres of land and furthered indigenismo policies to try to assimilate Indians into Mexican culture through land grants, broader education, art, etc. He improved the conditions of workers and peasants as mentioned by Articles 27 and 123. In December 1937, he dissolved the PNR and formed the PRM, where peasants and workers had their own official sector, as did the military and the middle class. He also advocated for secularism. When: 1934-1940 Where: All over Mexico. He campaigned across 16000 miles of Mexican countryside, visiting remote villages. Why: He wanted to build a national support base for land reform and the nationalization of railroads and oil. He wanted a better, fairer Mexico. How: A supporter of Calles since 16, Cardenas earned the appreciation of Calles and the progressive forces of the PNR. Under pressure from the most left-wing elements within his coalition, Calles decided in 1934 to select Cardenas for the presidency, expecting to manipulate him. However, by 1936 the two had publicly broken as Cardenas refused to suppress the strikes spreading across the country. In 1936, Cardenas expelled Calles from Mexico. So what: Cardenas was extremely progressive and helped ameliorate the lives of millions of Mexicans as well as carved the legacy for Pemex today. However, his popular representation format of a political party became disastrous for the peasants after conservatives took over and exploited the system to gain bargaining power.

Vasconcelos

Who: Minister of Education under Obregon 1921-1924 What: Broke off from Obregon in 1924 and ran for president in 1929. He was a philosopher, essayist, and politician. He fought against Díaz and Huerta. He was Pro Madero. Known for the "Cosmic Race". His achievements include rural schools and more murals. When: The 1920s Where: Mexico Why: As a politician he would organize movements against Huerta, which resulted in his exile, and returned after Huerta was ousted from power. He was also at the Convention of Aguascalientes and as the Minister of Education he created massive amounts of education reform because he believed it to be something beneficial to the people of Mexico. How: He became the Minister of Education appointed under Obregon. So what: He contributed to the arts and education giving people the ability to paint walls of public buildings in Mexico. Greatly contributed to Mexico regaining its national identity.

Corridos

Who: Musicians and artists throughout Mexico What: These folk songs tell stories in poetic form accompanied by simple music, usually in colloquial language. They are a way of expressing identity (like La Cucaracha, La Adelita, Tiempos Amargos) When: Corridos existed before the revolution and continued to be important after as well. Where: Throughout Mexico. Why: These songs were used to keep an oral history of the revolution and spread events that were happening. How: The songs were written by musicians and often performed with Mariachis. So what: These songs were important in preserving Mexican history and producing unity in Mexico as well as nationalism. They are a strong part of Mexican culture and history.

Villa

Who: Pancho Villa What: Pancho Villa was one of the most important figures during the revolution. Originally, he was a supporter of Madero, and after Madero's death, he fought against Huerta. Then, he fought Obregon and Carranza, though before Aguascalientes, for a short time, he allied with Obregon. After Aguascalientes, he allied himself with Zapata, and was fun-loving (AKA acted as bandits) and often failed to discipline his soldiers. When: 1878-1923 Where: Mexico, mainly the North (Chihuahua) Why: He wanted to fight for workers' rights, especially because of his army were workers, laborers, peasants, etc., and he wasn't thought of as being as passionate as Zapata, but they had similar views. Also, he first got into the revolution because Madero's local rep, Abraham Gonzalez, convinced him that fighting for Madero could hurt the hacienda owners. How: He achieved a legendary status using his brilliant military strategy and unconventional tactics. He was famous for his cavalry and his Division of the North. So what: He was and is one of the most popular and iconic figures of the revolution. His impact was in fighting the revolution. His army had a large influence on who became the leader of Mexico, and he supported rights for workers, and his region, he tried to help his people.

Convention of Aguascalientes

Who: Pancho Villa, Zapata, Carranza, and Obregon What: This convention, which was called by Carranza was meant to determine the future of Mexico without Huerta. The convention was meant to establish a new leader (Eulalio Gutierrez). Carranza thought the group would elect him, but when they didn't and achieved sovereignty, he refused to attend. When: The fall of 1914 Where: Aguascalientes Why: This convention was meant to pick a new leader for Mexico.During the convention, the future of Mexico was meant to be determined, including laws. They wanted to elect a neutral leader. How: Each person sent delegates, and the delegates were supposed to determine what happened next. Essentially, Villa went with a large army (violating neutrality rules), Zapata showed up really late, and Obregon was pissed off at Villa because two months ago, Villa had ordered Obregon shot (and then retracted the order). So what: this convention showed all the leaders in a new light. It elected a new leader, saw Obregon switching to the Carrancistas, and formed the alliance between Villa and Zapata.

The Porfiriato

Who: Porfirio Diaz What: The period during which Diaz ruled. During this time, the GDP of Mexico increased 500 times, 15000 miles of railroads were laid down, but 85% of the people were illiterate and 95% of the land was owned by foreigners. The focus on an export economy focusing on cotton, sugar, and henequen forced many squatte peasants into debt peonage. Gave away lots of indigenous land and consolidated power in Mexico. When: Ruled 1876-1910, exiled in 1911 Where: Mexico City Why: He wanted to turn Mexico into little Europe, hoping that foreign investment will industrialize and modernize Mexico and then once the Europeans leave, Mexico will be left with all these factories, infrastructure, etc. How: Repressed dissenters with rurales and federales and often forced people to become a federale. Followed positivism as demonstrated by cientificos, believing that order came before all else, and that moral questions should not define the limits of any law/action. Integrated European art and architecture into Mexico. So what: His actions pissed off so many people that the Mexican Revolution began because people united under Madero to fight this one common enemy.

Men of the Sierra

Who: Quail, Lard, the Indian, Pancracio, Venancio, and Anastasio Montanes. What: These men fought for Villa under the Demetrio's leadership. Division of the North. When: 1910-1914 Where: Northern Mexico Why: They had a strong dislike for the Federales, and eventually fought for no purpose. How: They used unconventional tactics that stunned the Federales. So what: Depicts the typical soldier who fought on the side of Villa.

Cristero war

Who: The clash was between rural Catholics (aided by urban catholics) and government forces. What: The Cristero War was a rebellion in many Mexican states that was carried out by mainly peasant Catholics, who were called Cristeros during the war. It occurred under the Calles rule. It was caused by growing anti-Catholic and secular sentiments in the Mexican government. The constitution of 1917, for example, had some secular articles like article 130 that led to the start of the rebellion. The war led to the death of 90,000 Mexicans, and ended with negotiations brokered by US ambassador Morrow. When: 1926-1929 Where: Took place in mostly central-western Mexican states Why: This war was caused by a growing a secular attitude and certain laws that limited the Catholic Church in the Government. (articles 3 and 130) How: The Catholic church tacitly supported the rebellion. The government, by attempting to "re-educate" the areas that rebelled, only incited further violence. So what: This war demonstrated the influence of the Catholic Church at the time. People were willing to go to war to defend and protect the Church. The Church was so ingrained into daily society that any law against it could merit a revolt. Last major peasant uprising following the end of the armed phase of the Revolution.

La decena tragica

Who: The main parties involved were General Felix Diaz, General Huerta, President Madero, and Henry Lane Wilson. What: On February 9, Felix Diaz and others who supported Porfirio Diaz raided Mexico City and failed to take the palace. Madero, against all advice, appoints Huerta as leader to crush the rebels. This conflict involved fighting between revolutionary forces in the Capital. Huerta, who was supporting Madero, fought against Felix Diaz, who had organized a coup. This conflict claimed the lives of 5,000 people. Towards the end of the week, with urging from Henry Lane Wilson, Huerta joins Diaz's cause and has Madero arrested on the 19 of that month. A few days later, Madero is assassinated. When: Lasted for a week february 9, 1913 - February 19, 1913 Where: Took place in Mexico City Why: This whole incident occurred for a variety of reasons. The first is, many people thought that Madero was an infective leader. Second, Henry Lane Wilson manipulated the whole situation to try and protect US interests. Lastly, Huerta was an opportunistic man who only cared about his self-interests and become more powerful. How: The fighting started out as real, but towards the end, the conflict was faked to trick Madero into believing that Huerta was loyal to him. The civilians received most of the gunfire. Some prisoners of the Belen prison actually opted to stay in jail because it was safer. Diaz and Huerta were brought together by Henry Lane Wilson to overthrow Madero. So what: This event really kicked off the next stage of the revolution. This tragic week was also one of the few battles to be fought in an urban environment. After this week, the revolution continued to rage, and even got more intense.

Carranza

Who: Venustiano Carranza What: A leader in the Mexican Revolution and the first president of the new Mexican republic. He joined Madero against Díaz, then against Huerta who assassinated Madero. His leadership was opposed by Villa and Zapata. Carranza did not favor social reform and did not do much to put land reform into practice. He was involved with the US but eventually kicked out US General Pershing from Mexico who was trying to capture Villa after his raid of New Mexico. US got upset that he wanted the oil industry to go back under Mexican control. Also the one to call the Convention of Aguascalientes and Convention of 1917. When: In power 1915-1920 Where: Mexico City, mostly. Why: These were his political beliefs. He had good military and leadership skills resulting in him being one of the last people standing in the Mexican Revolution. He was far more conservative than Villa and Zapata, and being a Constitutionalist from a well-off background, he did not have much in common at all with Villa and Zapata. How: He had an alliance with Obregón that helped along with US pres Wilson So what: He began taking strong nationalist stances towards Mexico, and it was under his regime that the Constitution of 1917 was created.

Battle of Celaya

Who: Villa vs. Obregon What: A fierce battle between Villa and Obregon When: April 6-15, 1915 Where: Celaya Why: Villa's best general, Felipe Angeles, begged Villa to not meet Obregon at Celaya and instead at another place where Villa's cavalry would not be at such a disadvantage to Obregon's machine guns and trenches as well as Obregon's close line of supplies, especially since Villa's strategy by that point was very predictable: frontal assault. However, Villa didn't want his men to think he was a coward, so he ignored Angeles and went to Celaya anyway. How: Villa sent in wave after wave of cavalry, but despite a brief respite between the two battles of Celaya, he did not learn from his mistakes. The guns and wire cut the horses, and the ground littered with bodies and blood made it difficult for Villa's troops to advance. Also, Villa had asked Zapata--in Mexico City at the time--to intercept supply trains leaving Veracruz for Obregon, but Zapata failed to do so. So what: Turning point in the Mexican Revolution, marking the downfall of Villa (he lost 2000-3000 men). Also, innovative usage of World War I tactics (trenches, machine guns, barbed wire) by Obregon while Villa continued using cavalry.

Obregon/Calles

Who: Álvaro Obregón and Plutarco Elías Calles What: In 1920 Calles and Obregón wanted to assassinate Carranza so that Obregón could be president (1920) and then Calles (1924). Obregon had a literacy campaign, rural indigenous shacks, killed Villa, created the Bucareli Agreements (job creation with foreign investment in oil and mining), and reestablished Mexican identity. Calles implemented a new banking system that gave poor people loans, implemented Article 130 of the constitution (separation of church and state). He also created the first national party (PNR) and had two puppet presidents. When: Obregón president in 1920 and Calles in 1924-1928. Where: Mexico Why: They were political activists so they fought for their beliefs How: Obregon overthrew Carranza (though not exactly in a "coup d'etat persay...), and then chose Calles as his successor. So what: Obregon was instrumental in building a Mexican national identity after the war, and Calles' secularist beliefs led to the Cristero war.