MGMT 436 CHAPTER 4

Learning Styles

-Diverger: Concrete experience, reflective observation, good at coming up with ideas, multiple perspectives -Assimilator: Abstract conceptualization, Reflective observation, good at inductive reasoning -Converger: Abstract conceptualization, Active experimentation, good at decisiveness, practical application of ideas -Accomodator: Concrete experience, Active experimentation, good at implementing decisions, carrying out plans

internal & external conditions

-Internal conditions refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur -include how information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled -External conditions refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning -include the physical learning environment, as well as opportunities to practice and receive feedback and reinforcement

Promoting transfer for closed skills

-Provide detailed checklists to follow -Provide high-fidelity practice -Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance -Reward compliance

Promoting transfer for open skills

-Teach general principles -Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation -Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment -Provide rewards for experimentation

Transfer of learning

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities Transfer refers to trainees applying what they have learned to their jobs Generalization is applying what was learned to situations that are similar but not identical to those in training Maintenance is the continued use of what was learned over time **transfer of training should be considered during the design or purchase of training

learning outcomes - Cognitive strategies

Manage one's own thinking and learning processes. relate to the learner's decision regarding what information to pay attention to, how to remember, and how to solve problems. Use three different strategies selectively to diagnose engine malfunctions. Roy G Biv

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

Observation, experience, and social interaction -Learner-content interaction means that the learner interacts with the training content -includes reading text on the web or in books, listening to multimedia modules, performing activities that require the manipulation of tools or objects (such as writing) -Learner-instructor interaction refers to interaction between the learner and the expert (trainer) -lectures, reinforcement -Learner-learner interaction refers to interaction between learners, with or without an instructor -Learner-learner interaction, including observing and sharing experience with peers, may be especially useful for training interpersonal skills, learning to cope with uncertainty -Communities of practice (COPs) refers to groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work accomplished -learning from social interaction

The stimulus generalization approach is more appropriate for open skills as opposed to closed skills. True or False

TRUE

The working storage and semantic encoding processes of learning both relate to short-term memory. True or False

TRUE

Which of the following is a disadvantage of communities of practice (COPs)? a. Employees are reluctant to participate without an incentive and fear sharing their knowledge with others. b. They are not naturally occurring in companies; hence, they have to be forced. c. Social interaction is discouraged; hence, learning occurs off the job. d. They make it tedious for employees to share best practices, learn from one another, and improve business processes.

a. Employees are reluctant to participate without an incentive and fear sharing their knowledge with others.

_____ is a person's judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn new knowledge and skills. a. Self-efficacy b. Self-actualization c. Self-esteem d. Self-concept

a. Self-efficacy

Good decisiveness, practical application of ideas, and hypothetical deductive reasoning are characteristics of individuals with a _____ learning style. a. converger b. diverger c. assimilator d. accommodator

a. converger

In the context of expectancy theory, _____ relates to trainees' beliefs that they perform the trained skill. a. expectancy b. instrumentality c. self-efficacy d. valance

a. expectancy

_____ refers to the learner's involvement with the training material and assessing their progress toward learning. a. Automatization b. Self-regulation c. Elaboration d. Generalization

b. Self-regulation

Which of the following statements is true of closed skills? a. They require the trainee to adapt the general principles to fit a wide range of circumstances. b. They refer to training objectives that are linked to general learning principles. c. They refer to skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job. d. They are more difficult to train than open skills.

b. They refer to training objectives that are linked to general learning principles.

Intellectual skill as a learning outcome primarily includes the capability to _____. a. state or describe previously stored information b. apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve complex problems c. execute a physical action with precision and timing d. choose a personal course of action

b. apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve complex problems

The learning cycle for a trainee begins with a(n) _____. a. reflective observation b. concrete experience c. abstract conceptualization d. active experimentation

b. concrete experience

In expectancy theory, the belief that performing a given behavior is associated with a particular outcome is called _____. a. valence b. instrumentality c. maintenance d. generalizing

b. instrumentality

In the learning processes, semantic encoding typically involves _____. a. informing learners of the lesson objective b. providing learning guidance to individuals c. providing learners cues that are used in recall d. providing feedback about performance correctness

b. providing learning guidance to individuals

Behavior modeling is a training method that is primarily based on _____. a. goal setting theory b. social learning theory c. expectancy theory d. reinforcement theory

b. social learning theory

_____ relates to the learner's decision regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems. a. Cognitive strategy b. Motor skill c. Attitude d. Verbal information

a. Cognitive strategy

_____ use concrete experience and reflective observation and are good at generating ideas and seeing a situation from multiple perspectives. a. Divergers b. Assimilators c. Convergers d. Accommodators

a. Divergers

learning outcomes - Intellectual skills

Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate novel products. Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements.

learning outcomes - Attitudes

Choose a personal course of action. Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and job involvement. Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours

learning outcomes - Motor skills

Execute a physical action with precision and timing. Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target

Adult learning theory assumes that adults enter a learning experience with a subject-centered approach to learning. True or False

FALSE

Automatization of tasks increases memory demands. True or False

FALSE

Closed skills are highly influenced by managers, peers, and the work environment. True or False

FALSE

Identical elements are maximized when the learning environment matches the trainee as closely as possible. True or False

FALSE

In error management training, trainees are instructed that errors hamper learning and should largely be avoided. True or False

FALSE

In general, it is best to promote a performance orientation among trainees. True or False

FALSE

In the context of adult learning theory (andragogy), group discussions would likely be less appropriate than the traditional lecture method. True or False

FALSE

Individuals with a learning orientation find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety. True or False

FALSE

Instrumentality is similar to self-efficacy. True or False

FALSE

Open skills are those that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job. True or False

FALSE

Providing self-management training is an example of an internal learning condition. True or False

FALSE

The stimulus generalization approach emphasizes near transfer of training. True or False

FALSE

It is best to include a combination of examples and practice, rather than all practice. True or False

TRUE

Most educational theories historically have been developed exclusively to educate children. True or False

TRUE

transfer of training theory

-Transfer of training is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training (e.g., knowledge, equipment, or processes) that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment (near transfer) -Transfer of training is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training (e.g., knowledge, equipment, or processes) that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment (near transfer

Adult learning theory

-andragogy, the theory of adult learning -Adults have the need to know "why" they are learning something -Adults have a need to be self-directed -Adults bring more work-related experiences to the learning situation -Adults enter a learning experience with a problem-centered approach -Adults are extrinsically and intrinsically motivated

Goal Setting Theory

-behavior results from a person's conscious goals and intentions -Goal setting theory also is used in training program design -suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives

Closed & open skills

-closed: training objectives that are linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on their job (1 correct way to do task) -open skills are linked to more general learning principles, involve responding to variable situations with adaptive responses -Open skills are more difficult to train than closed skills because they require the trainee to not only acquire and recall general principles, but also to consider how they can be adapted and used to fit a wide range of circumstances, many of which cannot be practiced during training

learning cycle

-concrete experience: trainee encounters experience -reflective observation: thinks about the problem -abstract conceptualization: think of solutions -active experimentation: implement ideas

Social learning theory

-emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable -Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their behavior -Self-efficacy is a person's judgment about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills -increase self-efficacy by verbal persuasion, logical verification, observation of others (modeling), and past accomplishments

Need theories

-explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes -Maslow's and Alderfer's need theories focused on physiological needs, relatedness needs (needs to interact with other persons), and growth needs (self-esteem and self-actualization) -persons start by trying to satisfy needs at the lowest level, then progress up the hierarchy as lower-level needs are satisfied -Alderfer allows the possibility that if higher-level needs are not satisfied, employees will refocus on lower-level needs -McClelland's need theory focused primarily on needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. -Trainers should attempt to understand learners' needs, explain how training will meet needs, and adapt training -motivation suffers is basic needs are not met -training should not attempt to meet all needs

Goal orientation theories

-goals held by a trainee in a learning situation -Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability or competence in a task -training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress, prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing, and view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process -Performance orientation refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others -define success as high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, and find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them.

Information Processing Theory

-information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the brain -A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-term memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized -The final link in the model is feedback from the environment

transfer of training: Cognitive theory

-likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees' ability to retrieve learned capabilities -Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of training content. -All types of training and environments. -Near & far

Reinforcement theory

-people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes -Trainers need to know what works for their empls -Positive: adding good outcome -Negative: removal of unpleasant outcome -Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome following undesirable behavior -Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome following undesirable behavior

transfer of training: theory of identical elements

-proposes that transfer of training occurs when what is being learned in the training session is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job -Training focuses on closed skills. Work environment features are predictable and stable. -Example: Training to use equipment -NEAR transfer: trainees' ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation

promote learning orientation

-setting goals around learning -experimenting with new ways of having trainees perform trained tasks rather than emphasizing trained task performance -deemphasizing competition among trainees, -creating a community of learning -allowing trainees to make errors and to experiment with new knowledge, skills, and behaviors during training. -constructive feedback

transfer of training: Stimulus generalization

-suggests that the way to understand the transfer of training issue is to construct training so that the most important features or general principles are emphasized -General principles are applicable to many different work situations -Training focuses on open skills. Work environment is unpredictable and highly variable. -Example: Training in interpersonal skills -FAR transfer: trainee's ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment, even though the work environment (equipment, problems, and tasks) is not identical to that of the training session -Key behaviors refer to behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide variety of situations

4 processes of social learning theory

1. Attention: must be aware of the skills or behavior they are supposed to observe 2. Retention: remember the behaviors or skills that they observe 3. Motor reproduction: trying out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that the model received 4. Reinforcement: behaviors that are reinforced (a motivational process) will be repeated in the future

learning process

1. expectancy: the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process -Informing the learner of the lesson objective -Demonstrate the expected performance 2. Perception: ability to organize the message from the environment so that it can be processed and acted upon -Presenting stimuli with distinctive features -Emphasize the features of the subject to be perceived 3. Working storage: rehearsal and repetition of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory -Limiting the amount to be learned -Arrange lengthier material in chunks 4. Semantic encoding: refers to the actual coding process of incoming messages -Providing learning guidance 5. Long-term storage -Elaborating the amount to be learned -Vary the context and setting for presentation and recall of material 6. Retrieval: s identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance -Providing cues that are used in recall 7. Generalizing: being able to adapt the learning for use in similar but not identical situations -Enhancing retention and learning transfer 8. Gratifying: Providing feedback about performance correctness

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

Opportunities to practice: actively involved, overlearning, -Pre practice conditions: - provide info about process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning -Metacognition refers to individual control over one's thinking -Self-regulation refers to the learner's involvement with the training material and assessing their progress toward learning -Provide advance organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs -Help trainees set learning goals -realistic expectations for trainees -overlearning: Trainees need to continue to practice even if they have been able to perform the objective several times -Error management training refers to giving trainees opportunities to make errors during training (helps metacognition) -Massed practice conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously, without resting -spaced practice conditions: individuals are given rest intervals within practice sessions (superior to massed) -Overall task complexity refers to the degree to which a task requires a number of distinct behaviors, the number of choices involved in performing the task, and the degree of uncertainty in performing the task -Mental requirements refers to the degree to which the task requires the subject to use or demonstrate mental skills or cognitive skills or abilities to perform the task -Physical requirements refers to the degree to which the task requires the person to use or demonstrate physical skills -whole practice: t all tasks or objectives should be practiced at the same time -part practice: an objective or task should be practiced individually as soon as each is introduced in the training program • Methods for committing training content to memory • Feedback • Observation, experience, and social interaction • Proper coordination and arrangement of the training program • Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management • Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training

Self-concept: Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction Experience: Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications Readiness: Develop instruction based on the learner's interests and competencies Time perspective: Immediate application of content Orientation to learning: Problem-centered instead of subject-centered

learning outcomes - Verbal information

State, tell, or describe previously stored information. State three reasons for following company safety procedures

Developing a computer program that meets customer specifications is an example of an intellectual skills learning outcome. True or False

TRUE

For more complex tasks, relatively long rest periods appear to be beneficial for learning. True or False

TRUE

Juan, an operations manager has been assigned to train a group of older employees in the logistics department. He has to train them to use new computer software. He begins by reminding them that they were quick in learning the old software. Juan is trying to _____. a. increase the employees' self-efficacy b. deter expectancies of the employees c. create motor reproduction d. raise the valence of the behavior

a. increase the employees' self-efficacy

Logical verification to increase self-efficacy typically involves _____. a. perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered b. trying out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that a model received c. motivating trainees by having employees who have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them d. determining the degree of support for using newly acquired capabilities

a. perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task already mastered

According to the _____, transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, equipment, and other characteristics of the learning environment are similar to those encountered in the work environment. a. theory of identical elements b. stimulus generalization approach c. cognitive theory of transfer d. information processing theory

a. theory of identical elements

Which of the following statements is true of training? a. Recognizing employees' preferences regarding how they want to learn is not advisable. b. It is important to realize that for training to be effective, both learning and transfer of training are needed. c. Transfer of training is to be considered only after the completion of training. d. Transfer of training involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainee

b. It is important to realize that for training to be effective, both learning and transfer of training are needed.

Which of the following examples best reflects an attitude as a learning outcome? a. State three reasons for following company safety procedures. b. Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements. c. Gain a greater appreciation for work-life balance. d. Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target.

c. Gain a greater appreciation for work-life balance.

Which learning outcomes relate to the ability to design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements? a. Cognitive strategies b. Attitudes c. Intellectual skills d. Motor skills

c. Intellectual skills

Which of the following statements is true of organizing as a learning strategy? a. It focuses on memorization of training content. b. It focuses on learning through repetition of training content. c. It requires the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material. d. It requires the trainee to relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, or behaviors.

c. It requires the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material.

_____ refers to practicing a task continuously without breaks. a. Overlearning b. Whole practice c. Massed practice d. Continuous learning

c. Massed practice

_____ is a learning process that involves identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance. a. Generalizing b. Semantic encoding c. Retrieval d. Gratifying

c. Retrieval

Learner-learner interaction is most appropriate when learners have to _____. a. master a task that is completed alone b. maximize their critical thinking and analysis skills c. acquire personal knowledge based on experience d. enhance their self-awareness and self-assessment

c. acquire personal knowledge based on experience

Which of the following creates a learning orientation in trainees? a. Emphasizing trained task performance b. Emphasizing competition among trainees c. Ensuring trainees completely avoid errors and mistakes d. Allowing trainees to experiment with new knowledge and skills

d. Allowing trainees to experiment with new knowledge and skills

_____ refers to individual control over one's thinking. a. Modeling b. Instrumentality c. Valence d. Metacognition

d. Metacognition

Which of the following is an example of the internal conditions necessary for learning? a. Providing trainees opportunities to practice new skills b. Strong messages provided to trainees from credible sources c. Verbal persuasion d. Recall of training content

d. Recall of training content

Behavior modification is a training method that is primarily based on _____. a. goal setting theory b. information processing theory c. expectancy theory d. reinforcement theory

d. reinforcement theory

Expectancy theory

suggests that a person's behavior is based on three factors: -expectancy: Beliefs about the link between trying to perform a behavior and performing well > ensure trainees are confident in their ability -instrumentality: a belief that performing a given behavior (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g., being able to better perform your job) > ensure rewards are received -valence: the value that a person places on an outcome (e.g., how important it is to perform better on the job) > provide & communicate valued rewards -learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program (expectancy) -learning and transfer of training are enhanced when they are linked to outcomes such as better job performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition (instrumentality), and when employees value these outcomes (valence)

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management -Self-management refers to a person's attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behavior -Trainees need to take responsibility for learning and transfer, which includes preparing for training, being involved and engaged during training, and using training content back on the job -. Determining the degree of support and negative consequences in the work setting for using newly acquired capabilities -Setting goals for using learned capabilities -Applying learned capabilities to the job -Monitoring use of learned capabilities on the job -Engaging in self-reinforcement

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer •Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer •Task cues to use new skills •Lack of punishment for using new skills •Extrinsic reinforcement consequences •Intrinsic reinforcement consequences -Lapses take place when the trainee uses previously learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to apply the capability emphasized in the training program -Climate for transfer refers to trainees' perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment that facilitate or inhibit the use of trained skills or behavior (manager and peer support, the opportunity to use skills, and the consequences of using learned capabilities)

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Feedback -information about how well people are meeting the training objectives -feedback should focus on specific behaviors and be provided as soon as possible after the trainees' behavior -Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Methods for committing training content to memory -Reflection involves having trainees spend a short amount of time such as fifteen minutes, reviewing and writing about what they learned and how they performed -important for trainees to understand how they learn -Automatization refers to making performance of a task, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought or attention -Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that can help the learner's brain consider training information as important and help retain it. (M.C, quizes) -Making trainees review and practice over multiple days (overlearning) -pretraining work that can be completed online or using workbooks. -Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Objectives: what trainee is expected to know, quality or level of performance, working conditions • Meaningful content linked to job, presented using familiar concepts & terms, content should be aligned with personal goals -training context should mirror work environ (physical, intellectual, and emotional environment in which training occurs)

features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process

• Proper coordination and arrangement of the training program -Training administration refers to coordinating activities before, during, and after the program •Communicate courses to employees •Prepare instructional materials •Arrange the training facility and room •Test equipment that will be used •Provide support during instruction •Distribute evaluation materials

Learning strategies

•Rehearsal:learning through repetition •Organizing: finding similarities and themes •Elaboration: relating the material to other more familiar knowledge