MGMT310 Exam #2 (Ch. 6-10)

Climate needed to Foster Transfer of Learning

* A Transfer Climate (TC), which consists of: (1) the trainees' characteristics, such as cognitive ability and motivation to learn, (2) the training design, such as training content and instructional method, and (3) the work environment, such as supervisory and peer support, and organizational culture

Ability (& how it differs from Personality)

* Ability - the relatively stable capabilities people have, "what people can do"; contains 3 types: cognitive ability, emotional intelligence, & physical ability - Contrasts with skill (which is trainable & improvable)& personality (which suggests what people might do)

Most & Least Effective Components of Apologies

* Apologies more effective for Competence-Based Violations over Integrity ** Apology Components (Most to Least Effective): 1. Expression of Regret 2. Declaration of Repentance (what you did was wrong & you won't do it again) 3. Explanation 4. Acknowledgement of Responsibility 5. Offer of Repair 6. Request for Forgiveness

How Organizations can become more Trustworthy

* By emphasizing Corporate Social Responsibility - a perspective that acknowledges the responsibilities of a business' economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society ** 3 Steps for Corporate Social Responsibility: 1. Legal Component: follows society's laws since they signify what is viewed as "right" or "wrong" ; speaks on the organizational integrity 2. Ethical Component: organizations have an obligation to do what is right, just, & fair and to avoid them; relevant to an organization's benevolence & integrity 3. Social Component: organizations should contribute resources to improve the quality of life in the communities they work in; involves philanthropic efforts & environmental sustainability

Clear vs. Veiled Purpose Integrity Test

* Clear Purpose Test - straightforward questions about dishonesty (EX: Do most employees take small items from work?) * Veiled Purpose Test - disguised questions without direct correlation to honesty (EX: I don't feel I've had control over my life)

Types of Striving/Goals associated w/ Big 5:

* Conscientiousness people prioritize accomplishment-striving: a strong desire to accomplish task-related goals as a means of expressing personality; also has a moderate correlation with both job performance & organizational commitment * Agreeable people prioritize communion-striving: a strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships as a means of expressing personality (EX: "getting along"> "getting ahead") * Neuroticism people are associated with differential exposure (appraise daily situations as stressful, causing stress more frequently) & differential reactivity to stressors (less likely to believe they can cope with their experienced stressors): involves Locus of Control, negatively associated with life satisfaction * Extraversion people prioritize status-striving: a strong desire to obtain power & influence within a social structure as a means of expressing personality (EX: care about "moving up" & developing their reputation); more likely to emerge as leaders in social & task-related groups, positively associated with life satisfaction * Openness to Experience, when combined with Cognitive Ability, leads to creative thought & eventually creative performance

How Stable are the Big 5 over Time?

* Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, & Openness all trend UP as a person ages * Extraversion stays relatively stable over a person's life * Neuroticism trends DOWN as a person ages

Equity Theory

* Equity Theory: people compare their individual inputs (ability, experience, effort, etc.) to the organizational outputs received (pay, promotions, etc.) * Input is the amount of time or effort one puts into a situation or an opportunity that affects the result or output.

3 Types of Equity Sensitive Individuals:

* Equity sensitivity is an individual's tolerance to negative (others enjoy greater outcomes for the same input) and positive inequity (I receive greater outcomes for the same input) 1. Benevolents - higher tolerance for negative inequity 2. Sensitives - motivated to resolve both positive and negative inequity 3. Entitleds - no tolerance for negative inequity (prefer positive inequity than equity)

Project Globe (Global Leadership & Organizational Behavior Effectiveness): studies the impact of culture on various leader attributes, behaviors, & practices

* Expanded upon Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions by taking into account the categories bolded below - 9 Dimensions of Project Globe: Power Distance, Uncertainty avoidance, Institutional Collectivism, Ingroup Collectivism, Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness, Future Orientation, Performance Orientation, Humane Orientation

How does Affect relate to certain Dimensions of the Big 5?

* Extraverted individuals (positive affectivity), tend to be high in positive mood * Neurotic individuals (negative affectivity), tend to be in a negative mood by experiencing hostility, annoyance, etc.

Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions

** Provides researchers w/ quantitative tool to summarize findings * Different Dimensions include: Individualism-Collectivism, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity-Femininity, and Long-Term--Short-Term Orientation.

Physical Ability (& its various types)

** importance varies according to the nature of the job (EX: a firefighter needs to have more abilities in this area than an accountant); consist of 5 subcategories/abilities 1. Strength: explosive, dynamic, static movements 2. Stamina: exerting oneself over time without giving out 3. Flexibility & Coordination: bending, stretching, coordinating movements 4. Psychomotor: keeping hand/arm steady, precise movements, response time 5. Sensory: near/far vision, night vision, visual color discrimination, speech/auditory recognition, depth perception

Cognitive Abilities (& its various types)

** related to the acquisition & application of knowledge in problem solving, can be assessed by the Wonderlic Personnel Test; broken down into 5 subcategories/abilities that together form the composite of cognitive ability 1. Verbal Ability: oral & written comprehension/expression 2. Quantitative Ability: number facility, mathematical reasoning 3. Reasoning Ability: problem sensitivity, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, originality 4. Spatial Ability: spatial orientation, visualization (good for jobs requiring travel to new places or rearranging displays) 5. Perceptual Ability: speed & flexibility of closure, perceptual speed (good for jobs in CIA such as "code breakers)

Emotional Intelligence (& its various types)

** related to the management & use of emotions when interacting with others; consist of 4 subcategories/abilities 1. Self-Awareness: the ability to understand one's emotions, willingness to acknowledge them, capability to naturally express them 2. Other Awareness: ability to recognize & understand the emotions of others 3. Emotion Regulation: being able to quickly recover from emotional experiences 4. Use of Emotions: the degree in which an individual can harness emotions & employ them to improve their chances of success in whatever he/she desires

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

*evaluates individuals on the basis of four types of preferences: 1. Extraversion (Extravert) vs. Introversion (Introvert) 2. Sensing (clear facts & data) vs. Intuition (prefers hunches about theory) 3. Thinking (logic & reasoning) vs. Feeling (needs & feelings) 4. Judging (planning & goal-setting) vs. Perceiving (flexibility & spontaneity in performing tasks) ** Pros: better self-awareness, Identify both positive & negative behaviors, link trends to personal or professional development ** Cons: isn't the most psychometrically sound test, lacks test-retest reliability, dimension son a continuum aren't really on a continuum, may not be comprehensive, limited relationships with managerial effectiveness

20/60/20 Rule of Organizational Change

- 20/60/20 Rule: a non-scientific ratio that is meant to reflect that whenever major organizational change is in the offing, the staff will fall into one of three groups: * 20% will be on board and ready to do what's necessary to implement the changes. * 60% will understand the need for change, still be skeptical of it, but grudgingly willing to go along. * 20% will not be on board at all.

Types of Workplace Knowledge

1. Explicit Knowledge - easily communicated and available to everyone; main part of what is taught during training (EX: anything found in a manual) 2. Tacit Knowledge - knowledge learned only through experience (EX: skills, intuitions, etc.) * The main difference between these types of knowledge is experience (do NOT need it for explicit, but can only learn tacit through this)

Expectancy Theory (& three believes)

Expectancy Theory: describes the cognitive processes employees undergo when making choices among voluntary responses; directed by seeking pleasure & avoiding pain ★ Expectancy theory is fostered when an employee believes three things: Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence

When do extrinsic reward systems work well?

Extrinsic reward systems tend to work well when performance/objectives are easily measured, required employee coordination is low, tasks are routine/require little cognitive effort, & intrinsic interest in the task is less important (EX: telemarketing, manufacturing, etc.); these systems create convergent thinking which is good for the jobs listed above, but creates WORST performance for jobs requiring cognitive thinking

Bad Apples & Bad Barrels in Ethics

"Bad Apples" are bad/unethical individuals/individual factors, which in turn create a "Bad Barrel" or a bad/unethical situation/situational factors.

Goal-Orientation Theory

* Goal Orientation - people learn differently as a function of the goals/activities they prioritize; three different types of orientation 1. Learning-Orientated: building competence is deemed more important (>) than demonstrating competence; these people learn through doing/experiences, even if they fail; also associated with self-confidence, feedback seeking behavior, & learning performance 2. Performance-Prove Orientation: focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorable of them; associated with lower levels of learning & higher anxiety 3. Performance-Avoid Orientation: focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will NOT think poorly of them (failure is ONLY negative); associated with lower levels of learning & higher anxiety

How does Goal Setting Theory affect characteristics like motivation, feedback, & more?

* Goals activate a psychological drive to reach the goal even without extrinsic rewards. * Goals direct attention, increase persistence and lead people to develop strategies to achieve them * Feedback gives an employee his/her current level of performance * Task complexity reflects how complicated and complex aspects of the goals are ★ Motivation tends to increase as the goal is neared

Barriers of Organizational Change

* Individual Change Resistant - most people don't like change * Lack of Communication - no clear & frequent communication * Lack of Strategic Direction - no clear & achievable objectives * Lack of Consistency - organization doesn't deliver on promises * Cultural Barriers - if your organization is geographically dispersed, it is likely that people working in different regions will disagree not only on the impact of the change itself * Lack of Leadership "Buy-In" - does the CEO/those in charge believe in the change?

Types of Inertia within an Organization

* Inertia: why the current (incumbent) system is being used * Cognitive - the organization is aware better alternatives exist, but still uses current one * Behavioral - out of habit, this is what the organization has always done * Affective - detachment from the current system is stressful or unpleasant * Socio-cognitive - since the norms & organizational culture inhibit change * Economic - the organization has insufficient resources to create a better alternative * Political - because an organization's require so

Rules of Fair Treatment for Interpersonal & Informational Justice:

* Interpersonal: 1. Respect rule - whether employees receive dignified & sincere treatment from authorities 2. Propriety Rule - whether authorities refrain from improper/offensive remarks * Informational 1. Justification rule - comprehensive & reasonable explanation of procedures 2. Truthfulness Rule - whether communications are honest & candid

Motivation's Impact on Job Performance & OC

* Intrinsic motivation (challenge, desire to learn, etc. that provides a feeling of accomplishment & self-worth) has a STRONG POSITIVE (very good) correlation with Job Performance & a MODERATE POSITIVE (pretty good) correlation with Organizational Commitment * The motivators with the strongest correlation to job performance are (1) self-efficacy/competence, (2) goal difficulty, (3) valence

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

* Intrinsic motivation tends to be linked to increased self-esteem, effort, & job satisfaction * Extrinsic motivation results are a bit mixed as some have found lower in these three categories * Extrinsic motivation is more present early in the workday, whereas intrinsic motivation is more present later in the workday

Learning & how it affects Decision-Making

* Learning - a relatively permanent change in an employee's knowledge or skill that results from experience ** Decision Making - the process of generating & choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem; bias (false assumptions) makes this process difficult *** Learning allows individuals to make better/more accurate decisions because they have more knowledge, skills, abilities (KSA's).

Learning's Impact on Job Performance & OC

* Learning has a moderate positive correlation with Job Performance, weak positive correlation with Organizational Commitment) * Training for learning is VERY important: helps learn, which will lead to better/more effective decisions made. * Organizations can foster learning by providing adequate feedback, evaluate/adapt to individual strengths & weaknesses, create a growth-mindset within the organization

Moral Identity & Ethical Culture's role in Ethical Behavior

* Moral identity refers to the importance of morality to a person's identity. This can persuade individuals to do what is right through the fear of being viewed as unethical/morally wrong. * Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and standards that speak to how people should behave and interact with others. An ethical culture can promote correct/moral behaviors within the workplace, leading to a better and more cohesive environment.

Goal Setting Theory

* Motivation is fostered when employees are given specific and difficult goals * Intensity & Persistence are the two strong predictors of task performance

Two-Factor Theory

* Motivators are achievement, personal growth, challenging work. Their presence leads to increased motivation, but absence is NOT necessarily demotivating. * Hygiene factors are salary, benefits, safe and clean work environment etc., Their presence does NOT motivate, but absence is demotivating.

What shapes personality - is it nature, nurture, or both?

* Nature - "pre-wiring;" genetic inheritance & other biological factors * Nurture - external influence (EX: life experiences, conception, etc.) ★ Personality is SIGNIFICANTLY affected by genetic factors (i.e Nature). Studies of identical twins & personality stability over time suggest only between 35-49% of variation in personality is genetic (Personality takes several years to change).

Observation (Social Learning Theory)

* Observation - people have the ability to observe others & learn from their behaviors; "monkey see monkey do"; 4 steps below 1. Attentional Processes: learner focuses attention on the critical behaviors exhibited by the model 2. Retention Processes: learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the model is no longer present 3. Production Processes: learner must have the appropriate skill set & be able to reproduce the behavior 4. Reinforcement: learner must view the model receiving reinforcement for the behavior & then receives it themselves

Personal/Moral "Fudge Factor" & How it's Affected

** Personal Fudge Factor: the amount of cheating/moral dishonesty that a person can partake in & still feel good about themselves * Factors that decrease Fudge Factor - reminding people of their mortality * Factors that increase Fudge Factor - being a step removed from the reward, the impact of an ingroup

Downside of Cognitive Ability, Socioeconomic Status in OB (& different types of tests)

* People can perform poorly on cognitive ability tests due to factors outside of actual mental ability (bad test taking skills, socioeconomic status, etc.) * Coming from a more disadvantaged background means some may not have access to resources to develop cognitive ability ** Wonderlic Test, but should be paired with "non-cognitive" assessments for best results

What is personality? What is it composed of? What are traits and cultural values?

* Personality - the structures & propensities inside a person that explains his/her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, & behavior; comes from traits & cultural values * Refers to people's Social Reputations - the way people are perceived by others; captures what people are like (while ability reflects what people can do) - Cultural values: shared beliefs about desirable states or modes of conduct (EX: traditional, respectful to authority, assertive) - Traits: recurring regularities/trends in people's responses to their surrounding (EX: caring, easygoing, adventurous)

Personality & Integrity Tests (& their concerns)

* Personality tests can be useful when hiring/determining best fit, but should be paired with other types of test * Integrity tests are more strongly related to job performance than conscientiousness scores; blends multiple big five dimensions * "Faking" one's responses, doesn't get an accurate depiction of one's integrity/personality

Psychological Empowerment & its 4 beliefs

* Psychological Empowerment: an intrinsic motivator derived from the belief that one's work tasks are contributing to some larger purpose * Fostered by 4 beliefs: 1. Meaningfulness - the purpose of one's work relative to their ideals & passions 2. Self-Determination - a sense of choice in initiating & continuing work tasks 3. Competence - a person's belief/confidence in their abilities to perform work tasks successfully 4. Impact - the sense a person's actions will "make a difference" toward something of importance

Reinforcement Method of Learning

* Reinforcement - the method of encouraging or discouraging continued behavior by creating consequences for the behavior; **people learn to behave to get things they want and to avoid things they don't want** *** 5 Types of Reinforcement: - Positive Consequences 1. Positive Reinforcement (MOST EFFECTIVE): Contingent Presentation w/ Positive Consequences - Target Behavior occurs MORE (EX: A Treat for a Sitting Dog) 2. Punishment (Response Cost): Contingent Withdrawal w/ Positive Consequences - Target Behavior occurs LESS (EX: Not Walking a Dog for Pooping in House) - Negative Consequences 3. Punishment: Contingent Presentation w/ Negative Consequences - Target Behavior occurs LESS (EX: Putting a Dog in Cage for Pooping in House) 4. Negative Reinforcement: Contingent Withdrawal w/ Negative Consequences - Target Behavior occurs MORE (EX: Withholding a Dog's Treat until it goes to the bathroom outside) 5. Extinction: no contingent consequence - Target Behavior occurs LESS

Self-Determination Theory

* The Self-Determination Theory is based on the 3 BASIC needs of Humans: 1. Competence: the need to be effective in dealing with one's environment 2. Autonomy: the need to control the course of one's own life 3. Relatedness: the need to have a close, affectionate relationships with others

Trust's Impact on Job Performance & OC

* Trust has a moderate positive correlation with Job Performance, but a strong positive Organizational Commitment * Trust influences citizenship behaviors: - Employees who DO trust their authorities have mutual investment, the willingness to be vulnerable, increased efforts, & decreased stress. - Employees who DON'T trust their authorities have an economic (impersonal, "tit-for-tat") exchange.

Types of Heuristics vs. Biases

** Bias: false assumptions; makes decision-making process difficult ** Heuristics: simple, efficient rules of thumb that allows decisions to be made easier (3 Types) 1. Availability Heuristic: the tendency to make a decision based on how easy it is to recall (more readily "available" in memory) 2. Representative Heuristic: the tendency to make a decision because the probability of the outcome fits within our schemas, categorizations, & prior experiences 3. Conjunction Fallacy: the assumptions specific conditions are more probable than a single general one; tendency to ignore base rates in calculations of probabilities Phantom Recall: recall things that "sound about right" * Sunk Cost Fallacy: when individuals continue a behavior or endeavor as a result of previously invested resources (time, money or effort) * Anchoring & Adjustment Bias: a person uses a specific target number or value as a starting point (anchor), and subsequently adjusts that information until an acceptable value is reached over time * Framing & its types: when our decisions are influenced by the way information is presented - Risky Choice Fallacy: avoid risks when potential gains are emphasized (risk averse) & take risks when potential losses are emphasized (risk seeking) - Attribute Framing: evaluate a characteristic more positively when emphasized in positive terms over negative ones (EX: 80% Fat-Free > Only 20% Fat) - Moral Framing: framing information so it appeals to one's morals

Errors in Feedback: Self-Serving Bias, Halo Effect, Recency Bias, Above-Average Bias, Unskilled & Unaware Effect

** Feedback - most feedback is useless because it is sugarcoated, given too late (or @ the wrong time), bad, inconsistent, relational; feedback is often poor because it is uncomfortable for the giver * Self-Serving Bias: success is due to internal attributes, while failure is due to external attributes; provides SOME psychological benefits, but its blinds us from honest feedback & is really annoying when observed from others * Halo Effect: rating an employee the same on all dimensions, even if the performance differs * Recency Bias: more weight given to recent events compared to past events * Above-Average Bias: people tend to overestimate their relative performance * Unskilled & Unaware Effect: least skilled people overestimate their competency, whereas highly skilled people underestimate their competency

Holland's RIASEC Model

** Judges Personality on 2 dimensions: (1) Data vs. Ideas & (2) Things vs. People R - Realistic: enjoys practice, hands-on tasks I - Investigative: enjoys abstract, analytical thinking A - Artistic: enjoys entertaining, fascinating others S - Social: enjoys helping & serving others E - Enterprising: enjoys persuading, outperforming others C - Conventional: enjoys organizing, regulating people/things

Locus of Control

** Locus of Control: reflects the distinction of believe that events are driven by luck/chance/fate vs. people's own behaviors; strongly correlated with neuroticism (2 types) - Internal L.O.C: believe their own behavior dictates events; associated with higher levels of job satisfaction & performance (held by less neurotic people) - External L.O.C: believe events that occur are driven by luck/chance/fate (usually held by more neurotic people)

How do perceptions in Trust develop over Time?

New Relationships begin with Disposition-Based Trust, which then develop into Cognition-Based Trust. Very few relationships make it to Affect-Based Trust

Factors that help Repair Trust

1. Actions > Words 2. Backwards Focus (Acknowledge your past mistakes) > Forward Focus (stating you won't make the mistake again) 3. Active Third Party (other people overseeing/helping repair the trust) >Passive Third Party (no one overseeing/helping repair the trust)

Big 5 Personality Traits

1. Conscientiousness (MOST IMPORTANT) - dependable, organized, reliable; biggest impact on performance 2. Agreeableness - kind, cooperative, & sympathetic; "niceness" factor 3. Neuroticism - nervous, moody, emotional; one's emotional stability/adjustment (SECOND most important after conscientiousness) 4. Openness - curious, imaginative, creative; "high culture" 5. Extraversion - talkative, sociable, passionate; easiest to judge from 1st encounter

Types of Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous: reward given every desired behavior; high level of performance, but difficult to maintain (EX: praise) 2. Fixed Interval: reward given during fixed time period; average level of performance (EX: paycheck) 3. Variable Interval: reward given during variable time periods; moderately high level of performance (EX: supervisor walk-by) 4. Fixed Ratio: reward given after a fixed number of desired behaviors; high level of performance (EX: piece-rate pay) 5. ** Variable Ratio: reward given after a variable number of desired behaviors; VERY HIGH (highest) level of performance because people know a reward is coming for their continued efforts (EX: Commission pay)

3 Aspects of Motivation

1. Direction - where an individual is focusing their energy 2. Intensity - how hard an individual is trying 3. Persistence - how long an individual can maintain their effort

3 Sources of Trust

1. Disposition-Based Trust: Trust Propensity - the expectation that words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon; "faith in human nature," often shaped by early childhood experiences & altered through adulthood * May manifest as "Blind Trust" (putting people at risk to be fooled by unworthy individuals) 2. Cognition-Based Trust: evaluation of trustworthiness - the characteristics/attributes of a trustee that lead individuals to trust him/her; contains 3 attributes (a) Ability - skills, competencies, expertise (b) Benevolence - belief that authority wants to do good for the trustor (think mentor-protege relationship) (c) Integrity - perception that authority adheres to a set of values/principles that trustor deems acceptable; alignment between words/deeds 3. Affect-Based Trust: emotional>rational; trust because we have feelings for the person * Can be a neurological reaction (oxytocin: "cuddle hormone") which may supplement other forms of trust in the relationship

3 Concepts of Expectancy Theory

1. Expectancy: the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of a task, leading to a successful outcome (EX: the belief trying harder will make you successful) 2. Instrumentality: the belief a successful performance (P) will result in a successful outcome (O) 3. Valence: the anticipated value (V) of the outcomes associated with performance; can be positive (salary increase, bonus), negative (disciplinary actions), or indifferent (I don't care)

Four Component Model of Ethical Decision-Making:

1. Moral Awareness - when authority recognizes a moral issue exists in a situation or that an ethical code/principle is relevant; depends on Moral Intensity (degree of feeling that a person has about the consequences) & Moral Attentiveness (recall and reporting of self- and others' morality-related behaviors 2. Moral Judgement - the process used to determine whether a particular course of action is ethical or unethical; contains a preconventional (right vs. wrong in terms of consequences), conventional (right vs. wrong in terms of one's expectations), & principled stage (right vs. wrong in terms of established moral principles) 3. Moral Intent - degree of commitment to the moral course of action; must WANT to act ethically 4. Ethical Behavior - behavior accepted from norms of morality; contains three types (a) Unethical Behavior: behavior that clearly violates accepted norms of morality; can be directed at employees, customers, financers, or society as a whole (b) "Merely Ethical" Behavior: behavior that adheres to some minimally accepted norms of morality (c) "Especially Ethical" Behavior: behavior that exceeds to some minimally accepted norms of morality; may include charitable giving or whistle blowing

Two Methods of Decision Making

1. Programmed Decisions: essentially automatic decisions because people's knowledge allows them to recognize & identify a situation w/ appropriate course of action 2. Nonprogrammed Decisions: complex, new decisions, involves 5 steps in the rational decision process - (1) Identify Important Criteria, (2) List Available Alternatives, (3) Evaluate Alternative vs. Criteria, (4) Select Best Solution, (5) Implement Solution

3 Phases of Organizational Change (Model developed by Lewin that describes the "flow" of individual process)

1. Unfreezing: overcoming inertia and dismantling the existing mind set. It involves getting over the initial defense mechanisms that people exhibit to avoid making a change 2. Change: a period of confusion and transition in which people are unsure about the change and what may happen in the future 3. Freezing/Refreezing: the new mindset of the change begins to become the standard, and people's comfort levels return to normal

What dimensions can be used to describe the trustworthiness of an authority?

Ability, benevolence (the degree to which authority wants to do good for trustor), integrity

3 Outcomes for Comparisons/Outcomes for Equity Theory:

Comparisons/Outcomes: 1. Equity: (Your Outcomes/ Your Inputs) = (Other's Outcomes / Other's Inputs) - No action needed; all is in balance, so you feel pretty good with the world. 2. Under rewarded: (Your outcomes/ Your inputs) < (Other's Outcomes / Other's Inputs) - You feel anger, restore balance by (1) Shrinking your inputs to align with your outcomes OR (2) increase your outcomes by talking to your boss or stealing. 3. Over rewarded: (Your outcomes/ Your inputs) > (Other's Outcomes / Other's Inputs) - You should feel guilty; Restore equity by (1) increasing inputs, (2) by giving away some of your outcomes (3) by cognitive distortion

ERG Theory Order

Existence needs, relatedness needs, growth needs.

What is motivation? What is motivation's relationship with engagement?

Motivation - a set of energetic forces that originate both within & outside an employee that initiates work-related effort and determines its direction, intensity, & persistence * If employees are unmotivated, their skills/experience/abilities/etc. are WASTED!

What factors influence individuals' perceptions of disposition-based trust?

Nature & Nurture; where we live

Personality's Impact on Job Performance & OC

Personality (specifically, conscientiousness) has a moderate correlation with both job performance & organizational commitment

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Physiological needs, safety needs, social/belonging needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs. * Needs at the bottom of the pyramid (like physiological/safety) MUST be met prior to satisfying needs higher up in the hierarchy (EX: someone who doesn't even have food is not going to be satisfied by feelings of accomplishment)

Methods of Learning within an Organization

Reinforcement, Observation, Goal Orientation, Feedback

Self-Efficacy (& its role in Expectancy Theory)

Self-efficacy (part of Expectancy), is the belief the person has the capability/confidence to perform a task, consists of past accomplishments (success/failures in past), vicarious experiences (discussions with others who have performed the task), & verbal persuasion (friends, etc. persuading someone to "get the job done")

Needs Theory

The Needs Theory is also known as Maslow's Hierarchy and ERG theory. Assumptions of needs theories are that physiological and psychological deficiencies (certain fundamental human needs) drive the behaviors of people. * This may foster extrinsic motivation (external like bonuses, pay, etc.) or intrinsic motivation (when completion serves its own reward like an accomplishment).

Expertise (how to achieve it)

The difference between experts & novices (achieving expertise) is almost ALWAYS a function of their learning (as opposed to increased intelligence, etc.)

Theory X vs. Theory Y

Theory X implies people only work for money, while Theory Y states individuals are highly self-motivated

How can the Big 5 tap into one's integrity?

Using the Big 5, we can tap into a person's integrity based on if they have: high conscientiousness, low neuroticism, & high agreeableness

What makes an outcome have high valence?

Valences are based on NEEDS (clusters of outcomes with critical psychological or physiological consequences)

Extrinsic Incentive Bias

bias where individuals tend to attribute more weight to extrinsic incentives (like $) than intrinsic incentives (like learning a new skill) to others rather than themselves

Trust

the willingness to be vulnerable to an authority based on positive expectations about the authority's actions & intentions (when trust is increased, acceptance of vulnerability increases) * Fostered by Disposition, Cognition, & Affect-Based Trust

Cognitive Ability's Impact on Job Performance & OC

★ General Cognitive Ability has a STRONG positive correlation with Job Performance, but a WEAK positive correlation on Organizational Commitment; people high in this ability tend to be better @ learning & decision making

Ethics (& its 4 components)

✮ Ethics - when & why authorities are more/less likely to adhere to a certain set of rules; contains; prescriptive ethics is how people ought to act, while descriptive ethics is how people tend to act * The Social-Economic Theory has proven that even as costs/benefits increases/decreases, the likelihood of cheating REMAINS THE SAME ** 4 Components include: Moral Awareness, Moral Judgement, Moral Intent, Ethical Behavior

Justice (& its 4 types w/ examples)

✮ Justice - the perceived fairness of an authority's decision making; behavioral indicator of when trust is violated; 4 types used in judgement of decisions 1. Distributive Justice - fairness in authority decision-making outcomes (EQUITY - proper pay, rewards, etc.) EXAMPLE: Adequate pay for services 2. Procedural Justice - fairness of authority decision-making outcomes (Six Key Components: Voice, Correctability, Consistency, Bias Suppression, Representativeness, Accuracy) EXAMPLE: Authorities adhere to rules of decision making * HIGH Distributive Justice causes for HIGH Reaction (obedience) to Authority even when Procedural Justice is LOW 3. Interpersonal Justice - fairness of treatment from authorities, abides by two rules: (1) Respect rule - whether employees receive dignified & sincere treatment from authorities, (2) Propriety Rule - whether authorities refrain from improper/offensive remarks ** OPPOSITE EXAMPLE: Abusive Supervision - sustaining hostile verbal & nonverbal behaviors, excluding physical contact (~15% of employees suffer from this) - cost U.S businesses $24 billion annually due to absenteeism, health care costs, & lost productivity from this action * Interpersonal Actions are so important because negative interactions on mood are x5 stronger than positive ones! 4. Informational Justice - fairness of communications to employees from authorities, abides by two rules: (1) Justification rule - comprehensive & reasonable explanation of procedures, (2) Truthfulness Rule - whether communications are honest & candid EXAMPLE: using adequate and reasonable messages & modalities