MGT 304 exam 2

which leader behavior is most effective?

-Behavioral flexibility -Engaging in the right behavior at the right time -Contingency/situational approaches: Leaders must change their behaviors based on how able & willing followers are.

Initiating structure

-Define tasks for employees and focus on goals -related to -leader job performance -group performance

stage three of negotiation- exchanging task related information

-Each side typically makes a presentation and states its position. Then, there is a question-and-answer period, and alternatives are discussed.

underpayment inequity

-FP outcome-input ratio is less than the CO outcome-input ratio -FP (focal person) is payed less for the same amount of work done as CO (coworker) -when FP is aware of this, FP feels that it is unfair -experiences dissonance and stress -becomes demotivated to work

overpayment inequity

-FP outcome-input ratio is more than the CO outcome-input ratio -FP will distort input or outcome (their own or their CO's) to justify/rationalize their overpayment inequity

reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)

-a theory of motivation -emphasis on the role of the environment (ignores the potential effects of individual personality, thoughts, and attitude) *-based on the law of effect -behavior is driven by its consequence

overconfidence bias (hubris)

-an inflated confidence in the accuracy of a person's knowledge or estimates, sometimes referred to as hubris.

managerial leadership

-both managers and leaders are needed for optimal organizational performance -to some extent, the two roles overlap -adapting to situational demands

Stage one of negotiation- preparation

-develop profiles of counterparts -gear one's own strategy to the other side

what are the four forms of organizational justice?

-distributive justice -interpersonal justice -informational justice -procedural justice

what are the three principles of expectancy theory?

-expectancy: more effort--> good performance -instrumentality: good performance --> organizational rewards -valence: organizational rewards -value rewards=positive valence

prospect theory

-explains why sometimes people make irrational decisions -people are willing to settle for a reasonable gain (even if they have a reasonable chance of earning more) but are also willing to engage in risk-seeking behaviors where they can limit their losses

escalation of commitment

-occurs when individuals continue a failing course of action after receiving feedback that shows it isn't working -people want to recoup losses and show they were right all along

what is the law of effect

-past actions that led to positive outcomes tend to be repeated -past actions that led to negative outcomes will diminish

framing (in prospect theory)

-refers to whether questions are presented as gains or losses •Decisions are strongly affected by how options are presented. •People emphasize gains over losses --make decisions that increase gain while avoiding loss •Loss and gain are treated differently --Irrational decisions based on a subjective calculation of expected utility

Leader- Member Exchange (LMX)

-the quality of the working relationship developed with each follower, characterized by more delegation of authority to those with high-quality LMX

what are the names of the five stages of the negotiation process?

1. preparation 2. relationship building 3. exchange of task-related information 4. persuasion 5. concessions and agreement

Combating the primacy effect

1.Accountability influences a person's vigilance & improves processing of all information presented. 2.Imagine that you would have to justify a decision to your boss or even a group of strangers. 3.Try to "reset" and view the situation as if you had no prior exposure.

what are the three reasons for motivation to lead? MTL

1.Affective-identity MTL -Natural tendency to lead 2.Social-normative MTL -Because of a sense of duty or responsibility. 3.Non-calculative MTL Does not calculate the costs & benefits of becoming a leader

what are the three dimensions of trust?

1.Calculus-based trust 2.Knowledge-based trust 3.Identification-based trust

what kind of support do mentors give to their proteges?

1.Career 2.Social 3.Role model

combating availability bias

1.Elaborative interrogation •People generate their own explanation of factual statements that are presented to them. •Leads to willingness to let go of preconceived notions & learn new material that challenges beliefs 2.Self-awareness •Consider why you are making a decision, and how much influence comes from information you see frequently.

what are the three stages of the motivation process?

1.Energizing: Activating underlying needs and drives. 2.Directing: Directing energized behavior toward goals that are important to the employee & the organization. 3.Sustaining: Maintaining energized and directed behavior. (offer rewards that are important to employees) -feedback is after sustaining behavior and this does a loop back to stage 1 of energizing (to keep behavior on track)

interpersonal justice

1.How employees are treated by their leaders, including respect and propriety.

Why do perceptual errors matter at the workplace and what are their implications for leaders?

1.Interpretations of leaders' and coworkers' behavior 2.How applicants are seen in interviews 3.Performance appraisals

what are the three questions to ask after a trust violation?

1.Is the trustee innocent or guilty? 2.If guilty, should this be attributed to the situation or person? 3.If attributed to the person, is the shortcoming fixable or an enduring characteristic?

What are the five common perceptual biases? How to combat them? What are their implications? Etc.

1.Primacy 2.Recency 3.Availability 4.Contrast 5.Halo (acronym- PRACH)

Combating the recency effect

1.Rehearsal: Repeat info 2.Coding: Link info you need to remember to something familiar 3.Mnemonic coding: Create acronyms 4.Imaging: Link verbal info to visual images

How do effective LMX relationships develop?

1.Role-taking: Boss tests the commitment of the follower by offering extra work. 2.Role-making: Mutual expectations of the working relationship are established, and the follower's role is made clearer. 3.Role routinization: Roles become stable as the leader and follower both know what to expect.

distributive justice

1.The fairness of decisions made, as perceived by followers, regarding what people receive (e.g., compensation, rewards, promotions, etc.) as a result of their knowledge, skills & effort on the job.

informational justice

1.The perceived fairness of the communications made by leaders during a process. Informational justice requires full explanations of processes and an understanding that the leader is being truthful.

procedural justice

1.The perception of how fair the process is in making decisions that affect employees.

combating contrast effects

1.Use standard and numerical score sheets. 2.Use behavioral and situational questions. 3.Ask the same questions in the same order for each applicant. 4.Avoid questions that are unrelated to the position you are interviewing for.

Primacy effect

AKA "belief perseverance" Once a person has formed an initial impression, they maintain it even when presented with concrete evidence that it is false. •Persists due to "Belief Updating" Belief updating - Where initial information affects the conclusion one draws, and this conclusion then impacts later judgments. Leads to persistence of stereotypes Stereotypes - A widely held but typically inaccurate & oversimplified set of beliefs held about a group of individuals, which has a strong effect on first impressions.

mentoring

An intense developmental relationship whereby advice, counseling, and developmental opportunities are provided to a protégé by a mentor, which, in turn, shapes the protégé's career experiences.

Transformational leadership - idealized influence

Being admired and respected by followers is the core of this leadership component. These leaders are seen as change agents in the organization

which trait has an effect on leadership emergence and effectiveness?

Extraversion

how to repair broken trust if guilty?

If a trustee is guilty, an apology may be effective. Apologies should: •Be remorseful and repentant •Mention any extenuating factors that played a role •Be seen as adequate to be effective

how to repair broken trust if innocent?

If a trustee is innocent, they should: •Emphasize lack of guilt •Deny the transgression •Offer any available exonerating information •Remaining reticent is risky; people tend to assume the worst

what are the two categories of leader behaviors?

Initiating structure and Consideration

what is the definition of motivation?

Motivation has been defined as "what a person does (direction), how hard a person works (intensity), and how long a person works (persistence)."

Motivator-hygiene theory/two-factor theory

Motivators- things that come to mind when people think about what satisfies them at work (ex. advancement, recognition, achievement) Hygienes- things that come to mind when people think about what makes them dissatisfied at work (ex. supervision, pay, company policies, working conditions)

McClelland's three fundamental needs theory

Need for Achievement (nAch) The drive to succeed at high levels. Need for Power (nPow) The need to influence others to do what you want. Need for Affiliation (nAff) The need for close personal relationships.

halo error

Occurs when rater's overall positive impression or evaluation strongly influences ratings of specific attributes •Ubiquitous in organizations •Most serious rating error made by managers. •Flawed assumption: If a follower is good at one aspect of the job, they are good at everything.

Availability Bias

The tendency to make judgments based upon what most readily comes into the mind.

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember the information presented most recently in a series of information. -What happens when primacy effect & recency effect combine? -what happens in free recall tests? ØBoth the first and last items are remembered much better than items in the middle of a series.

extrinsic motivation

When someone works on a task because there is a performance-to-outcome instrumentality between the task and a tangible reward. •Satisfaction comes from the reward, not the task itself.

intrinsic motivation

When someone works on a task because they find it interesting and gain satisfaction from the task itself.

continuous reinforcement

a behavior is rewarded whenever a behavior occurs

positive reinforcement

a favorable event or outcome presented after the behavior ex. praise, bonus

the trait approach

a theory of leadership that believes that leaders are born with the talent and abilities for leadership -this contrasts with most other leadership theories, which propose that leadership can be learned

vertical job loading

a type of job loading that adds decision making responsibility -likely to also increase autonomy

horizontal job loading

adds different tasks at the same level ex. •Job rotation: Cross-train or allow workers to do different jobs. •Combining tasks: Designing workflows to create natural work units.

Behavioral approach towards leadership

assumes that leaders are made, not born

why do people commit perceptual errors?

because people make mental shortcuts to simplify information they need to process

stage four of negotiation- persuasion

dirty tricks are in the eye of the beholder ex. false information, calculated delays, uncomfortable rooms, rudeness, threats

what are reinforcers?

factors which strengthen or increase the behavior it follows

stage two of negotiation- Relationship building

getting to know one's contacts and building mutual trust

the pygmalion effect

high performance expectations set by a leader play a significant role in improving follower motivation and performance -raise expectations of followers -> boost their performance

who are the in group and out group members in the LMX

in group members -take on extra work. go above and beyond the job description out group members -perform just to the specifications in job description

Contrast effects

judgments are strongly affected by reference objects.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

level 5- self actualization (the drive to meet our fullest capacity) (growth, feelings of fulfillment, etc.) level 4- self-esteem needs (status, recognition from others, etc.) level 3- social needs (belongingness, love, friendship, etc.) level 2- safety needs (protection from physical harm) level 1- physiological needs (hunger, sex, and other bodily needs)

bounded rationality

limits on a decision-maker's ability to assimilate large amounts of information. happens due to two guesses: -a guess about uncertain future consequences -a guess about uncertain future preferences

Loss aversion (in prospect theory)

losses weigh more heavily emotionally in decision-making than an equivalent gain

Horns error

occurs when rater's overall negative impression or evaluation strongly influences ratings of specific attributes (opposite of halo error)

equity theory

people may become demotivated or put forth less effort when they feel that what they give and what they get is not in balance

positive punishment (punishment by application)

present an unpleasant event or outcome to weaken a behavior ex. add a written reprimand to an employee's file

Contingent reward

promise or give rewards to followers contingent on their performance

what is "growth needs strength"?

refers to a person's need to learn new things, grow and develop from working

negative punishment (punishment by removal or extinction)

removal of a pleasant event or outcome to weaken a behavior ex. withhold praise for poor performance

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant event or outcome after the display of a behavior ex. stop criticism after an improvement in behavior

which core job dimensions lead to which critical psychological states, and in turn what kind of work and personal outcomes do they result in?

skill variety, task identity, and task significance= experienced meaningfulness of the work autonomy= experienced responsibility of the work feedback= knowledge of the actual results of the work activities -all of these ultimately lead to the personal and work outcomes of high internal work motivation, high quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover

Laissez-faire leadership

the "near avoidance of leadership" the least active and least effective of all the leadership styles in the full-range model

task significance (job characteristics theory)

the degree to which the job is seen as having an impact on others or doing something good for society

Consideration

the degree to which the leader shows trust, respect and sensitivity to employee's feelings -related to -follower satisfaction (with both leader and job) -motivation -leader effectiveness

autonomy (job characteristics theory)

the employee has the freedom to plan and perform his or her own work

feedback (job characteristics theory)

the job provides information on the effectiveness of the employee's work

leadership

the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives

task identity (job characteristics theory)

the task is one that people experience from beginnings to final product

hindsight bias (i knew it all along effect)

the tendency for individuals with outcome knowledge (hindsight) to claim they would have estimated a probability of occurrence for the reported outcome that is higher than they would have estimated in foresight (without the outcome information) -person recalls the old event and responds consistently with the memory of it -person focuses on the outcome and adjusts their belief, pretending that they didn't know the outcome -belief is reconstructed based upon wha the judgment would have been prior to the outcome -person wants to be seen as accurate, and is likely to claim that they "knew it all along"

skill variety (job characteristics theory)

the use of different skills and abilities at work

the satisfice decision-making approach

to make a decision that is satisfactory, but perhaps not optimal. -decision makers simplify complex problems to limit the amount of information processing needed but behave rationally within the confines of this simplified model.

the golem effect

when a leader sets lower expectations of his/her followers which leads to lower follower performances -when an individual sets lower expectations which leads to his/her own lower performances

the galatea effect

when an individual sets high expectations and then performs to those expectations

sunk costs fallacy

when continued commitment occurs because a person has already invested in this course of action and does not recognize that what they invested initially is sunk (or gone)

Calculus based trust (CBT)

•Based upon keeping records of what another person does for you and what you do for them. •"Arm's length" form of trust •Minimizes vulnerability for each party

Transformational Leadership

•Behaviors that mobilize extra effort from followers through emphasis on change through articulating a new vision for the organization. •Most related to positive attitudes, commitment, and follower performance.

fixed interval schedule

•First response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. •Causes high amount of responding near the end of the interval.

Job characteristics theory (JCT)

•Focuses on the motivating potential of work •Work itself may have characteristics that have the potential to motivate people to higher levels of performance. •JCT specifies five core job dimensions. These dimensions combine to produce the critical psychological states that enhance motivation

identification based trust

•Highest degree of trust •Leader & follower share same goals & objectives. •No need for record-keeping; the predictability of the follower's behavior is assumed. •Highly efficient for the leader: Followers take care of details while the leader focuses on the strategic vision or negotiating group resources.

Management by exception - Passive (MBE-P)

•Leader does not actively look for errors or deviations from work standards, but when noticed, they take corrective action

Management by exception - Active (MBE-A)

•Leader looks for the follower to make errors and then corrects them

Transformational leadership - inspirational motivation

•Leaders inspire others to work hard toward organizational goals by providing challenge. They are positive and upbeat and get others to feel optimistic.

job enrichment

•Load jobs with more of the core job characteristics that have been shown to motivate. •Increase skill variety, task identity, and task significance. •Reduce turnover, increase motivation and job satisfaction •Must consider the growth needs of employees when redesigning work.

fixed ratio schedule

•Response is reinforced after a specific number of responses. •Produces a high, steady rate of responses.

variable interval schedule

•Response is rewarded after an unpredictable (random) amount of time has passed. •Produces a slow, steady rate of response.

variable ratio schedule

•Response is rewarded after an unpredictable (random) number of responses. •Produces a high, steady rate of responding.

Transformational leadership - intellectual stimulation

•Transformational leaders encourage innovation and new ideas. They listen to followers openly and don't criticize novel solutions to problems.

Transformational leadership - individualized consideration

•Transformational leaders treat each follower as a unique person. They get to know people one-on-one and mentor them.

knowledge based trust

•Trust grounded in how predictable the other person is. •Based upon information about the other person in a variety of circumstances.