MI 101 Final Exam
Gitlow vs. New York (1925)
First Amendment applies to states as well as federal government -First Amendment is a fundamental right -Protected by the 14th Amendment
What does ROPES stand for?
Research Objectives Programming Evaluation Stewardship
Near vs. Minnesota
Saturday Press - Near's racist & anti-Semitic newspaper S.Ct. = not suppress an entire newspaper because its offensive
USA Patriot Act
Section 215 - allows FBI to examine media use including: Mass telephone records (this stopped in 2015 with passage of the USA Freedom Act) Library records Internet use "other documents and papers"
Social Marketing
a process that uses marketing principles and techniques to influence target audience behaviors that will benefit society as well as the individual.
Libel
a published false statement that is damaging to a person's reputation
Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798
laws that included new powers to deport foreigners as well as making it harder for new immigrants to vote.
Social Learning Theory (social cognition theory)
posits that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement
What is Generalized Affective Aggression Model (GAAM)?
posits that variables that increase aggression do so by increasing aggressive affect, aggressive cognition, or arousal *study table in notes
What does Programming in ROPES entitle?
pragmatics of achieving the objectives
CMC
text-based messages, which filter out most nonverbal cues
Catharsis hypothesis
the claim that people let out anger and hostility through violent media then become less aggressive
publication in libel
the defaming statement must be published or broadcast
Digital divide
the divide between those who have access to computers and the Internet, and those who do not -Cycle of poverty -Socioeconomic gap
biased elaboration
the extent to which a person has a preexisting attitude schema or structure
What was the role in the military and academics in developing the internet?
the network was created for them to communicate and for research to be moved along
Hypertext markup language (HTML)
the original programming language of the web
Personalization
the practice of dynamically tailoring your site to the wants and needs of each user
What was ARPAnet?
the precursor network to the internet that was created to help further research
What is the view of public sphere in libertarian?
-obligation to be informed and engaged -Who is heard? +profitable
Intranets
computer networks w/in a company
intrusion
physical trespass
Chronemics
use of time to convey information
Engineering consent
use principles learned from the social sciences to influence public opinion/support
misappropriation
using a person's name or image for commercial purposes without their permission
What are the assumptions of Social Information Processing?
verbal cues and extended time
Verbal cues
when motivated to form impressions and develop relationships, communicators employ any cue system available
What are the limitations to social media?
-Digital divide -Repressive governments use as well: use media to mislead -Privacy -Tracking networks of users
What does Evaluation in ROPES entitle?
-During developing -During campaign -Evaluation research
How do bloggers influence mainstream media?
-Fact checkers -Adding material -Prolonging stories -Making stories important the mainstream was ignoring
What are the issues with children advertisements?
-Food ads & obesity -Body image -Gender stereotypes
advantages to tv advertisements
-Good for national audiences -good for reaching a lot of people at same time
advantages to magazine advertising
-Great for niche ads -Longer lead time
advantages to internet advertising
-Huge growth lately -Approximately 1/3 of this is on social media
What were the critical developments that led to the development of the internet?
-Hypertext (links) -the mouse
Why are people so attracted to the web?
-Interactive -Collaborative -Relevance
peripheral route
-less scrutiny - the use of simple inferential cues to determine message agreement ex. ad with pretty girl for a car or look of car
How is the control of the press carried out?
-licensing and guilds -prosecuting/persecuting violaters -arrests, toture, arson, imprisonment -taxing
What did Tim Berners-Lee do?
(MIT) is credited as the inventor of the web
What are the problems of advertising?
+Clutter +volume: so many advertisements its hard to keep up
What are the advantages of blogs?
- Few barriers to complete and enter unlike others -instantaneous feedback -dialogue
American Protective League & Councils of Defense
- Set up by Justice Department - Wiretapped phones, searched correspondence etc primarily of German American papers - Later attacked Russians
What are the criticisms over the 4 theories?
- reflects cold war - pro capitalist bias - is it applicable to non western world?
Racism & sports broadcasting
-African American receive disproportionate number of negative comments -White's more intelligent on the field -AA as athlete = positive comments; AA as person = negative comments
What was the relationship of advertising and slavery?
-Attitudes toward children Massachusetts ads for freeing slave babies -Treatment of slaves - advertisements for run-away slaves Descriptions of slaves (ex. Dead or alive) Skills of slaves
Advantages of brand placements
-Avoid zapping -Audience targeting -Effect of actor/actress using -Lifespan of a placement -Less critical reaction to placement -First Amendment issues & commercial speech -People like brand placements
What is the relationship btw bloggers & traditional media?
-Blogs rely on mainstream media -Bloggers influence mainstream media
Benefits of the internet for PR
-By-pass traditional media w/ company website -Issue with searches -Monitor what people are saying
advantages to outdoor advertising
-Captive audience -Simple messages
Notel study & gender stereotypes
-Comparison of 2 similar towns - 1 with & 1 without TV. -Children without TV had fewer sex-stereotyped attitudes -Sex-stereotyped attitudes <increased> when TV was introduced to Notel
Why is there so much violence on TV?
-Conflict (the core of drama) -Easy way to solve problems -Costs -Exportability -Media producers thinks that it sells
risks of the internet for PR
-Critics aren't constrained by ethics of journalism -Difficult to contain -Leaking confidential information
What defines social media?
-Customization -User generated content -Comments -Tagging -Social networking
Social Identity-Deindividuation (SIDE)
-De-individuating & less normative behaviors -Submergence in the group: shift focus from self to group
Advantages of advertising in newspapers
-Detailed information -Time to read (web addresses, 800 numbers) -Coupons -Zoned coverage - targeting regions of a city -Time frame - last minute buys
Development Theory
-Developing nations need to implement press controls in order to: -Promote economic development -Educate the populace -National identity -Partnerships with neighboring countries -Decrease internal conflict
Video games & violence
-need for affiliation -motivation ot be with people -need for affiliation
Negative consequences of personalization
-Isolated from opposing viewpoints -Death of investigative reporting -Confirmation bias & overconfidence -Decrease creativity - no privacy
Schenck vs. U.S. (1919) and the clear & present danger standard
-Leaflet sent to men who had passed the physical exam required for the draft -S. Ct upheld government laws allowing censorship during the war -Established the clear and present danger standard
Democratic Socialist Theory
-Libertarian model has passed due to concentration -Social responsibility impossible with private ownership -State needs to take action to guarantee a responsible press +Regulations on ownership +Funded by fees but autonomous (BBC)
Elite power group model
-Media characterized by concentrated ownership -Integration of the media with other elites -Two way flow of influence between government & the press -Media dependence on government for information -Media influence via coverage of issues
Why did the Internet develop?
-Military applications -Academic researchers -Information capitalism
What were the effects of internet on culture?
-Military applications -Academic researchers -Information capitalism -Data requirements of modern industry is intense -R&D is profitable -Welfare state -Cultural hedonism
What are the findings of Sex role stereotypes & media portrayals
-More men on TV than women -In general, TV portrays traditional/stereotypical gender roles
Why is violence is over determined?
-Multiplicity of factors influence violence & aggression - too many possible factors to consider
Social Responsibility
-Outgrowth of the libertarian model -Responsibility of the press to guarantee all viewpoints are heard -Found in the United States during the 20th century -Reflects the philosophy of the Commission on the Freedom of the Press (the Hutchins Commission) +Media codes
What is the role of the press in Communist?
-Press is run by the government to serve the government's needs -Contribute to the success of the political system -Support the dictatorship of the Communist Party
What does Research in ROPES entitle?
-Public opinion research -Content analysis -Focus groups
Libertarian
-Reflects a philosophy of rationalism & natural rights (Locke, Mill, Hume, Berkeley) -Where is this found? England after the start of the 18th Century United States (until recently?)
Communist theory
-Reflects a system that believes in only one valid political/social philosophy -Examples of where this is found +Soviet Union +Nazi Germany (to an extent) +North Korea (179)
disadvantages to tv advertisements
-Remote & muting/surfing -Big 4 - proliferation of cable channels (which allow niche ads) -Long plan time for key times -DVRs
advantages of radio advertising
-Repeat ads -Target narrow audiences -Captive audience during drive time (morning & afternoon commute times) -Short lead time -Relatively low costs
What are examples and things in verbal cues?
-Self-disclosure -Praise -Explicit statements of affection -Indirect disagreement -Changing subject (to avoid disagreement) -Compliments
Obscenity
-Standard is set by the individual community standards -the average person "Taken as a whole" - can't consider just parts of a work -Prurient interests - ' a shameful and morbid interest in nudity, sex, or excretion.'
How is the media and press controlled in the communist theory?
-Surveillance -Self-censorship -Political/economic interventions by the government
What is the role of the press in social responsibility?
-The press has a responsibility to the public that outweighs their responsibility to profits +Backlash to media concentration -purpose: +The chief purpose of the press is to: +Provide the news & information necessary for the political system to work +Provide the public with the information necessary for self-governance +Serve as an overseer of the government +Serve an economic function of bringing together buyers & sellers +Provide entertainment +Be profitable enough to avoid outside pressures
What are the assumptions in the communist theory?
-The press is an instrument of the government -An independent press is undesirable -Media is a source of government power -Media as propaganda agent
what helps with ability of persuasion:
-Topic relevant knowledge - no Distraction -Repetition
Revolutionary Theory
-Use of media by dissidents -Goal is to overthrow the government
The internet is becoming more:
-accessible (a lot of people can access) -voluminous (unconstrained network) -velocity (can send messages really fast) - long range (messages from far away very quickly)
Information overload
-all human communication up to 2003 would take 5 billion gigabytes of storage -Now it takes 2 days to produce that much
what is the goal of press agentry? and what are the disadvantages pf press agentry?
-build publicity +Not interactive (one-way communication) +Unethical
How is the media controlled in social responsibility?
-community opinion -consumer action -professional ethics
How is media controlled in libertarian?
-controlled through free markets and courts -forbidden to: +defamation +obscenity and indecency +serve as a check on gov
Why is nonverbal communication critical to relationship development?
-expressing emotion -communication about relationships
Central route
-highly cognitive -elaborate on message -focuses on content -comes to persuasion by thinking ex. costs and fuel efficacy of a car
What were the three critical components for the world wide web?
-it was made public -Commercial users -Mosaic
What is the role of press in libertarian?
-press is separate from gov +belongs to the people +serves as an independent observer of the government -functions to: +inform +entertain +advertise +serve as check on gov.
Authoritarian
-reflects a philosophy of the absolute power of the monarchy and government - gov is good - masses are bad -media is independent but highly controlled by governement
Factors influencing motivation (in violence)
-rewards in actions -justification in actions -identification with perpatrator -perceived realism *vicarious
actual malice & good faith
-that the statement was made in reckless disregard for the truth or falsity of the published account -Statements made in good faith could not be found to be libelous
Pretrial publicity
-the right of the press (print and electronic media) to publish information about the defendant and the alleged criminal acts is guaranteed by the First Amendment. -These two constitutional safeguards come into conflict when pretrial publicity threatens to deprive the defendant of an impartial jury
Clark's stage model of representations
1. non representation 2. ridicule 3.regulation 4. respect
What are the four steps to social learning theory?
1. person must be paying attention to media 2. person must remember violent content 3. person must be capable of replicating action 4. person must be sufficiently motivated to perform act
When did blogs first start?
1994 - Justin Hall's web-based diary "Justin's Links from the Underground" is the precursor to blogs
Prior Restraint
A judicial order that stops a media organization from publishing or broadcasting a story or image
Image management
A program that focuses on the theories and methods for managing the media image of a business or organization
Privacy and the web (Acxiom)
Acxiom collects, analyzes, and pases customer and business information for clients, helping them to target advertising campaigns, score leads, and more
Sedition Act of 1918
Amended the Espionage Act Espionage Act required proof that harm had been done Sedition Act made the utterance illegal Crime to criticize the government, Constitution, or the military *resulted in self-censorship by editors
what leads to periphal processing?
Any other combination: low ability and high motivation high ability and low motivation
What are other factors that effect aggression?
Biological, cultural, gender, temperature, arousal & violence
social presence theory
CMC deprives users of the sense that another person is involved in interactions
Cues filtered out
CMC is problematic for relationship development because of the lack of nonverbal cues (fatal flaw for relationship development)
Social identity-deindividuation (SIDE)
CMC users overestimate similarity with people they meet online
Credibility
Competence -Is the source an expert? Trustworthiness -Is the source reliable and trustworthy?
Effects of the USA Patriot Act on journalism
Could be used to identify journalists' confidential sources Evidence suggests journalists' phone calls were tracked after breaking a story on secret detention facilities
Espionage Act of 1917
Could not try to cause insubordination in the military Postmaster General could exclude from the mail anything advocating treason *suppressed socialist and other such magazines from being circulated
Pentagon Papers Timeline
Daniel Ellsberg - turned over the documents to the NYT June 13, 14, & 15 1971- the NYT published the first three installments June 15 - DoJ got a restraining order to stop further publication Washington Post started publishing the documents on June 18 & restraining order issued on June 19 June 26 - Supreme Court ruled 6 to 3 to allow publication
What was U.S. Policy of Internet Freedom?
Develop tools to allow people to "reopen" the internet when it has been blocked
Message discrepancy
Distance between target's existing attitude and position advocated by the message
What are the effects of advertising to children?
Exposure - estimate in 1978 - 20,000 commercials a year
The CIA & the Cult of Intelligence
First book government attempted to stop publication of certain passages prior to publication -Attempted to remove 399 passages -168 actually removed
ridicule in the model of representations
Formerly non-recognized groups are shown on TV, but only as objects of derisive humor -little rascals -amos and andy
Ways to guarantee a fair trial
Gag orders on key players in a criminal case Sequestering the jury Postpone the trial Change of venue Order a new trial
what leads to central processing:
High ability & High motivation
What did the Alien and Sedition acts do?
Illegal to publish "false, scandalous, or malicious writings against the government of the United States . . ." Signed by President John Adams Motivated by threats from France
Zenger trial
John Peter Zenger founded the New York Weekly Journal (1733) Took on Governor William Cosby Zenger was arrested Nov. 17, 1734 for seditious libel
Social comparison
Looking to outside images in order to evaluate oneself
What were the two things ARPAnet split into?
MILNET (military network) ARPANET (nonmilitary network)
What can be see with magazines and body image?
Magazine Pics: After viewing thin (vs other) models... More stress, shame, depression, insecurity, guilt *mostly women but starting to be seen to effect men
the effects of mass media and IP
Mass media technologies that started off as helping interpersonal communication
What do agencies do?
Media Planning & CPM research and planning creative aspects (branding)
body dissatisfaction
Negative feelings/thoughts about body; a negative body image
Roth vs. United States
Obscenity is not protected by the First Amendment was a landmark case before the United States Supreme Court which redefined the Constitutional test for determining what constitutes obscene material unprotected by the First Amendment
non representation in the model of representations
Outright exclusion from the media
Pseudo anonymity
Overestimate our similarity to "liked" others we meet online
what helps with motivation of persuasion
Personal relevance Need-for-cognition Mood
Magnitude of dissonance
Proportion of dissonant to consonant elements and the importance of the cognitive or behavioral elements
What is IP?
Provides the address for each computer on the internet
Social Information Processing (SIP) Theory
Relationships grow only to the extent that parties first gain information about each other and use that information to form interpersonal impressions about each
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Sender self-selects what to send = positive impression CMC limits ability to find contrary information Positive impression drives receiver's behavior so the sender becomes wonderful
summary of media effects/violence
Small, consistent effects linking violent media to antisocial behavior Casual relationship demonstrated in lab studies is only a short-term effect Many other variables affect such behavior
Other source effects
Social power Authority Attractiveness Likeable Similarity(demographic & attitude)
What are the primary components of the advertising business?
The Client The Agency The medium The Audience
Hyperpersonal relationships
The claim that CMC relationships are often more intimate than those developed when partners are physically together
What was found in the relationship between Sitcoms and body image?
The more a woman weighs, the more negative comments made to/about her.
Free press vs. fair trial
The wording of the First and the Sixth Amendments sometimes creates a conflict between a free press and a fair trial. The 1st Amendment guarantees freedom of the press, while the 6th guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State.
What did Internet & Democratization do?
U.S. Policy of Internet Freedom Success of social media
example of brand placement
Video games Broadway Rap music TV shows and reality shows
Blogs
a collection of links and commentary in hypertext form on the WWW that can be created and posted online with relatively little effort
What is the clear and present danger standard?
a doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press, or assembly
Dissonance theory
a drive or feeling of discomfort caused by holding two or more inconsistent beliefs (cognitions) OR performing a behavior that is inconsistent with your beliefs
consumer culture
a form of capitalism in which the economy is focused on the selling of consumer goods and the spending of consumer money
Schema
a framework of cognitions that help organize knowledge
Cookies
a packet of data sent by an Internet server to a browser, which is returned by the browser each time it subsequently accesses the same server, used to identify the user or track their access to the server
What is TCP?
a set of rules that governs the delivery of data over the Internet or other network that uses the Internet Protocol, and sets up a connection between the sending and receiving computers.
Opinions
a statement of opinion cannot be used as the basis for a libel suit
Bobo doll studies
a study in which kids observed adults engaging in violence with a doll and what the kids did in return
Crisis communication
a sub-specialty of the public relations profession that is designed to protect and defend an individual, company, or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation -Be prepared -Be honest -Apologize -Move quickly -Communicate
What is the World Wide Web?
a system that allows users to find and view documents anywhere in the world using standardized software
Common Ingroup Identity Model
a theoretical model proposed by Samuel L. Gaertner and John F. Dovidio that outlines the processes through which intergroup bias may be reduced -Self vs. group vs. humanity -How are subgroups dealt with?
brand name
a word or phrase attached to prepackaged consumer goods so that they can be better promoted to the general public
Uniform resource locator (URL)
address of content
Theory of Reasoned Action
aims to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviors within human action
Small media
alternative media used to distribute news that may be suppressed by the government -Gutter press in Africa -Fax machines -Photocopies -Video cameras -Cell phones & flash mobs in Middle East & England -Internet & social media - Mumbai
Brand placements
an advertising technique used by companies to subtly promote their products through a non-traditional advertising technique, usually through appearances in film, television, or other media
persuasion
an intentional communicative act that: -does not include force -achieves private acceptance
Internal publics
an organization's employees or board members
advertising
any paid form of non personal communication about an organization, product, service or idea by an identified sponsor
regulation in the model of representations
appear as protectors of social order -mod squad -mission impossible
Ability
are we able to process the message?
Four theories of the press
authoritarian libertarian soviet/communist social responsibility
Technological determination
belief that impact of a message is determined by the medium over which its communicated
Minimal Justification Hypothesis
best way to stimulate attitude change in others is to offer just enough incentive to elicit counter attitudinal behavior
packet switching
breaking up a larger message into smaller packets and transmitting them independently across the network. The receiving computer reassembles the packets into the original message
What is the structure of the internet?
by centralized, decentralized or distributed networks mostly distributed because it limits the links between computers and makes it hard to track
Democracy deficit
campaigns only target swing voters (microtargeting
New York Times vs. Sullivan
case that established the actual malice standard, which has to be met before press reports about public officials can be considered to be defamation and libel *allowed free reporting of the civil rights campaigns in the southern United States
What are the complications to the ELM model?
central processing does not necessarily mean objective processing -biased elaboration -objective elaboration
What does Objectives in ROPES entitle?
clearly identified goals of the campaign
external publics
consist of: +Consumers/Customers +Community +Mass Media +Government +Financial Institutions +Action Groups +General Publics
CPM
cost per thousand views
What were the early theories of CMC?
cues filtered out & social presence theory
indirect action ads
designed to build an image of a product and increase demand without urging a specific action
advocacy ads
designed to promote a particular point of view
direct action ads
designed to promote a specific behavior
Public service advertisements (PSAs)
designed to promote the messages of nonprofit organizations and government agencies -AD council produces many of these
Motivation
do we want to process the message?
defamation in libel
does it damage a person's reputation
identification in libel
does the defamation obviously apply to a particular individual(s)
instant messaging
e-mail systems that allow 2 or more people to chat with each other in real time
economy of abundance
economy where there are as many or more good available as people who want to or have the means to buy them
Priming
effect of media when exposure to a message activates related thoughts stored in our mind
cultivation
effects of media exposure over time
Selective self-presentation
enables people to create an overwhelmingly favorable impression Asynchronous channel: allows more planning
What did the Zenger trial establish?
established Truth as a defense against libel
Media Planning
figuring out which media to use, buying the media at the best rates & evaluating the efficacy of the purchase
Mosaic
first easy to use graphical web browser software
First Amendment
freedom of speech
public
group of people who share a common set of interests & goals +Internal public +External public
attitude accessibility
how quickly your attitude comes to mind
extended time
impressions formed at a reduced rate because exchange of social information through CMC is much slower
Language intensity
indicates the degree to which the speaker's attitude toward a concept deviates from neutrality
respect in the model of representations
inority groups is presented in both positive and negative roles of everyday life including interacting with children and having romantic relationships
Listservs
internet discussion groups made up of subscribers who use e-mail to exchange messages between members of the group
Privacy
is not an explicit right: First Amendment - right to associate Fourth Amendment protection against search & seizures Fourteenth Amendment - limits
Stealing thunder
it breaks the news about its own crisis before the crisis is discovered by the media or other interested parties
What is the problem with catharsis hypothesis?
it is mostly unsupported
What is ARPA?
it was the beginning organization that created the precursor to the interet
What did ARPAnet do?
it was the first network to use packet switching and implement TCP/IP
citizen journalism
journalism created by people other than professional journalists
Smith Act (Alien Registration Act of 1940)
made it a crime to advocate the violent overthrow of the government -Used to prosecute communists -Particularly those advocating strikes during the war
What does Stewardship in ROPES entitle?
maintaining the relationships developed in the campaign
What is the view of the public sphere in communist?
masses to be led no independent thought
What is email?
message sent from one computer to another computer across the network
Pentagon Papers
military strategist Daniel Ellsberg helped strengthen public opposition to the Vietnam War in 1971 by leaking secret documents known as the Pentagon Papers to the New York Times
industrialization
move to mass production of goods in factories that was part of the modernization process
Prejudice
negative attitudes toward the members of specific groups
Discrimination
negative behaviors aimed at members of groups that are the target of prejudice
race and news
news's stories do not accurately reflect the representations of race in real life
Parasocial contact
offers an explanation of the ways in which audience members develop their one-sided relationships with the media being consumed
Inferential prisons
once a stereotype is formed, it shapes our perceptions to confirm the stereotype as if it is consistent
USEnet
original internet discussion forum with 1000s of specialized topics
Where does the ownership of the press lie in an authoritarian government?
outside of the government * forbidden to criticize elite or government policy
Where does the ownership of the press lie in social responsibility?
ownership is private unless compelling reason for government action to ensure public sphere
Where does the ownership of the press lie in the communist theory?
ownership lies with the state *forbidden to criticize the party's objectives
What is a Social media bot and its role in politics?
particular type of chatterbot that is employed in social media networks to automatically generate messages (e.g. tweets) or in general advocate certain ideas, support campaigns, and public relations
tacit inferences
perceiving information that is inconsistent with the stereotype as if it is consistent
Press agentry
press agent sending materials to the media
What is the role of the press in authoritarian?
press is the servant of the government -goal is to support and advance the policies of government
false light
publication of untrue statements that alter a person's public image in a way that he or she cannot control
conservation velocity
rate and direction of change in a conversation
stereotypes
role schema that focus on certain social categories
What is the view of the pubic sphere in social responsibility?
same as libertarian: obligation to be informed and engaged but also include rational discourse
role schema
schema that relate to specific roles ex. nurses, construction workers
How do hyper personal relationships develop online?
sender puts out favorable impression & reciever overestimates similarity with the sender they met online then self-fulfilling prophecy
disadvantages to newspaper advertising
sharp declines in advertising revenue and circulation
Social media & politics
social media is very involved into politics and creates a lot of stimulation for campaigns
Hypertext transfer protocol (http)
standardized set of rules to sending and receiving information
The Defense of Privilege
statements made in government meetings, in court, or in government documents cannot be used as the basis for a libel suit
net neutrality
the principle that Internet service providers should enable access to all content and applications regardless of the source, and without favoring or blocking particular products or websites
trade or business to business ads
the promotion of products such as copier machines, or services such as human resources consulting or logistics, that are primarily designed for businesses
Public relations
the use of the media to "establish & maintain a mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and its public"
Ad clutter
the various things in the environment that compete for a person's attention
What was the problem for instant messaging?
there was no common standard
embarrassment
true information that is so embarrassing and private if its not essential to what talking about
Defenses against truth
truth is a defense against libel except if the plaintiff can show "actual malice" by the defendant in publishing the statement
Elaboration Likelihood Model
two routes to persuasion: central and periphal
subtyping
when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory of the stereotype
Media Relations
working with the media examples: -Press conferences -Press releases -Interviews -Video news release (VNR)
