Microbiology Final Curtis TCU
Surfactants
"Surface active" chemicals, Reduce surface tension of solvents
What disease does Vaccinia vaccine protect from?
(Orthopoxvirus) Variola virus, smallpox
B Cells
- B cells that matured in bone marrow become induce and get activated. - Then they are copied and become plasma cells. - Plasma cells pump out tons and tons of antibodies. - Smaller subset become memory b cells and stay in lymph nodes
Role of resident microbiota: digestive tract
- Ferment unused energy substrates - Train the immune system - Prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria - Regulate the development of the gut
Neutrophils
- First responders - immediately begin to phagocytize anything that shouldn't be there
Innate Immunity
- Has no memory of certain pathogens - works non-specifically
NK cells
- Identify and destroy infected or cancerous host cells - Release perforin and granzyme into infected/transformed cells - Perforin produces a pore structure in target cell plasma membrane - Granzymes induce apoptosis
Conditions that promote members of microbiota to become opportunistic
- Introduction of normal microbiota into unusual site in body - Immune suppression - Changes in the normal microbiota
IgM
- Major isotype before class switching occurs - first to appear - activates the compliment but is short lived
Adaptive Immunity
- Only becomes active when exposed to the pathogen - takes a while to begin working could take 3-5 days to kick in - only recognizes one specific pathogen - adapts to subsequent infections
Eosinophils
- Rare - take care of very large pathogens, like a parasitic worm. - First paralyzes worm and then begins to digest it, related to asthma and allergies
PRRs (pattern recognition receptors)
- Recognize MAMPs and trigger a response - TLRs are restricted to membranes while NLRs are intracellular sensors - Both signal cells to make interferon and pro-inflammatory cytokines
T cells
- Self-reactive t cells are deleted in the thymus - Only t cells that recognize foreign molecules will be released into the blood stream - Have to actually be presented with an antigen presenting cell - Load peptide onto MHC; For t cell activation to occur APCs must present the specific peptide onto MHC molecules for recognition and activation
The scientist successfully cultivates (grows) a psychrophilic bacterium isolated from the glacier. Based on your knowledge of psychrophilic microorganisms, name a thermal adaptation that this bacterium may possess to help it survive in cold temperatures.
- Unsaturated fatty acids increase fluidity of membrane which permits ease of movement in low temperatures. More UNsaturated MORE fluidity --> COLD
Opsonization
- When you have a microbe that is coated in antibodies or complement proteins - Ultimately all will be released as debris which will be picked up by the interstitial fluid - Some of it will be presented on the outside of the cell to alert the adaptive cells
IgG
- crosses the placenta - activates the compliment cascade - most abundant IgG: - opsinogen (increase phagocytosis) - activate the classical pathway of complement - neutralize toxins and prevent pathogens from attachment.
Function of antibodies
- needed to activate t and b cells - Antibodies activate the complement system to destroy bacterial cells by lysis (punching holes in the cell wall)
Apicomplexans: Nutritional Requirements
-Chemoheterotrophic -Apicomplexans feed by absorbing either dissolved food ingested by the host (saprozoic nutrition) or the host's cytoplasm and body fluids. Respiration and excretion occur by simple diffusion through the cell membrane.
Psychrophiles
0-20 C
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance
1. Enzymatic destruction of drug, 2. Prevention of penetration of drug, 3. Alteration of drug's target site, 4. Rapid ejection of the drug
Koch's Postulates
1. The same pathogen must be present in every case of the disease. 2. The pathogen must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture. 3. The pathogen from the pure culture must cause the disease when it is inoculated into a healthy, susceptible laboratory animal. 4. The pathogen must be isolated from the inoculated animal and must be shown to be the original organism.
PCR steps
1. heat to 95 degrees C which will separate the DNA strand to begin replication 2. reduce the temperature to 55 degrees C to allow the DNA Primers to anneal to template DNA 3. Increase temp to 72 degrees C - which is the optimal temperature for the heat-tolerant DNA Polymerase to synthesize DNA only the gene of interest gets amplified used for viral/bacterial burden below detectable levels; amplification of DNA at a crime scene; genetic screening (risk for disease); presence of antibiotic resistance; microbial population analysis (organisms that cannot be identified through a culture can be identified using PCR).
How does PCR work?
1. requires a DNA template, DNA Primers, heat-tolerant DNA Polymerase, and a thermocycler 2. PCR amplifies a selected region of DNA by rapidly cycling through many rounds of DNA replication, under thermal temperature control.
Products of fermentation
2 ethyl alcohol and 2 lactic acid
Mesophiles
20-40 C, human pathogens
How many ATP molecules are synthesized through phosphate level phosphorlation?
4
Thermophiles
40-70 C
Eukaryal mRNA is modified after transcription and a ___ is added to the Poly a tail, then ____ are spliced out and ____ join together
5' cap is added to the 3' end. then introns are spliced out and exons are joined together
A 3' to 5' DNA sequence will give rise to what mRNA template?
5' to 3'
Hyperthermophiles
70-110 C
Secondary (acquired) immunodeficiency
develop later in life/as direct consequence of some other recognized cause
dsDNA
double-stranded DNA; two DNA strands with complementary base-pair sequences joined by hydrogen bonds
Entameoba Histolytica
dysentery (infection in the intestines), trophozoites (growing stage, absorbing nutrients from host) consume RBCs, form liver abscess, treat with metronidazole. Enters as cyst
Exogenous antigen
Foreign materials or extracellular pathogens engulfed and digested by phagocytes (ex. Bacterial toxins, extracellular bacteria, allergens)
Role of MHC in antigen presentation
Function to hold and position antigenic determinants for presentation to T cells
Eukaryotic Genome
Genes are not densely packed, Mostly organized as single transcription units, Often contain introns
Benefit of biofilms
Gives nutrients to the bacteria
Neutrophiles
Grow best in a narrow range around neutral pH (6.5-7.5)
Acidophiles
Grow best in acidic habitats
Eukaryotes
Has nucleus, membrane bound organelles, some have flagella and/or cilia, no endospores, large ribosomes (80s), linear and more than one chromosome per cell
What disease does HPV vaccine protect from?
Human papillovirus, warts
Cyclospora
feces contaminated food. parasite that causes gastroebteritis. watery diarrhea, cramps, fever. Cyst
Reduction is the ____ of electrons
gain
Viral genome
genetic material of a virus
Operons
group of genes operating together
Obligate Halophiles
grow in up to 30% salt
Cyst form has a cell wall
important for survival in fresh water and to withstand osmotic pressure. Acids in the host's stomach breakdown the cell wall
What are the outcomes of the Complement Pathway
inflammation, opsonization, and MAC (pore forming)
What is the "junk" DNA?
introns
Attenuated vaccine
living but weakened pathogen, can confer contact immunity, ex. MMR
Oxidation is the ____ of electrons
loss
loss of hydrogen=
loss of electron
Horizontal transmission
members of the same species but not parent-child
antigen loaded onto MHC class 2 molecules are presented to...
naive CD4 T cells; Exogenous
antigen loaded onto MHC class 1 molecules are presented to...
naive CD8 T cells; Endogenous
Where does transcription occur in bacteria?
nucleoid region of the cytoplasm
Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?
nucleus
proton motive force
occurs when cell membrane becomes energized due to electron transport reactions by the electron carriers embedded in it. Basically, this causes the cell to act like a tiny battery. Its energy can either be used right away to do work, like power flagella, or be stored for later in ATP.
To what organism/toxin does the HPV vaccine induces an immune response to?
papillomas
Vertical Transmission
parent to offspring
All Apiocomplexans are
pathogens
Genotype determines your
phenotype
Antigenic masking
protozoans coat themselves in host antigens
Effector T cells
relatively short-lived activated cells that defend the body in an immune response
DNA Polymerase I
removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA nucleotides
DNA polymerase III
replication next to RNA primer and adds nucleotides in a 5'-->3' direction
retroviruses express
reverse transcriptase
RNA polymerase inhibitors
rifampin, pyronins
Ligase
seals the nicks b/t the sugar-phosphate backbone
Pili
short, hairlike protein structures on the surface of some bacteria that allow for attachment
Helper CD4 T cells: TH1
stimulate cell-mediated response
Helper CD4 T cells: TH2
stimulate humoral response
To what organism/toxin does the Pneumococcal (PCV) vaccine induces an immune response to?
streptococcus pneumoniae
Metabolic Inhibitors
sulfonamides, trimethoprim
Primase
synthesizes short RNA primer to initiate DNA replication
Lysogenic Bacteriophage is a ________ bacteriophage
temperate
Genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
Incidence of disease
the number of new cases of a disease in a given area or population during a given period of time
Promoter
the region at the beginning of a gene where RNA polymerase binds; the promoter "promotes" the recruitment of RNA polymerase and other factors required for transcription
Gram positive cell wall
thick layer of peptidoglycan
Prevalence of a disease
total number of existing cases with respect to the entire population
if it is a negative single-stranded it cannot immediately go to ....?
translation
Lytic bacteriophage is a __________ bacteriophage
virulent
operator
where the repressor or inducer binds
Fungi includes
yeast and filamentous fungi. their walls are made of chitin. they help plants absorb water and minerals (mycorrhizae)
do all algae have cell walls?
yes
do most fungi have cell walls?
yes
Bacteriostatic agent
Agent that has the ability to inhibit bacterial growth by freezing. No destruction of viability of the microorganism is implied.
Macrophages
All over body and have different names depending on where they are in the body
Inducer
Always unbound from the operon unless there is too much tryptophan and then trp binds to the operon, turning the repressor off transcription
tRNA
An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA
Helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks. It breaks the hydrogen bonds b/t DNA bases to create a replication bubble
Heterotroph
An organism that cannot make its own food. gets energy from organic molecules like Carbs, AA, Lipids
Autotroph
An organism that makes its own food uses an inorganic carbon source to make energy (CO2)
Lithotroph
An organism that uses reduced inorganic compounds (no carbon) as its electron source
Organotroph
An organism that uses reduced organic compounds (has carbon) as its electron source
Sulfonamides
Anti-metabolic agents can be effective when pathogen and host metabolic processes differ
Plasma B cells
Antibody production by plasma cells
Narrow-spectrum
Antimicrobials effective against a limited array of microbial types
Broad-spectrum
Antimicrobials effective against a wide variety of microbial types
Purpose of attachment factors
Attach to our surfaces and tissues, Damage tissues to obtain nutrients and replicate, Avoid host immune responses
Amphotericin B
Attaches to ergosterol in fungal membranes, Humans somewhat susceptible because cholesterol is similar to ergosterol, Bacteria lack sterols; not susceptible
BCG vaccine type
Attenuated
MMR vaccine type:
Attenuated
Vaccinia vaccine type
Attenuated
Varicella-zoster vaccine type
Attenuated
Herd Immunity
If you can effectively reduce the number of susceptible individuals, an illness can't progress in a population effectively.
Type 1 hypersensitivity
IgE mediated hypersensitivity Ex: Allergies
Type 3 hypersensitivity
Immune Complexes of Antigen and Antibody Ex: Serum sickness
Phagocytosis
Immune system cells that engulf foreign invaders - Include neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages - Recognition of conserved microbial motifs (MAMPs) activate phagocytes and turn them into efficient killing machines.
Apicomplexans: Reproduction
In the life cycle, sexual and asexual generations may alternate. Sexual reproduction may immediately precede spore formation. Asexual reproduction is by binary or multiple fission (schizogony).
DTaP vaccine type:
Inactivated
HPV vaccine type:
Inactivated
Pneumococcal (PCV) vaccine type:
Inactivated
Stages of an acute infectious disease
Incubation Period - no signs or symptoms Prodromal Period - vague, general symptoms Illness - most severe signs and symptoms Decline - declining signs and symptoms Convalescence - no signs or symptoms
Fundamental attributes of a successful pathogen
Infectivity and virulence fundamental to successful pathogen
Mechanism of action of A-B toxins
Inhibit protein synthesis in target cells
Type 3 secretion systems
Injects proteins directly into host cell, Stimulates uptake of Salmonella and Shigella by cells that are not normally phagocytic
Cytotoxic CD8 T cells
Interacts with MHC 1
Helper CD4 T cells
Interacts with MHC 2
Phenolics
Intermediate to low level disinfectant, Denature proteins and disrupt cell membranes, Effective in presence of organic matter and remain active for prolonged (long) time
Halogens
Intermediate-level antimicrobial chemicals, Damage proteins by denaturation, Widely used in numerous applications
Alcohols
Intermediate-level disinfectants, Denature proteins and disrupt cytoplasmic membranes, More effective than soap in removing bacteria from hands, Swabbing skin with alcohol prior to injection removes most microbes
Transformation
Introduction of extracellular DNA into an organism Extracellular DNA is taken up by the cell
It is determined that the pathogen is a facultative anaerobe. What does this mean? What enzymes does this organism likely express?
It means that it can live in anerobic and anerobic environments but prefers oxygen so aerobic
Role of resident microbiota: vagina
Keeping the microenvironment acidic
Oxidizing Agents
Kill by oxidation of microbial enzymes, High-level disinfectants and antiseptics, Hydrogen peroxide can disinfect and sterilize surfaces
Giardia
Lack mitochondria Anaerobic metabolism Multiple flagella Treated with metronidazole
Alkalinophiles
Live in alkaline soils and water up to pH 11.5
Quinolones
MOA: - Act against prokaryotic DNA gyrase Effect: - Bactericidal - Prevent the winding and unwinding of DNA during replication and transcription
Beta-lactams
MOA: - Peptide chain extending on NAM is alanine-alanine. The beta-lactam ring resembles that. the enzyme that is involved in forming the peptide cross-link b/t adjacent glycan chains, binds to the beta-lactam ring, preventing the formation of the peptidde cross-linkages Effect: - Peptidoglycan collapses and no longer protects the bacterial cell.
Metronidazole (Flagyl)
MOA: - activated by microbial cofactors that are found only in anaerobic organisms. - Distort shapes of nucleic acids and prevents further replication, transcription, translation Effect: - treats anaerobic protozoan and bacterial infections
Amphotericin B
MOA: - binds ergosterol in fungal membrane = causes pore formation and cell lysis Effect: - cell destroyed via lysis
Sulfonamides
MOA: - it blocks the folic acid formation - inhibits metabolic process Effect: - effective when the pathogen and host metabolic processes differ - folic acid cannot be made - bacteriostatic
Tetracyclines
MOA: -targets the 30S subunit. - blocks the A site (docking site) of tRNA - inhibits protein synthesis Effect: - will not allow for protein synthesis - Bacteriostatic
What disease does MMR vaccine protect from?
Measles, mumps, german measles
Microbial Classification: Osmolarity
Microbes require water to dissolve enzymes and nutrients required in metabolism
Chemotroph
Microbes that gain energy from chemical compounds. Energy is generated from the transfer of electrons during oxidation(reduction) of chemical molecules
more saturated= (more/less) fluidity and is (hot/cold)
More saturated= less fluidity and is hot
more UNsaturated= (more/less) fluidity and is (hot/cold)
More unsaturated is more fluid and is cold
Role of resident microbiota: respiratory tract
Mucociliary escalator sweeps foreign particles up and out of the lungs
Antigenic drift is a result of _______________________ in the influenza genome. Antigenic shift is a result of __________________________ in the influenza genome.
Mutations; gene reassortment
To what organism/toxin does the BCG vaccine induces an immune response to?
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Energy is captured from the redox reaction and is transferred to
NADH
NADH is _____ to NAD+ when it _______ a _______.
NADH is oxidized when it loses a hydrogen
NADH is ____ when it ______ a ______.
NADH is reduced when it gains a hydrogen
What are the primary electron carriers in the bacterial cells and human cells?
NADH+ and FADH2
Mode of action of botulism toxin
No acetylcholine = no muscle contraction = flaccid paralysis
Log Phase
No limiting nutrients in log phase so exponential growth
Prokaryotes
No nucleus, have flagella, no cilia, peptidoglycan cell wall, can have endospores, small ribosomes (70s), single and circular chromosomes; bacteria, archea
Detriment of biofilms
Can keep harmful bacteria from destruction
Facultative Halophiles
Can tolerate high salt concentrations (on our skin for when we sweat)
Immune evasion strategies of extracellular pathogens
Capsule prevents phagocytosis and complement activation
Type 4 hypersensitivities
Cell mediated, cytotoxic: contact dermatitis, graft rejection
Memory T cells
Cells have a faster and stronger response, millions of cells cloned to recognize specific pathogen
What are humans?
Chemoorganoheterotrophs
It is determined that the psychrophilic bacterium is a chemoheterotroph. What does this mean?
Chemotroph= aquires its energy from redox reactions (reduction reactions)and will get energy from. We do not know which organic or inorganic. Ex of organic molecule would be carbon and hydrogen; glucose Heterotroph= it is a consumer of organic molecules
What disease does Varicella-zoster vaccine protect from?
Chicken pox and shingles
Dimorphic fungi
Cold = Mold, Heat = Yeast All can cause pneumonia and can disseminate (spread).
Ribosomal subunits
Components of ribosomes, the protein-production factories where amino acids are linked together in the proper order to produce the protein
Subunit vaccine
Consist of 1 or more protective antigens (no whole cells or viruses), may require several injections to produce strong immunity, ex. HPV
DNA vaccine
Consist of a cloned gene(s) in a DNA vector
Inactivated vaccine
Consist of whole virus/cells that have been inactivated by heat or chemicals, ex. polio
Vehicle
Contaminated fomites, air, water, food
Microbial Classification: Temperature
Temperature can affect macromolecular structure, membrane fluidity, and enzyme function.
Tetracyclines
Tetracycline resistance is due to an efflux pump - borad-spectrum - inhibit protein synthesis
Protein synthesis inhibitors 30S ribosomal subunit
Tetracyclines
substrate-level phosphorylation
The enzyme pyruvate kinase (purple) facilitates the transfer of phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP, resulting in pyruvate and ATP.
Role of resident microbiota: oral cavity
The formation of plaque
Decimal reduction time (D value)
The length of time it takes for a treatment to kill 90% of a microbial population, and then measures the efficacy of the treatment.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.
What is redox potential?
The tendency of a molecule to acquire electrons
Conjugation
The transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another following cell to cell contact Initiated by a "sex" pilus Requires a f plasmid (fertility)
Gram negative cell wall
Thin peptidoglycan Outer membrane Periplasmic space
Lytic bacteriophage
Virus binds, DNA injected, Capsid stays outside, Expression, Assembly, Cell destroyed - attach - direct penetration - bacterial genome DEGRADED - viral genome is replicated and EXPRESSED
Mode of action of cytolysins
Work on plasma membranes of cells, often forming pores or degrading phospholipids
Role of NADH
______ is oxidized to NAD+ when it donates an electron or loses a hydrogen. - must be recycled to NAD+ at the end of glycolysis
Envelope
a membrane-like layer that covers the capsids of some viruses
Retroviruses
are a group of viruses that use RNA for their blueprint but then insert themselves into the host DNA as a provirus can convert their RNA genome into DNA using the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase Once the genome is converted to DNA, HIV integrates the DNA into the host genome.
Schizogony
asexual reproduction by multiple fission, found in some protozoa, especially parasitic sporozoans.
Virulence factors
assist pathogen in attachment, nutrient acquisition, immune evasion, and tissue damage
Penicillin and beta-lactam antibiotics
beta-lactams more stable in acidic environments, More readily absorbed, Less susceptible to deactivation, More active against more types of bacteria Act by inhibiting penicillin-binding proteins Target the Cell Wall which will destroy bacteria
Primary immunodeficiency
born with immunodeficiency
In bacteria, Sigma Factors are _______ to _______
bound to RNA Polymerase
Giardia and Entamoeba hystolytica lack
cell wall during infectious stages
Lysogenic Bacteriophage
codes for diphtheria (inflammation) toxin, which causes fatty degeneration of the heart and can cause nerve damage and death in stressful times it will go into the lytic phase - attach - penetrate - INTEGRATE into bacterial genome - replicated, but genes are repressed
Bacterial Genome
consists of a single circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region of the cell
Mode of action of diphtheria toxin
Adds ADP ribose to host protein
Bactericidal agent
Agent that destroys bacteria
What activates the Alternative Complement Pathway
Activated when it recognizes LPS or lipoteichoic acid
What activates the Classical Complement Pathway
Activated when it recognizes bound antibodies
What activates the Lectin Complement Pathway
Activated when it recognizes mannose-binding lectin
Trophozoite
Active, motile, feeding stage of protozoa
Selective toxicity
A drug that kills harmful microbes without damaging the host
Binary Fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility
Giardia (Giardia lamblia)
A microorganism that infects the digestive system
Transduction
A process of DNA transfer into a recipient cell that requires bacteriophage packaging Phage accidentally packages host genomic DNA instead of phage DNA. can incorporate into genome
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Mutualism
A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
Parasitism
A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed
Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait (physical traits)
Plasmid
A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of the bacterial chromosome, R plasmids carry genes for antibiotic resistance
Capsule
A sticky layer that surrounds the cell walls of some bacteria, protecting the cell surface and sometimes helping to glue the cell to surfaces.
Purpose of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying a selected region of DNA by rapidly cycling through many rounds of DNA replication, under thermal (temperature) control
Structure of A-B toxins
B portion binds to a receptor on a host cell, A portion has enzymatic activity inside host cells
Lag phase
Bacteria preparing for cell growth
Role of RNA Polymerase
Binds to a promoter sequence of DNA, catalyzes the formation of bonds between nucleotides of mRNA
Death Phase
Build up of toxic waste, with no nutrients left the cells will die
Purpose of translation
Create proteins that express all body traits
Type 2 hypersensitivity
Cytotoxic ANTIBODY mediated cell destruction Ex: Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
Recombinant DNA
DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources is the joining of DNA from 2 different species Allows bacteria to produce human proteins insert a specific eukaryotic DNA sequence into a bacterial plasmid; introns must be removed.
Florence Nightingale
Demonstrated a statistical correlation between sanitation and mortality, Created first nursing school
Sterilization
Destruction of ALL living cells, spores, and/or viruses
Genetic Sequencing
Determining the order of bases on DNA fragments and the order of fragments in a genome.
Baltimore Classification System
Developed by Nobel laureate David Baltimore, Based around mRNA production methods, Separates viruses into seven classes
To what organism/toxin does the DTaP vaccine induces an immune response to?
Diphtheria toxin, Clostridium tetani, Pertussis
What disease does DTaP vaccine protect from?
Diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough
BCR (B-cell receptor) diversity
During B/T cell maturation, gene rearrangements produce a very large number of unique BCRs
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Enzymatically coupled reaction- the loss of a phosphate from an organic molecule releases energy (ATP) and is used to fuel the addition of phosphate to ADP
Fimbriae
Finger or fringe like projections, attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes
Lister
First to use disinfectants in surgical procedures
a. The scientist is wanting to do additional experiments with the bacterium and needs one million bacterial cells. If the scientist began with 1000 bacterial cells and the generation time of the bacterium is 30 minutes, how long will it take before there are one million (1,000,000) cells?
Nt= N0 x 2^n N0= (original cell #) 2000 2^n= (generation time) 1 gen= 30min Nt= 1,000,000 2000 at 30 min 4000 at 60min 8000 at 90min ... ... Answer is 5 hours
NAAT
Nucleic Acid Amplification Test
Microbial Classification: pH
Organisms sensitive to changes in acidity because H+ and OH- interfere with H bonding in proteins and nucleic acids
Capsid
Outer protein coat of a virus
Effect of Endotoxin
Part of bacterial structure Released when bacteria die Ex: LPS, Lipoteichoic acid
Which antibiotics target the cell wall?
Penicillin, cephalosporins, Vancomycin, Bacitracin, Monobactams
Autoclave
Piece of equipment used to sterilize articles by way of steam under pressure and/or dry heat
Plasmids
Plasmids often carry genes encoding enzymes that confer resistance to an antibiotic. Plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA. The genes required for bacterial conjugation are carried on a plasmid and can be transferred easily to other bacteria. The loss of a plasmid will not impact essential bacterial functions like DNA replication, transcription, or metabolism.
What disease does Pneumococcal (PCV) vaccine protect from?
Pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia
Obligate Anaerobes
Poisoned by oxygen
Cell membrane inhibitors
Polymyxins
Immune evasion strategies of intracellular pathogens
Prevent fusion, survive fusion, and escape phagosome
Fermentation
Process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen
Cellular respiration
Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
RNA Polymerase binds to the ______ region of DNA in transcription.
Promoter region
Translation makes
Proteins
Sigma Factors
Proteins in prokaryotic cells that bind to RNA polymerase and direct it to specific classes of promoters
Antigenic Variation
Protozoans change their surface antigens, each virus has a unique capsid protein, Antibodies to one capsid protein are not effective on another
Louis Pasteur
Proved that bacteria were living things capable of reproducing and potentially acting as a cause of disease, discovered microbes could be attenuated or weakened and used as a vaccine
DNA replication inhibitors
Quinolones
Antigenic drift
Random mutations occur within an existing virus, creating small changes in virus proteins. Reduced but some immunity.
Mode of action of toxic shock syndrome toxin
Rare but potentially fatal disease that results from bacterial production of superantigen.
Sanitation
Reduction of microbe numbers to "safe" levels to meet public heath standards
Memory B cells
Remember the same pathogen for faster antibody production in future infections
Disinfection
Removal of disease-causing microorganisms from inanimate surfaces
Antisepsis
Removal of disease-causing microorganisms from living tissues, such as skin or mucous membrane
Obligate Aerobes
Require oxygen
Cyst
Resting stage for unfavorable conditions
To what organism/toxin does the MMR vaccine induces an immune response to?
Rubeola, rubella, and mumps virus
Mode of action of cholera toxin
Salt imbalance draws water into the gut lumen, causing diarrhea
Transposition
Segments of DNA that move from one location to another in the same or different molecule
Role of resident microbiota: skin
Skin microbiota consists of normally harmless microbes that compete with potential pathogens for nutrients and space
Germ Theory of Disease
Specific diseases are caused by one specific microorganism
Mode of action of tetanus toxin
Spore-forming anaerobe, grows in puncture wounds
Stationary Phase
Stop growing but not going to die because they create stress responses, have a stable population level
MAMPs (microbe-associated molecular patterns)
Structures found on many foreign microbes but NOT on self cells
RNA Polymerase I
Synthesizes RNA polymer from a DNA template during transcription
Role of DNA polymerase
Synthesizes new DNA strand by adding nucleotides covalently to the 3' end of a primer/ DNA strand.
Endogenous antigen
Viral proteins, intracellular bacterial proteins, etc.
Purpose of transcription
To make RNA copies of individual genes that the cell can use in the biochemistry
Purpose of DNA Replication
To make copies of DNA so that every cell has the same instructions
Microbial Classification: Oxygen
Toxic forms of oxygen are highly reactive and excellent oxidizing agents.
DNA using RNA Polymerase is
Transcription
mRNA making tRNA and Ribosomes
Translation
Indirect transmission
Transmission of blood or body fluids through contact with an intermediate contaminated object such as a razor, extractor, nipper, or an environmental surface.
Direct transmission
Transmission of blood or body fluids through touching (including shaking hands), kissing, coughing, sneezing, and talking.
What disease does BCG vaccine protect from?
Tuberculosis
Apicomplexans: Key Structures
Tubular mitochondria, cavities called alveoli, apical complex (host entry structure), pores, microtubules, no flagella or cilia
Structure of antibodies
Two heavy chains (dark green), Two light chains (light green), Joined by disulfide bonds, Fab regions bind antigen (fragment, antigen binding), Fc region (bottom of the Y), Binds Fc receptor on phagocytes/complement, Five different isotypes
Antigenic shift
Two viral strains infect the same cell and the genomes get mixed. This makes a dramatically different virus. Recognized as a novel virus so humans have no immunity.
To what organism/toxin does the Varicella-zoster vaccine induces an immune response to?
Varicella and zoster
PCR tells us the ____ of a specific gene but sequencing tells us the gene's ____.
abundance; makeup
IgE
allergic reactions IgE: - activates mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils - causes degranulation of the cell population.
Repressor
always bound to the operon unless there is lactose present and it gets unbound
-ssRNA
antisense strand; viral RNA is transcribed to a + strand to serve as mRNA for protein synthesis the - is in the 3' to 5' form so it has to be transcribed to the the 5' to3'
