Mid Term

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A form of psychotherapy that integrates many of the principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning theory.Based on the assumption that emotional reactions and behaviors are learned and can be altered through application of learning principles.

Learned Resourcefulness

A pattern of learned strategies to manage emotions and maintain motivation under stressful conditions.

Positive reinforcement

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Adaptation

A process by which living things develop structures and problem-solving mechanisms that enable them to thrive in a particular environment

Natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those trait OR Behavior is adapted to the environment in which it occurs.Reproductive success≡ Fitness.Every species produces more offspring than can survive to reproduce

Formal Scientific Theory

A set of interconnected statements including assumptions, definitions, and hypotheses These statements explain and interpret observations Theories describe unobservable structures and relate them to one another in order to explain observable events A scientific theory has to be supported by extensive evidence

B.F. Skinner

An American psychologist whose research on animal learning focused on the modification of voluntary behaviors as a result of the consequences of those behaviors Actions and consequences

Two part process of Adaptation

Assimilation Accommodation

Components of a Theory

Assumptions Domain Range of Applicability Testable Hypotheses

How are entries ordered in a Reference list?

By author's last name first, then date of publication, then title.

This group is used to produce comparison, it is not exposed to the independent variable

Control group

This type of study measures whether or not there is a relationship between variables

Correlation

The variable that is measured in a study. The experimenter does not control this variable. The effect of the manipulation

Dependent variable

Info Processing

Examines how individuals make sense of the great amount of information that is present in the environment, how they analyze tasks in order to perform them effectively, how they translate their analyses into plans for action, and how they implement their plans

This type of study measures cause and effect

Experiment

This is the group that receives the experimental treatment, manipulation. The group exposed to the independent variable

Experimental group

Which of the following is cited correctly in APA style?

H. M. Dietel and P. J. Dietel (1999) define pointers as "variables that contain as their values addresses of other variables" (p. 294).

When should et al. be used in APA style?

It should be used when the work has more than 6 authors If the work has more than two authors, both authors' names should be used the first time; later, et al. can be used after the first author's name

Characteristics of a Good Theory

Logical internally consistent Parsimonious Testable Integrates previous research Deals with a relatively large area of science

Stages Stages of Psychosexual Development

Oral - infancy; passive and dependent Anal - second year; subordination of the child's will to parental/cultural demands Phallic - ages 3-6; heightened genital sensitivity; the period of the Oedipal/Electra conflicts; the crystallization of the superego Latency - ages 6 to puberty; primarily a time of ego development; sublimation of drives Genital - adolescence and adulthood; finding ways to satisfy sexual impulses through mature intimate relationships.

Defense Mechanisms

Protect the person from anxiety so that effective functioning can be preserved Distort, substitute, or completely block out the source of the conflict They are usually initiated unconsciously Ex. Repression and Regression

Which of the following is the correct APA Reference list entry?

Reese, G. (2000). Database Programming with JDBC and Java. Beijing: O'Reilly Media

Your list of sources should be labeled

References

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Evolutionary Psychology

The application of principles of evolution to explain the nature of the human mind

Lawrence Kohlberg

Theory of Moral Development: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional

If an entry in a Reference list is longer than one line, second and all subsequent lines need to be indented half an inch

True

In APA style, separate title page is required for a research paper or an essay

True

The Reference section should start on a separate page under the centered heading References, which does not use bold font. The reference entries should appear in alphabetical order by authors' surname (or by title if works do not list an author) regardless of the type of source (e.g., book, film, journal article, website).

True

Constructing a Theory

When scientists develop a set of interrelated ideas to explain puzzling observations

Conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Which term refers to a logical system of general concepts that provides a framework for organizing and understanding observations?

a theory

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Equilibrium is achieved through ____________, a process of gradually modifying existing schemes in order to take into account discrepancies between what is known and what is being experienced

adaptation

In the context of human development, the term plasticity refers to:

adaptive re-organization in life span

Primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Schemes

any organized, meaningful grouping of interrelated actions, images, feelings, or ideas that determine how a person interacts with the environment

Negative Reinforcement

any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

Which of the following refers to the guiding premises underlying the logic of a theory?

assumptions

Which of the following make up a theory?

assumptions, definitions, and hypotheses

Why did Piaget prefer the term schemes rather than the term concepts to discuss the organization of thoughts?

because the term can be used to describe interrelated groups of actions as well as ideas, which is useful especially when describing infant intelligence

_____________ means that responsiveness, whether at a neural or behavioral level, is shaped and narrowed as a result of repeated experiences:

canalization

What methodology did Piaget use in his research on children's cognition?

careful observations and slight manipulations of his own children's behavior posing a variety of problems, watching children solve them, and questioning them about their solutions interviewing young children, asking them questions about their dreams and familiar life events

Over the five years from her birth to age 5, Marla's parents also got older and changed jobs. Her baby sister was born, and her grandmother died. This set of events has had an impact on Marla's development. This situation illustrates which of the following challenges to the study of human development?

change in the person is taking place in the context of a changing environment

Which of the following terms refers to the process of organizing and making meaning of experience?

cognition

Dakota has started to read short biographies of women she believes are important. She makes lists of who is most important in categories like business leader, political leader, and star athlete. Then she starts to read about the number one person in each category. Which of Piaget's stages do you think Dakota is in?

concrete operational stage

Individuals' lives show _________ and ___________ as they progress through time

constancy; change

These designs are used to examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time

cross-sectional

At each stage of development, a process occurs which takes the person from a position of relative ________ to a greater ability to take into account the actions, motives, and features of objects and people

egocentrism

According to Piaget, organisms strive to achieve a balance of organized structures that provides effective ways of interacting with the environment. This is known as _________:

equilibrium

Theory of mind

focuses on the natural way children understand another person's behavior based on a view that beliefs, desires, and actions are logically linked

Assimilation

he tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of an existing scheme

Accommodation

he tendency to modify familiar schemes in order to account for new dimensions of the object or event that are revealed

Identification

incorporating the observable characteristics and personal values of people whom we either love, admire, or fear

Human development is a product of the ____________:

interaction of biological, psychological, and societal systems

Equilibrium

is a balance of organized structures, including motor, sensory, and cognitive They provide effective ways of interacting with the environment According to Piaget, every organism strives to achieve this

The Free-Rider Problem

is a person who does not contribute his/her fair share to the production of a resource but shares equally in the benefits

Sigmud Freud

is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind, dreams, infantile sexuality, libido, repression, and transference—all of which continue to influence the field of psychology to varying degrees Account of the mind's structure—id, ego, and superego—led to a new understanding of human psychological development and the treatment of psychological disturbance.

In APA style, the first name of the author in a Reference list

is not spelled out

Cognition

is the process of organizing and making meaning of experience

What is a characteristic of a "good" formal theory?

it is logical and internally consistent

What is the adaptive value of cognitive organization?:

it reduces the amount of information that is needed to respond to individual stimuli

These designs are used to examine behavior in the same infants and children over time

longitudinal

Darwin's two forms of Evolution

one in which a species is modified over long periods of time; and one in which new species break away from their lineage and form a new phylogenetic branch

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about ______, that is, age-related characteristics of social, physical, emotional, and cognitive competence that can be expected when a person is highly motivated, physically healthy, and well-integrated into their social group

optimal development

Learned Helplessness

pattern of learned responses when negative consequences are unavoidable

A theory of human development is expected to provide explanations for which of the following?

patterns of psychological and social growth over the life span

Robert wants to be an airline pilot. He studies physics and engineering in college; takes flight instruction lessons; and checks into the qualifications for military programs for flight training. All of these efforts illustrate which idea about human development?

people are goal directed and can make choices that guide the direction of their own development

Gender Schemes

personal theories about cultural expectations and stereotypes related to gender They look for information that helps to build consistent ideas about how they should behave, what toys and games they should play with, and whom they should imitate, as a boy or a girl

his extensive research and theory of moral development, Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning. Which of the levels is characterized by an acceptance of moral principles that are viewed as part of a person's own ideology, rather than simply being imposed by the social order?

postconventional morality

Transference

projecting the characteristics of an internalized identification onto another person.

Regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Theories are generally limited to explaining behaviors that fall within their _____________.

range of applicability

Metacognition

refers to a range of processes and strategies used to assess and monitor knowledge. It includes the "feeling of knowing." The capacity for applying principles of logical reasoning to an analysis of one's own thoughts

The ability to anticipate threat, to adapt readily, and even become stronger or more competent under conditions that are otherwise known to disrupt or undermine functioning is referred to as_________:

resilience

Canalization

responsiveness whether at a neural or behavioral level, is shaped and narrowed as a result of repeated experiences

Factors that increase vulnerability and disrupt optimal development are called _________:

risk factors

Social Roles

roleis any set of behaviors that has a socially agreed upon function and an accepted code of norms serve as a bridge between the individual and the society

Which of the stages of cognitive development relies most on the physical exploration of objects?

sensorimotor intelligence

Drives

sexual and aggressive forces that have biological and somatic origin and repress for expression

Piaget's writings inspired research and theory in the field of moral development. Theories of moral development typically support the view that as children's cognitive capacities mature, they are increasingly likely to appreciate that moral principles are based on _______ rather than on _______

social agreements; fixed rules

Id

source of instincts and impulses; exists from birth; expresses its wishes through the pleasure principle; the logic of the id is primary process thought

Ivan Pavlov

studied the behavior of dogs and developed a theory of classical conditioning, which explains how people associate two stimuli in their minds and react to one of them as though it was the other

Ethology

study of the functional significance of animal behavior in the natural environment from an evolutionary perspective

Attachment

the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual implications for the child's ability to explore the environment, to engage in satisfying social relationships, and to form close, intimate bonds in friendship and romantic relationships as an adolescent and adult

Egocentrism

the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view refers to the child's limited perspective at the beginning of each new phase of cognitive development

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Norms

the shared beliefs held by members of a community, not just those involved in the role, about role expectations and related behaviors informal form of social control

Which of the following statements best characterizes how Piaget thought about stages of cognitive development?

the stages describe abstract processes that could be applied to many content areas and that could be observed at roughly the same chronological age periods across cultures stages emerge through times of disequilibrium and efforts to achieve new levels of equilibrium each stage brings a qualitatively distinctive organization to thought and problem solving

How are theories and scientific observations linked?

theories indicate important areas for observation scientific observations help confirm theories scientific observations help revise theories

Jean Piaget

theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment

Charles Darwin

theory of evolution declared that species survived through a process called "natural selection," where those that successfully adapted, or evolved, to meet the changing requirements of their natural habitat thrived, while those that failed to evolve and reproduce died off

How do theories help explain observations?

they identify orderly relationships

A powerful aspect of context that influences development is culture. How does culture shape development?

through the arts, technologies, religions, and governments of a people through the organization of families and patterns of socialization hrough its physical and symbolic tools, including language

Superego

two functions: The conscience - a punishing function The ego ideal - a rewarding function

Ego

two meanings: The idea of the self, including mental representations of the self; born out of self-love All mental functions that relate to a person's relationship to the environment; operates according to the reality principle; is a secondary process thought; is the essential structure needed for reality testing.

Repression

unacceptable impulses are pushed into the unconscious

Associative Learning

when a subject links certain events, behaviors, or stimuli together in the process of conditioning