midterm

Question 14: Self-Concept and the three components

Self Concept - The constructed reflection of whom the individual believes themselves to be, containing both their beliefs, values, and attributes of one's character. Three Components Self Image - How someone sees themselves Self-Worth / Self-Esteem - How you value yourself Ideal Self - How you wish you would be Are not completely stable and can change

Question 24. Haptics:

-a study of how we use touch to communicate; assessed via frequency, duration, and intensity. Categories of Touch Professional or Functional Touch - least intimate, part of livelihood Social-polite Touch- part of daily interaction Friendship Touch - warmth, closeness, caring Love-intimate Touch - romantic partners and family Demand Touch - establish dominance or power The Touch Deprivation Scale is used to assess lack of haptic communication (no touching) Absence of touch: degree to which an individual perceives that touch is not a normal part of their day to day interactions Longing for touch: a lack of desire for physical contact Increased desire for physical contact Increased desire for physical contact resulting in increased sexual activity Punyant-Carter and Wrench (the creators of the TDS), found... Positive relationship between touch deprivation and depression Negative relationship between touch deprivation and self-esteem A lack of touch during childhood (i.e. tactile nurturance) is associated with higher levels of touch deprivation as adults

Question 16: Personality & Temperament

1. Temperament: Natural part of personality that comes from your genes. More biological, predisposition, basic inherited personality style. Examples: extrovert vs introvert, distractibility, emotionality WHAT WE DO. 2. Personality: Is more distinctive, is the product of social environment, the characteristics that are set in someone's character. Example: agreeable, passive, conforming, confident WHO WE ARE. Temperament refers to behavioral style, the 'how' of behavior. Personality describes 'what' a person does or 'why' they do things. -Personality is formed on top of temperament.

Question 6: What Purposes Does Interpersonal Communication Serve?

1.Communicating & meeting personal needs Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 2.Learning about yourself & others Developing self-concept and self-esteem 3.Building & maintain relationships 4.Reducing uncertainty about others

Question 20: 8 Functions of Language

1.Instrumental - to fulfill a need ("I want" "I need") 2.Regulatory - a speaker commands, persuades, or requests something from someone else. Influence the behavior of others. ("you need to ...") 3.Interactional - to help maintain or develop relationships ("thank you" "I care about you) 4.Imaginative - use words, sounds, and grammatical forms to paint pictures, images, or scenes in mind ("once upon a time...) 5.Personal - information about people and their relationships. To form an identity. (using "me" or "you" when identifying who you are speaking to) 6.Heuristic - use of language to learn, discover and explore (ask several questions) 7.Cultural - how one communicates to build relationships and create a sense of community (learning a new language, trying new foods) 8.Representational - used to request or relay information. Straightforward statements. ("my cat is asleep" or "the light won't turn on")

Question 19: 3 Rules that Govern Language

1.Semantic Meaning of a word can change based on the linguistic context (meaning can change depending on who is talking or what the word means to you) 2.Syntactic Governs how we guide the use of words Grammer Structure Punctuation 3. Pragmatic How language is used to interact with other people; these rules help individuals interpret messages based on communicative interactions

Q10: Action Models

1.Shannon-Weaver model Also known as the "linear model" Source>Encodes Message>Transmits Message>Receives Message>Decodes Message Feedback is not immediate 2.Early Schramm model Similar to Shannon-Weaver Model Schramm model accounts for the impact of messages Proper message decoding and feedback are crucial 3.Berlo's SMCR model Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver 3 main parts of communication: speaker, subject, and listener All four factors (SMCR) contain attributes that affect the communication of the message

Question 13: What is Intrapersonal Communication?

1.Unlike interpersonal communication which happens between two or more people, intrapersonal communication happens with oneself. 2.Names for intrapersonal communication can vary. Monologue, self-talk, ad internal discourse can be used to discuss the concept. 3.Examples of intrapersonal communication could include giving yourself a pep-talk when you are nervous for something or journaling your feeling.

Question 23: Functions of nonverbal communication

6 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 1.Complementing: Nonverbal behavior that is used in combination with the verbal portion of the message to emphasize the message. Example: Someone jumping up and down saying 'I'm so excited' compared to them saying the same thing while standing still. 2.Contradicting: When verbal and nonverbal messages are incongruent. We tend to typically believe the nonverbal messages we see rather than the verbal. Example: Someone saying 'That was so fun' in a monotone voice with a disinterested expression. 3.Accenting: A form of nonverbal communication that emphasizes a specific word or part of a message. Example: Pauses after specific words/phrases 4.Repeating: Nonverbal communication that repeats the meaning of verbal communication. Example: Saying yes while nodding your head. 5.Regulating: Using nonverbal cues to keep the conversation flowing. Example: Eye Contact, Leaning forward towards the source 6.Substituting: Replacing verbal communication with nonverbal communication altogether. Example: Just shrugging instead of saying "i don't know' in response to a question

Question 21: Muted Group Theory

A study of interactions between dominant and sub-dominant groups Argues that the dominant members of society (MEN), create a language and system of communication that subverts or reduces other groups (WOMEN) The muted group sees things that really do exist in a society The dominant group either cannot see or chooses not to see based on its position in society as the dominant group The Muted Group Theory is often examined through socioeconomic status Ex: "What do you mean, you don't know if you should get them or not? Wherever I want new clothes, I just ask my dad for the money card."

Question 36: Social Penetration Theory

Altman and Taylor's theory (1973) that explains how individuals gradually become more intimate as individuals self-disclose more and those self-disclosures become more intimate. Relationships begin when individuals share non-intimate layers and move to more intimate layers of personal information; Self-disclosure is the vehicle through which we learn more about the others as well as gain a better understanding of ourselves; 5 stages of social penetration: 1.Orientation stage: Communication about superficial topics; 2.Exploratory affective stage: Disclosure more about their feelings about normal topics; 3.Affective stage: Engagement in more private topics; 4.Stable stage: People share their most intimate details; 5.Depenetration stage: In some relationships, some decrease personal disclosures; Relational closeness involves both breadth and depth; OBS: Also known as the onion model (metaphor for describing how social penetration theory operates, elaborating on social penetration as a process through which people "peel back" others' layers of personal information through interpersonal interaction to reach the core);

Question 28: Co-cultures vs. Microcultures

Co-cultures: Co-cultures are regional, economic, social, religious, ethnic, and other cultural groups that exert influence in society: Co-cultures bring a unique sense of history and purpose within the larger culture; A student resident of Chinatown might have a U.S passport, but he could be described as having a set of co-cultures including Hong Kong parentage, bilingualism, being a business school student, loving video games, and living with his parents; Microcultures: Microcultures are cultural patterns of behavior are influenced by cultural beliefs values, norms, and rules based on a specific locality or within an organization: Also known as local culture because they exist among a small segment of people within a specific geographical region; Microcultures provide individuals a sense of belonging on a more localized level (filling Maslow's need for belonging);

Question 29: Collective Self-Esteem

Collective Self-Esteem is the aspect of an individual's self-worth or self-image that stems from their interactions with others and evaluation of their various social groups; Private collective esteem: whether an individual positively evaluates their group; Membership esteem: whether an individual sees themselves as a "good" member of a group; Public collective esteem: whether nonmembers of a group evaluate a group and its members either positively or negatively; Importance to identity: whether group membership is important to an individual; Higher opinion of your own cultural group leads to higher self-evaluations (and vice-versa); When an individual felt their heritage culture was positively evaluated by a communication partner: Intimacy increased; Personal disclosure increased; Feelings of personal acceptance increased; Individuals with high collective self-esteem report more favorable interactions with individuals from different cultures. Individuals with low collective self-esteem recalled less intimate social interactions with individuals from different cultures.

Question 2: What does it mean for communication to be a process?

Communication is a process that is: Ongoing Dynamic Purposefully changing Moving towards an end goal David K. Berlo (1960s) : Communication is a process A series of ongoing interactions that changes over time Example: inside jokes Laughing with a friend over one key word That communication didn't exist when you first met, but over time the short-hand and familiarity developed and changed The more interaction you have with someone, the more your relationship with that person will evolves

Question 27: What is culture? What does it teach us?

Culture is a group of people who, through a process of learning, can share perceptions of the world, which influence their beliefs. Values, norms, and rules, which eventually affect behavior. Formed by a group of people, a group that individuals participate in over the course of their lifetime. A natural part of humanity. Facilitates a shared perfection of the world. Culture teaches us: Beliefs: assumptions and convictions held by an individual, group, or culture about the truth or existence of something. Values: important and lasting principles or standards held by a culture about desirable and appropriate courses of action or outcomes. Norms: informal guidelines about what is acceptable or proper social behavior within a specific culture. Rules: explicit guidelines (generally written down) governing acceptable or proper social behavior within a specific culture.

Question 33: Types of Conversations

Discourse: a one-way, cooperative conversation. Purpose is for the sender to transmit information to the receiver; Dialogue: a two-way, cooperative conversation. Goal is for participants to exchange information and build relationships with each other; Debate: a two-way, competitive conversation. Purpose is to win an argument or persuade someone to change their thoughts, values, beliefs, and behaviors; Diatribe: a one-way, competitive conversation. Purpose is to express emotions, browbeat those that disagree, and/or inspire others with the same perspective;

Question 31: Low context vs. High context culture

High-context cultures interpret meaning by relying more on nonverbal context or behavior than on verbal symbols in communication: Intention of meaning is conveyed through implicit contexts, such as gestures, social customs, silence, nuance, or tone of voice; Low-context cultures interpret meaning by placing a great deal of emphasis on the words someone uses: Meaning is conveyed through explicit verbal messages, both oral and written;

Question 35: Hurrier Model of Listening

Hurrier model of listening: H - Hearing; U - Understanding; R - Remembering; I - Interpreting; E - Evaluating; R - Responding;

Question 15: Congruent vs. incongruent selves

Incongruent → three parts of self-concept that are not compatible with each other which is why are they do not overlap with one another Person's self-image and ideal-self have nothing in common and they may see themselves as having no self-worth Congruent → three parts of self-concept overlap and are compatible with each other The person's self-image and ideal-self are more aligned with one another The more they overlap then the more the person is able to self-actualize

Question 32: Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism: characteristics of a culture that values being self-reliant and self-motivated, believes in personal freedom and privacy, and celebrates personal achievement. Collectivism: characteristics of a culture that values cooperation and harmony and considers the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of the individual.

Question 5: What is Interpersonal Communication?

Interpersonal communication is the exchange of messages between two people, also referred to as dyadic communication. We engage in interpersonal communication by using verbal communication and nonverbal communication. Interpersonal communication can be formal (business meeting) or informal (talking to friends) Interpersonal communication often occurs face to face and is usually unplanned and ungrammatical like the conversations you have with friends or family.

Question 7: Uncertainty Reduction Theory Overview

Introduced in 1975 by Charles R. Berger and Richard J. Calabrese Proposes that people are uncomfortable with uncertainty and the unknown and look for ways to predict the outcome of social interactions before they take place. Reducing uncertainty makes relationships stronger Example: Asking someone's friend how that person feels about you, rather than asking the person themselves. Axioms of URT: Verbal communication, nonverbal expressions, information seeking, self disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, and liking.

Question 18: What is Language?

Language is a system of human communication using a certain form of spoken, written and or other symbols 1. Language is the MOST important element in human communication 2. Language is how we as individuals think,transmit, and understand others' wants, needs and desires 3. Discourse: Spoken or written discussion of a subject

Question 22: Value/Importance of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal Communication: communicating in any manner that is not spoken (body language, facial expressions, eyecontact, overall demeanor) Value/importance: -primary way people communicate with each other (Mehrabian's explanation of message meaning: claims that up to 93% of communication is nonverbal) -influences how the message is received and interpreted in a way that can not be done communicating with language alone -probability of misinterpretation decreases when nonverbal communication complements verbal communication

Question 1:Four concerns of interpersonal communication

Number 1: How many communicators are involved Number 2: The physical proximity of the communicators (Are they standing next to each other? Are they far across from one another? Is the communication even physical?) Number 3: Nature of The Interaction Units (Understanding the participants and how they communicate) Number 4: Degree of formality + structure (How formal or casual are the participants being?)

Question 11: Interaction Models

Osgood-Schramm Model Messages can go in 2 directions 1) Communication is not linear, but circular; 2) Communication is reciprocal and equal; 3) Messages are based on interpretation; 4) Communication involves encoding, decoding, and interpreting Watzlawick-Beavin-Jackson Model Communication is continuous 1) We cannot, not communicate 2) Every message has a content and relationship dimension 3) Punctuating communicative sequence. 4) Communication can be analog or digital 5) Communication can be either symmetrical or complementary

Question 8: Define and List the Stages of Perception

Perception is the continuous process of acquiring, interpreting, and organizing information via one's five senses in which one's experience and preferences shape individuals and how they communicate. 3 Stages of Perception: 1.Attending: the act of focusing on specific subjects in the world around you. Selective perception. 2.Organizing: making sense of and defining incoming stimuli. Physical constructs, Role constructs, Social behaviors, Psychological constructs. 3.Interpreting: the act of assigning meaning to a stimulus in order to evaluate and understand its worth. Personal experience, Relational involvement, Expectations, Assumptions, Relational satisfaction.

3. What are the four needs that communication fulfills?

Physical and mental health: Communicating about negative experiences can lead to having better mental/physical health Having a support system during a hard time will have an improved outcome Identity: Influences how we view ourselves (can be positive or negative) How we think, act, and feel will be influenced on what has been communicated to us Social: Relationships exist because of communication We need to establish and maintain relationships with other people Practical: Can't function without it We cannot not communicate

Question #9: What are perceptual schema?

Related to "perceptions" which is the process of acquiring, interpreting, and organizing information received through one or more of our five senses Perceptual Schema itself is a framework organizing information collected in a way that makes sense to our individual self. (creating meaningful patterns from stimuli) Our perceptual schema is also different for every individual, what you have interpreted may not carry the same weight and meaning to others. The 3 elements of perceptual schema include: Selecting, 1.Organizing and Interpreting Select: Select to attend to stimuli (light, sound/noise) 2.Organize: categorize stimuli to create meaning 3.Interpret: make sense out of the stimuli and how it has been organized

Question 34: Motives for Self-Disclosure

Self-disclosure is the process of purposefully communicating information about yourself. Motives for self-disclosure: Social integration: demonstrating commonality with another person or group; Impression management: the attempt to generate as favorable an impression of ourselves as possible, particularly through both verbal and nonverbal techniques of self-presentation; Persona: a face or front an individual puts on in social situation; Façade: a false appearance of a manner of behaving that hides what someone is really like; Six common impression management techniques; Self-description; Accounts; Apologies; Entitlements and enhancements; Flattery;

Question 30: Stereotypes

Stereotypes are a set of beliefs about the personal attributes of a social group; can be positive/negative and accurate/inaccurate: Cultural stereotypes are beliefs possessed by cultural groups about another social group; Personal stereotypes are those held by an individual and do no reflect a shared belief with their cultural group(s); They can be problematic: People use stereotypes to categorize people when making snap judgments based only on group membership, where all members of a group are inaccurately viewer to be the same; Many stereotypes are based on ignorance about another's cultures;

Question 4: What does it mean for communication to be symbolic?

Symbolic communication is the exchange of messages that change a prior expectation of events. Examples: modern communication technology and the exchange of information amongst animals. By referring to objects and ideas not present at the time of communication, a world of possibility is opened.

Question 17: Looking Glass Self: Charles H. Cooley

The thoughts and feelings a person has about themself are based on the perceptions and responses of the people around them. This in turn, influences self image and behavior. Ex: If someone often receives laughter from others in conversation, they will interpret themself as funny

Question #12: Transaction Models

The transactional model is the way you explain use of transactions in message flows to accomplish certain tasks and results. Individuals are simultaneously the sender and receiver •Barnlund's Transactional Model: •Message encoding and decoding occur simultaneously •Communication is a continuous, endless cycle •Communication constantly changes •Multi-layered feedback system involving oral and nonverbal communication •Communication is complex •Cues (e.g., public, private, behavioral) •Context (e.g., social, cultural, relational) •Noise (e.g., physical, physiological, psychological, semantic)

Types of perceptual schema

There are four types of schemes that people use to organize perceptions. First, physical constructs are used to classify people (e.g., young/old; tall/short; big/small). Second, role constructs are social positions (e.g., mother, friend, lover, doctor, teacher). Third, interaction constructs or the social behaviors within a interaction (e.g., aggressive, friendly, dismissive, indifferent). Fourth, psychological constructs the dispositions, emotions, and state of mind for the communicators (e.g., depressed, confident, happy, insecure).