midterm review 3351

What is the type of validity that tests whether a measure is consistent with a criterion measured at the same time? A) Concurrent B) Predictive C) Content D) Face

A) Concurrent

7. What technique do researchers use to estimate how large a sample they need? A) Power analysis B) Stratification C) Screening D) Effect

A) Power Analysis In quantitative studies, researchers often use a power analysis to estimate sample size needs, which is a strategy for avoiding problems with statistical conclusion validity. Page 270

A researcher plans to test a fall-prevention intervention by gathering data in 10 hospitals, 5 of which will be implementing the intervention and 5 will not. If the 5 hospitals are assigned at random to the intervention, what is this type randomization? A) Urn B) Cluster C) Randomized D) Stratified

B) Cluster Cluster randomization, involves randomly assigning clusters (e.g., hospitals) rather than people to different treatment groups. Page 184

What is the degree to which an instrument measures a construct it purports to measure? A) Reliability B) Validity C) Error of measurement D) Criterion validity

B) Validity

9. Which is an example of an ideal nursing intervention? A. Lack of theoretical underpinning B. Demonstrates sensitivity to diverse groups C. Convenient and already tested D. Limited accessibility

B. Demonstrates sensitivity to diverse groups

What is one of the advantages of a questionnaire? A) Expensive B) Time consuming C) Candid responses D) Limited to certain sample

C) Candid responses

What is an advantage of an interview? A) Inconvenient B) Confusing questions C) Less likely to get no response D) Limited data

C) Less likely to get no response

What is a value that lies outside of normal range called? A) Subset B) Data cleaning C) Outlier D) Wild code

C) Outlier Glossary - A value that lies outside the normal range of values on a measure, especially in relation to other cases in a data set. Page 438 Outliers are values that lie outside the normal range. Outliers can be found by inspecting frequency distributions, paying special attention to the lowest and highest values. (Most researchers begin data analysis by constructing frequency distributions for all variables in their dataset.) Some outliers are true, legitimate values (e.g., an annual income of $1 million in a distribution where the mean is $50,000), but sometimes they result from data entry errors.

A researcher sends out questionnaires about burnout to a sample of 500 nurses via e-mail. Which would be a useful strategy for enhancing the quality of this survey study? A) Training data collectors on the use of probes B) Developing appropriate show cards C) Sending out follow up reminders D) Measuring outcomes through the PROMIS system

C) Sending out follow up reminders The use of follow-up reminders is strongly recommended for mail and Internet surveys to increase response rates and thereby enhance the quality of the survey results. Show cards and probes are useful in interview situations, not when self-administered questionnaires are used. The PROMIS® system is a valuable resource, but only in studies focused on certain patient-reported outcomes (PROs)—not on nurses' burnout. Page 291

5. Clinical significance refers to the number of errors the proposed intervention can cause. True False

False Attaining statistical significance does not indicate whether a finding is clinically meaningful or relevant. With a large enough sample, a trivial relationship can be statistically significant. Broadly speaking, we define clinical significance as the practical importance of research results in terms of whether they have genuine, palpable effects on the daily lives of patients or on the healthcare decisions made on their behalf. Page 457

10. Nursing intervention research is a process of developing, implementing, testing, and disseminating nursing interventions. True False

True

How does a researcher manipulate an experiment? a. Changing data b. Administering an intervention c. Providing concise information d. Identifying relationships

b. Administering an intervention Manipulation involves doing something to study participants. Experimenters manipulate the independent variable by administering a treatment (or intervention [I]) to some people and withholding it from others (C), or by administering alternative treatments to two or more groups.

What is the first step in evidence based practice? a. retrieving relevant evidence b. appraising the evidence c. asking clinical questions d. integrating the evidence in practice

c. Asking clinical questions

Which term is used to describe using research to guide nursing practice and to improve the health and quality of life of client's? a. Research b. clinical nursing research c. nursing research d. evidence base practice

d. Evidence based practice

4. Quantitative interpretation of data considers credibility and accuracy of results. True False

True Credibility of Quantitative Results One of the most important interpretive tasks is to assess whether the results are correct. Research findings are meant to reflect "truth in the real world." The findings are intended to be proxies for the true state of affairs in actual community or healthcare settings. Inference is the vehicle for linking results to the real world. Inferences about what is true in the real world are valid, however, to the extent that the researchers have made rigorous methodologic decisions. To come to a conclusion about whether the results closely approximate "truth in the real world," each aspect of the study—its design, procedures, sampling plan, measurements, and analytic approach—must be subjected to critical scrutiny. Page 449

Which of the following is a step for descriptive phenomenology? a. Bracketing b. intuiting c. analyzing d. describing

b. Bracketing Its the process of ID and holding in preconceived beliefs, opinions about a phenomenon. Helps remove influence, stay objective, neutral.

A term used to describe the person in charge of directing the research or study? a. Subject b. informant c. investigator d. principal investigator

d. Principle investigator The person who conducts a study is the researcher or investigator. When a study is done by a team, the person directing the study is the principle investigator . #3 Key Concepts and Steps in Qualitative and Quantitative Research page 42

Which study conducts a test only after an intervention is given? A) After only design B) Before after design C) Factorial D) Crossover

A) After only design Basic Experimental Designs Data for a posttest-only design (or after-only design) are collected only once—after randomization and completion of the intervention; example - both groups are randomized , but only the first group gets the intervention. Page 186

Which is an example of a tool used for randomization? A) Coin toss B) Volunteer group C) Select Group D) Sort by characteristics

A) Coin toss Basic RandomizationThe most straightforward randomization procedure for a two-group design is to simply allocate each person as they enroll into a study on a random basis—for example, by flipping a coin. If the coin comes up "heads," a participant would be assigned to one group; if it comes up "tails," he or she would be assigned to the other group. This type of randomization, with no restrictions, is sometimes called complete randomization. Each successive person has a 50-50 chance of being assigned to the intervention group. Page 181

5. Researchers use this method to summarize and describe quantitative data? A) Descriptive B) Inferential C) Symmetric D) Frequency

A) Descriptive

6. A method used to display frequency information graphically? A) Histograms B) Crosstabs table C) Scatter plot D) Modality

A) Histograms A histogram is constructed by drawing bars above the score classes to the height corresponding to the frequency for that score.

8. The main things specified in a sampling plan include: (Select all that apply) A) How many people will be included in the sample B) Whether the accessible and target population will be the same C) Whether or not weighting will be necessary D) Whether or not sampling error will be estimated E) What type of sampling approach will be used to select participants

A) How many people will be included in the sample B) Whether the accessible and target population will be the same E) What type of sampling approach will be used to select participants A sampling plan specifies in advance how participants will be selected and how many will be included in the sample. The target and accessible populations are almost never the same. Weighting is a procedure only used in certain types of sampling approaches, and sampling error can only be estimated when probability sampling has been used. Page 260

Please determine the level of measurement for each item. A) 1.F/2.M B) 112 lbs C) Age D) 1.active, 2.inactive, 3.moderate, 4.extreme E) annual salary Nominal, ratio, interval, ordinal

A) Nominal B) ratio C) interval D) Ordinal E) interval Nominal MeasurementThe lowest level of measurement is nominal measurement, which involves assigning numbers to classify characteristics into categories. Examples of variables amenable to nominal measurement include gender, blood type, and marital status.The numbers used in nominal measurement have no quantitative meaning. Nominal measurement provides no information about an attribute except equivalence. Nominal measures must have categories that are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. Numbers in nominal measurement cannot be treated mathematically. It is not meaningful to calculate the average marital status of a sample, but we can compute percentages. In a sample of 50 patients with 30 not married and 20 married, we could say that 60% were not married and 40% were married.Ordinal MeasurementOrdinal measurement involves sorting people based on their relative ranking on an attribute. This measurement level goes beyond categorization: Attributes are ordered according to some criterion. Ordinal measurement captures not only equivalence but also relative rank. Ordinal measurement does not, however, tell us anything about how much greater one level is than another. We do not know if being completely independent is twice as good as needing mechanical assistance. Nor do we know if the difference between needing another person's assistance and needing mechanical assistance is the same as that between needing mechanical assistance and being completely independent. Ordinal measurement tells us only the relative ranking of the attribute's levels.As with nominal measures, mathematic operations with ordinal-level data are restricted—for example, averages are usually meaningless. Frequency counts, percentages, and several other statistics are appropriate for ordinal-level data.Interval MeasurementInterval measurement occurs when researchers can assume equivalent distance between rank-ordering on an attribute. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is an example: a temperature of 60°F is 10°F warmer than 50°F. A 10°F difference similarly separates 40°F and 30°F, and the two differences in temperature are equivalent. Interval-level measures are more informative than ordinal ones, but interval measures do not communicate absolute magnitude. For example, we cannot say that 60°F is twice as hot as 30°F. The Fahrenheit scale uses an arbitrary zero point: zero degrees does not signify an absence of heat. Most psychosocial scales are assumed to yield interval-level data. Interval scales expand analytic possibilities—in particular, interval-level data can be averaged meaningfully. It is reasonable, for example, to compute an average daily body temperature for hospital patients.Ratio MeasurementRatio measurement provides information about ordering on the critical attribute, the intervals between objects, and the absolute magnitude of the attribute because there is a rational, meaningful zero. Many physical measures provide ratio-level data. A person's weight, for example, is measured on a ratio scale. We can say that someone who weighs 200 pounds is twice as heavy as someone who weighs 100 pounds. Because ratio measures have an absolute zero, all arithmetic operations are permissible. Statistical procedures suitable for interval-level data are also appropriate for ratio-level data.

3. A listing of each variable together with information about placement in the file and codes associated with the values of the variable is called? A) codebook B) missing at random C) likewise deletion D) imputation

A) codebook Documentation usually involves preparing a codebook. A codebook is a listing of each variable together with information about placement in the file, codes associated with the values of the variable, and other basic information. Codebooks can be generated by statistical or data entry programs. Page 439

What are the three characteristics of a randomized controlled trial? Select all that apply A) manipulation B) control C) Intervention D) Time E) Data F) Randomization

A) manipulation B) control F) randomization A true experimental or RCT design is characterized by the following properties:Manipulation: the researcher does something to at least some participants—there is some type of interventionControl: the researcher introduces controls, including devising a counterfactual approximation—usually, a control group that does not receive the interventionRandomization: the researcher assigns participants to a control or experimental condition on a random basis Page 177

Which of the following are threats to construct validity? Select all that apply A) Treatment diffusion or contamination B) Participants alter behavior to reflect their perception of the study C) Researcher Expectancies D) Data from hospital records E) Compensatory Effects

A), B), C), E)

8. What are some ways to organize the Results in a research report? Select all that Apply. A) Chart B) Graph C) Picture D) Figures E) Table

A), D), E)

Please match to the appropriate item. A)Parallel Testing B) Interrater C) Intrarrater D)Test-retest 1) Measurements of the same attribute 2) Measures by 2 or more observers using the same instrument 3) Measurements by the same rater on 2 or more occasions 4) Administration of the same measure to the same people on 2 occasion

A)1, B)2, C)3, D)4

2. Which situation would indicate a need for mixed method research? A. When data is difficult to understand and qualitative data will help understanding. B. When there is a lack of data to understand. C. Studies used to validate objectives D. Concepts are old and there is a need for relevant knowledge

A. When data is difficult to understand and qualitative data will help understanding.

How does a researcher manipulate an experiment? A) Changing data B) Administering an intervention C) Providing concise information D) Identifying relationships

B) Administering an intervention Manipulation involves doing something to study participants. Experimenters manipulate the independent variable by administering a treatment (or intervention [I]) to some people and withholding it from others (C), or by administering alternative treatments to two or more groups. Experimenters deliberately vary the independent variable (the presumed cause) and observe the effect on the outcome (O)—which is sometimes referred to as an endpoint in the medical literature.

1. What is the process called for transforming data into symbols or numbers? A) Data conversion B) Coding C) Missing values D) Corrected values

B) Coding Coding is the process of transforming data into symbols—usually numbers. Certain variables are inherently quantitative (e.g., age, body temperature) and do not require coding, unless the data are gathered in categories (e.g., younger than 50 years of age versus 50 or older). Even with "naturally" quantitative data, researchers need to inspect their data. All responses should be of the same form and precision. For example, for the variable height in the nonmetric system, researchers need to decide whether to record feet and inches as two separate "variables" or to convert the information entirely to inches. Whichever method is adopted, it must be used consistently for all participants. There must also be consistency in handling information reported by sample members with different degrees of precision (e.g., a decision about how to code a response such as 5 feet 2½ inches). Page 435

What is the term used to refer to "a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the treatment group on the same outcome"? A) Variable group B) Control group C) Placebo group D) Attention control group

B) Control group The term control group refers to a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the treatment group on the same outcome. Researchers with training in the social sciences use the term "group" or "condition" (e.g., the control group or control condition), but medical researchers often use the term "arm," as in the "intervention arm" or the "control arm" of the study.The control condition is a proxy for an ideal counterfactual. Researchers have choices about what to use as the counterfactual. Possibilities for the counterfactual include the following:

A tool used in quantitative studies that describes the magnitude and direction of a relationship between 2 variables? A) Measurement parameters B) Correlation coefficient C) Negative relationship D) Positive relationship

B) Correlation coefficient

How is internal consistency measured? A) Pearson r B) Cronbach Alpha C) Formative index D) P value

B) Cronbach Alpha

What type of validity is of particular concern in an effectiveness study? A) Statistical conclusion validity B) External Validity C) Construct Validity D) Selection validity

B) External Validity Tightly controlled clinical trials that emphasize internal validity are sometimes referred to as efficacy studies, whereas trials that test a promising intervention with larger samples under less restrictive conditions address the issue of generalizability (external validity) and have been called effectiveness studies. Page 220

What is the preferred index used for test-retest reliability? A) Kappa B) Intraclass correlation coefficient C) P value D) Pearson r

B) Intraclass correlation coefficient

2. The point in a distribution above and below which 50% cases fall? A) Mean B) Median C) Mode D) Bimodal

B) Median The median is the point in a distribution above and below which 50% of cases fall. As an example, consider the following set of values: 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The value that divides the cases exactly in half is 4.5, the median for this set of numbers. The point that has 50% of the cases above and below it is halfway between 4 and 5. For the patient anxiety scores, the median is 24. An important characteristic of the median is that it does not take into account the quantitative values of scores—it is an index of average position in a distribution and is thus insensitive to extremes. In the above set of numbers, if the value of 9 were changed to 99, the median would remain 4.5. Because of this property, the median is often a preferred index of central tendency with skewed distributions. In research reports, the median may be abbreviated as Md or Mdn. Page 371

4. What is the estimated proportion of untreated risk that is reduced through exposure to the intervention? A) Relative risk B) Relative risk reduction C) Odds ratio D) Correlation coefficient

B) Relative risk reduction

3. What is the correlation index for ordinal level data? A) Pearson r B) Spearman rho C) Correlation index D) Risk index

B) Spearman rho

7. What is one of the key decisions the researcher must make for Mixed Methods (MM) Design? A. To establish a fixed MM design only at the at the beginning of the study B) To decide on the sequencing option for the MM study C) To disregard the use of design notation in making a prioritization decision for the MM study D) To decide which data is the same so that it can be collected for a convergent design

B) To decide on the sequencing option for the MM study There are three options for sequencing the strands of a mixed methods study: qualitative data are collected first, quantitative data are collected first, or both types are collected simultaneously (or at approximately the same time). When the two types of data are not collected at the same time, the approach is called sequential. When the data are collected at the same time, the approach is called concurrent (or simultaneous). Concurrent designs occur in a single phase, whereas sequential designs unfold in two or more phases. In well-conceived sequential designs, the analysis and interpretation in one phase informs the collection and analysis of data in the second. Another possibility is multiphase timing, which occurs when researchers launch a multiphase project that includes several sequential and/or concurrent substudies over a program of study. In an analysis of 294 MM studies in nursing, Beck and Harrison (2016Links to an external site.) found that slightly more than half (53%) used a concurrent design.

6. What are the main options for sequencing components of a mixed method study? Select all that apply A. Collect data separately. B. Collect both types of data at the same time. C. No consideration necessary for order of data collection. D. Collect qualitative data first. E. Collect quantitative data first.

B. Collect both types of data at the same time. D. Collect qualitative data first. E. Collect quantitative data first.

12. The medical research council framework consists of modeling in Phase 1. Which is an example of this stage? A. Describes the constant and variable of a replicable intervention B. Identifies the component of the intervention and underlying mechanism. C. Compares a fully defined with an appropriate alternative D. Determines whether others can replicate the intervention and results

B. Identifies the component of the intervention and underlying mechanism.

3. Type of sampling method in which the researcher identifies the population strata and determines how many participants are needed from each stratum? A) Convenience B) Snowball C) Quota D) Consecutive

C) Quota A quota sample is one in which the researcher identifies population strata and determines how many participants are needed from each stratum. By using information about population characteristics, researchers can ensure that diverse segments are represented in the sample, in the proportion in which they occur in the population

6. Which statement about integration in mixed methods research is true? A) Integration and triangulation are interchangeable terms in mixed methods research B) Integration can occur only if a mixed methods study includes two or more data sources (e.g., observation and interviews) C) Mixed methods researchers are encouraged to consider the issue of integration for all research decisions D) Mixed methods studies can be judged as high-quality studies even without integration

C. Mixed methods researchers are encouraged to consider the issue of integration for all research decisions Integration, which is the term that is increasingly replacing the term "triangulation," is increasingly advocated during planning and design, data collection, sampling, analysis, and inference development—i.e., throughout the mixed methods study. High-quality MM research relies on thoughtful integration. Page 589, The Issue of Integration in Mixed Methods Studies

1. Many systematic reviews of quantitative studies use meta-analysis; a statistical method to combine results of different studies about a common intervention. Which of the following is a resource for systematic reviews using meta-analysis? A) Primary Studies B) Grey literauter C) Scoping review D) Cochrane Collaboration

D) Cochrane Collaboration The Cochrane Collaboration's reviewer's manual is a major resource for the conduct of systematic reviews. Many systematic reviews of quantitative studies—especially those that focus on intervention effects—use statistical integration, in what are called meta-analyses. The essence of a meta-analysis is that information from each study in the review is used to develop a common metric, an effect size. Effect sizes are averaged across studies, yielding aggregated information about not only the existence of a relationship between variables, but also an estimate of its magnitude. Most systematic reviews in the Cochrane Collaboration involve a meta-analysis

What question type is this item: What is your gender? 1.M/2.F A) Multiple choice B) Rank order C) Rating D) Dichotomous

D) Dichotomous Dichotomous questions require respondents to make a choice between two response alternatives, such as yes/no. Dichotomous questions are most useful for gathering factual information.

9. Several factors affect sample size requirements for a study. Which is one of those factors? A) The type of sampling used (ex. convenience, random) B) The number of eligible people C) The size of the population D) The estimated effect size

D) The estimated effect size Effect size is a crucial concept for estimating sample size requirements. If a large effect between independent and dependent variables is expected, the sample size need not be very large to detect the effect. Sample size needs do not depend on the type of sampling plan used, the number of eligible people, or the size of the population Page 271

1. Which of the following statements best describes mixed-method research? A. Using a diverse sample population B. Test a study more than once C. Using quantitative data only D. Integrating qualitative and quantitative data

D. Integrating qualitative and quantitative data

11. A benefit to using qualitative data during the evaluation of the intervention is time. True False

False

13. Intervention theory explains data and findings. True False

False

4. Nursing intervention research relies only on quantitative data. True False

False

8. Convergent data is sequential designs with quantitative data collected first. True False

False

A null hypotheses is when there is a presence of a relationship? True/False

False Null hypotheses (or statistical hypotheses) state that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables. pg. 77

14. Mixed Method research informs judgements about whether the intervention was faithfully developed. True False

True

15. In Phase 3 qualitative data provides insight on intervention fidelity, variation in effects, clinical significance, and interpretive ambiguities. True False

True

3. Mixed method designs facilitate collaboration between researchers. True False

True

5. Qualitative data is used to explain quantitative descriptions or relationships. True False

True

7. It is important to determine how qualitative and quantitative data will be combined and integrated. True False

True

8. Unhypothesized significant results are present when relationships were not anticipated during the design of the study. True False

True Interpreting Unhypothesized Significant ResultsUnhypothesized significant results can occur in two situations. The first involves exploring relationships that were not anticipated during the design of the study. For example, in examining correlations among variables in the dataset, a researcher might notice that two variables that were not central to the research questions were nevertheless significantly correlated—and interesting. To interpret serendipitous findings, it is wise to consult the literature to see if similar relationships had been previously observed—and to recommend a replication.Page 456

9. A non-significant result indicates that there is no evidence of the truth or falsity of the hypothesis. True False

True Nonsignificant results provide no evidence of the truth or the falsity of the hypothesis. Interpreting nonsignificant results can, however, be aided by considering such factors as sample size and effect size estimates. Results from hypothesis tests are either significant or nonsignificant; statistically significant means that the obtained results are not likely to be due to chance fluctuations at a given probability (p value). Nonsignificant results pose interpretative challenges. Statistical tests are geared toward disconfirmation of the null hypothesis. Failure to reject a null hypothesis can occur for many reasons, and the real reason may be hard to figure out.The null hypothesis could actually be true, accurately reflecting the absence of a relationship among research variables. On the other hand, the null hypothesis could be false. Retention of a false null hypothesis (a Type II error) can result from such methodologic problems as poor internal validity, an anomalous sample, a weak statistical procedure, or unreliable measures. In particular, failure to reject null hypotheses is often a consequence of insufficient power, usually reflecting too small a sample size.

10. Generalization of results considers to which groups, environments, and conditions can the results of the study be applied? True False

True Researchers are rarely interested in discovering relationships among variables for a specific sample of people at a specific point in time. If a new nursing intervention is found to be successful, others may want to adopt it. Thus, an important interpretive question is whether the intervention will "work" or whether relationships will "hold" in other settings, with other people. Part of the interpretive process involves asking, "To what groups, environments, and conditions can the results of the study reasonably be applied?" In interpreting the study results with regard to the generalizability, it is useful to consider our earlier discussion about proxies. For which higher-order constructs, which populations, which settings, or which versions of an intervention were the study operations good "stand-ins"? Page 457

The aim of nursing studies and evidenced base practice is to: (Select all that apply) a. intervention b. prognosis c. dimensions of phenomena d. meaning of phenomena e. harm and etiology

a. intervention b. prognosis c. harm and etiology

What is the type of purposive sampling strategy to select rich cases that offer a strong example of the phenomenon? a. critical case b. intensity c. stratified d. typical

b. intensity -similar to extreme case sampling. involve info. rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest intensely but not as extreme or potentially distorting -rich cases that offer strong examples of the phenomenon.

Which of the following terms best describes a literature review? a. an appraisal of a study's strengths and weaknesses b. the original description of a study prepared by the researcher who conducted it c. a written synthesis and appraisal of evidence on a research problem d. an electronic database

c. a written synthesis and appraisal of evidence on a research problem. A research literature review is a written synthesis and appraisal of evidence on a research problem p. 81

1. Mishel's Uncertainty in Illness Theory 2. Roy's Adaptation model 3. Framework 4. Health Promotion Model 5. Social Cognitive Theory 6. Transtheoretical model 7. Orem's Self-care Deficit Theory 8. Health Belief Model

1-inability of a person to determine the meaning of illness related events 2-consists of four subsystems 3-an overall conceptual underpinnings of a study 4-explains health promotion behaviors 5-concerns people's belief in their own capacity to carry out particular behaviors 6-numerous interventions designed to change people's behavior 7-consideration of environmental and internal demands that exceed an individual's resources 8-Health seeking behavior is influenced by a person's perception of a threat.

In a crossover study, women with an overactive bladder were given either caffeinated beverages for a 2-week period or were told to drink noncaffeinated beverages exclusively for 2 weeks in randomized order of treatment. Regardless of treatment condition, the women in both groups reported less urgency of urinary voids than reported at baseline. Which effect might account for this? A) Hawthorne Effect B) Testing Effect C) Compensatory Effect D) Instrumentation Effect

A) Hawthorne Effect The women may have provided responses about their urinary voids that reflected, in part, their awareness of and sensitivity to participating in a study, which is known as the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect is one threat to construct validity, and compensatory effects are another. Instrumentation and testing effects are threats to internal validity, not to construct validity. Page 219

10. What is the difference between a systematic review and meta analysis? A) Meta analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. A systematic review answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria. B) There is no difference between the two; both types of reviews establish Power, Precision and Objectivity for integrating quantitative evidence.

A) Meta analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. A systematic review answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria. In systematic reviews, the "data" are findings from studies that addressed a question of interest. Data from the included studies can be integrated in a narrative fashion or statistically. Qualitative systematic reviews, and some quantitative reviews, involve a narrative synthesis. Many systematic reviews of quantitative studies—especially those that focus on intervention effects—use statistical integration, in what are called meta-analyses. Systematic reviews in health care fields have largely been syntheses of quantitative evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs)—syntheses that focus on the question: Does this work? In other words, systematic reviews have most often integrated evidence from primary studies that addressed Therapy/intervention questions. The essence of a meta-analysis is that information from each study in the review is used to develop a common metric, an effect size. Effect sizes are averaged across studies, yielding aggregated information about not only the existence of a relationship between variables, but also an estimate of its magnitude. Page 655

1. A nurse researcher is studying fear of falling in a community of retirees. What might be a reasonable exclusion criterion? A) People in 40-55 years of age range B) People who are married C) People who have dizzy spells D) Retirees who live independently in their home

A) People in 40-55 years of age range The study is focused on community-dwelling elders, and so it would be reasonable to exclude people below a certain age limit (here, age 65 years). One inclusion (rather than exclusion) criterion might be living independently in one's own home. There would be no apparent reason to exclude married people or people who experience dizziness (which could contribute to fear of falling). The criteria that specify population characteristics are the eligibility criteria or inclusion criteria. Sometimes, a population is also defined in terms of characteristics that people must not possess (i.e., exclusion criteria). Page 261

Which can result in a threat to statistical conclusion validity? A) Small sample size B) Mortality C) Instrumentation D) Selection bias

A) Small sample size Inadequate statistical power is a major threat to statistical conclusion validity and small samples tend to yield insufficient power to give research hypotheses a fair test. Instrumentation, mortality, and selection bias are threats to internal validity. Page 212

A nurse researcher tested the effect of a telephone intervention to support family caregivers of clients with Alzheimer disease. During the trial, the researcher undertook an assessment and found that staff were not always following the established intervention procedures. The assessment focused on: A) Statistical power B) Intervention fidelity C) Range Restriction D) Attenuation

B) Intervention fidelity Intervention fidelity (or treatment fidelity) concerns the extent to which the implementation of an intervention is faithful to its plan. In this case, the researcher found implementation lapses, possibly reflecting inadequate training. Intervention infidelity can be a threat to statistical conclusion validity, as can low statistical power and range restrictions; attenuation is what results from restricted range on key variables. Page 213

4. When a researcher uses knowledge about the population to make a selection? A) Consecutive B) Purposive C) Random D) Snowball

B) Purposive Purposive sampling uses researchers' knowledge about the population to make selections. Researchers might decide purposely to select people who are judged to be particularly knowledgeable about the issues under study, for example, as in the case of a Delphi survey. A drawback is that this approach may not result in a typical or representative sample. Purposive sampling is sometimes used to good advantage in two-staged sampling. For example, sites can first be sampled purposively, with efforts made to select sites that reflect divergent population characteristics; then people can be sampled from the sites in some other fashion, such as by using consecutive sampling. Page 265

2. What is the term used to describe a subset of population elements? A) Representative sample B) Sample C) Sampling D) Strata

B) Sample Sampling is the process of selecting cases to represent an entire population, to permit inferences about the population. A sample is a subset of population elements, which are the most basic units about which data are collected. In nursing research, elements most often are humans. Page 261

6. Which term is used for the difference between sample values and population values? A) Sampling interval B) Sampling error C) Sampling Bias D) Sampling Frame

B) Sampling Error Sampling error refers to differences between sample values (e.g., the average age of the sample) and population values (the average age of the population). Page 269

4. Which statement about systematic reviews is true? A) Systematic review is another name for a literature review B) Systematic reviews follow a formal protocol with explicit rules for gathering data C) Systematic reviews of quantitative studies are meta-analyses D) Systematic reviews of quantitative studies are metasyntheses

B) Systematic reviews follow a formal protocol with explicit rules for gathering data What distinguishes a systematic review from a literature review is that systematic reviews follow orderly sampling, data collection, and analysis procedures that are specified in advance in a formal protocol. Not all quantitative systematic reviews involve meta-analyses, and none of them would be called a metasynthesis. Page 655

7. What is the heart of a Research Report? A) The introduction B) The results section C) The methods section D) The discussion

B) The results section Readers scrutinize the method section to learn if the study was done with rigor, but the results section is the heart of the report. In a quantitative study, the results of the statistical analyses are summarized in a factual manner. Descriptive statistics are ordinarily presented first, to provide an overview of study variables. If key research questions involve comparing groups with regard to dependent variables (e.g., in an experimental or case-control study), the results section often begins with information about the groups' comparability on baseline variables, so readers can evaluate the risk of selection bias. Page 734

Which statement is true? A) Validity is a property of a study's research design B) Threats to validity are reasons that research-based inferences could be wrong C) Validity threats focus on casual relationships D) Research inferences are either valid or they are not.

B) Threats to validity are reasons that research-based inferences could be wrong Researchers use various design strategies to minimize threats to validity, which are factors that undermine research-based inferences. Validity is a property of an inference, not of a research design. The validity of an inference is not "all or nothing"—it is a matter of degree. Validity threats can emerge in all types of research, not just in research that focuses on causal relationships.

There are four types of validity that affect the rigor of a quantitative study. Which type of validity does a researcher specifically address in choosing to use a true experimental design? A) Statistical conclusion validity B) Extreme validity C) Internal validity D) External Validity

C) Internal validity Internal validity concerns inferences about causality—that outcomes were caused by the independent variable rather than by other factors. A true experimental design offers the strongest evidence about cause-and-effect relationships. Other forms of validity (construct, external, and statistical conclusion validity) are not specifically about causal relationships—they are relevant in both experimental and nonexperimental research. Page 207

3. What is an advantage of meta-analysis? A) It is less work than a narrative systematic review B) It is feasible with a wider range of research questions than a narrative systematic review C) It integrates information in a more objective manner than a narrative systematic reivew D) It requires a smaller sample of primary studies than a narrative systematic

C) It integrates information in a more objective manner than a narrative systematic review For systematic integration of quantitative evidence, meta-analysis offers the advantage of objectivity. Decision rules are made explicit, and the actual integration is statistical, not based on the researchers' judgments. It is not true that meta-analyses are less work than a narrative systematic review nor that they require smaller samples. Narrative reviews can be undertaken for any research question, but this is not the case for meta-analyses. Page 656

5. What type of sampling requires the researcher to divide the population into two or more homogenous strata before randomly selecting the elements? A) Cluster B) Systematic C) Stratified D) Snowball

C) Stratified In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into two or more homogeneous strata (e.g., based on gender), from which elements are selected at random. Unlike quota sampling, stratified random sampling requires that a person's status in a stratum be known before making selections, which can be problematic. Patient listings or organizational directories may contain information for meaningful stratification, but many lists do not. Page 267

2. What method is considered the cornerstone of evidence-based practice because EBP relies on meticulous integration of research evidence? A) Primary Studies B) Meta-Analysis C) Systematic Review D) Double Blinded Review

C) Systemic Review Systematic reviews, which are considered a cornerstone of evidence-based practice (EBP). As noted in Chapter 2, systematic reviews are at the pinnacle of most evidence hierarchies and level-of-evidence scales. Page 653

9. What part of the report provides the description and detail about the study participants? A) The results section B) The introduction C) The methods section D) The discussion

C) The Methods section Readers also need to know about study participants. This subsection (which may be labeled Research Sample, Subjects, or Study Participants) normally specifies the eligibility criteria, to clarify the population to whom results can be generalized. The method of sample selection and its rationale, recruitment techniques, and sample size should be indicated. If a power analysis was undertaken to estimate sample size needs, this should be described. There should also be information about response rates and, if possible, about response bias (or attrition bias, if this is relevant). Basic characteristics of study participants (e.g., age, gender, health status) should also be described—although this is sometimes presented in the results section. Page 730

For univariate descriptive studies, what is the focus? A) To describe the study in detail B) To identify the correlation between variables C) To focus on multiple variables D) To determine the risks of the variables

C) To focus on multiple variables Univariate descriptive studies are not necessarily focused on a single variable. For example, a researcher interested in women's experiences during menopause might gather data about the frequency of various symptoms and the use of medications to alleviate symptoms. The study involves multiple variables, but the primary purpose is to describe the status of each, not to study correlations among them. Page 196

6. Quantitative research reports typically follow the IMRAD format. What does the R mean? A) Why the study was done B) How was the study performed C) What was learned D) What does it mean

C) What was learned Quantitative reports typically follow the IMRAD format, which involves organizing content into four sections—the Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion. These sections, respectively, address the following questions: Why was the study done? (I) How was the study done? (M) What was learned? (R) What does it mean? (D Page 730

5. What is one of the criterion concerns for using a Meta-Analysis in a Systematic Review? A) All of the primary studies must have statistically significant results B) All of the primary studies must have clinically significant results C) The results among the primary studies in a meta-analysis must all be consistent D) There is a sufficiently large number of relevant primary studies

D) There is sufficiently large number of relevant primary studies One criterion for a meta-analysis concerns whether there is a sufficient base of knowledge for statistical integration. If there are only a few studies, it usually is not sensible to compute an "average" effect. The results from a primary study do not have to be statistically or clinically significant to be included in a meta-analysis. The results from primary studies do not have to be totally consistent—although highly conflicting results may suggest that a meta-analysis is inappropriate. Page 666

Qualitative data should be transcribed verbatim and accurately. True/False

True Page 534 Qualitative data should be transcribed verbatim and accurately. Audio-recorded interviews and field notes are major data sources in qualitative studies. Verbatim transcription of the recordings is a critical step in preparing for data analysis. Without accurate transcriptions, the data available for analysis could be flawed.

The signature of a quasi-experimental design is an intervention without randomization. True False

True Quasi-experiments, sometimes called controlled trials without randomization in the medical literature, involve an intervention, but they lack randomization, the signature of a true experiment. Some quasi-experiments even lack a control group. The signature of a quasi-experimental design, then, is an intervention in the absence of randomization.

The signature of a quasi-experimental design is an intervention without randomization. True/False

True Quasi-experiments, sometimes called controlled trials without randomization in the medical literature, involve an intervention, but they lack randomization, the signature of a true experiment. Some quasi-experiments even lack a control group. The signature of a quasi-experimental design, then, is an intervention in the absence of randomization.

Which is an example of a tool used for randomization? a. Coin toss b. Volunteer group c. Select group d. Sort by characteristics

a coin toss The most straightforward randomization procedure for a two-group design is to simply allocate each person as they enroll into a study on a random basis—for example, by flipping a coin. If the coin comes up "heads," a participant would be assigned to one group; if it comes up "tails," he or she would be assigned to the other group.

Which study conducts a test only after an intervention is given? a. After only design b. Before after design c. Factorial d. Crossover

a. After only design Basic Experimental Designs Data for a posttest-only design (or after-only design) are collected only once—after randomization and completion of the intervention; example - both groups are randomized , but only the first group gets the intervention. Page 186

In a crossover study, women with an overactive bladder were given either caffeinated beverages for a 2-week period or were told to drink noncaffeinated beverages exclusively for 2 weeks in randomized order of treatment. Regardless of treatment condition, the women in both groups reported less urgency of urinary voids than reported at baseline. Which effect might account for this? a. Hawthorne Effect b. Testing effect c. Compensatory effect d. Instrumentation Effect

a. Hawthorne Effect The women may have provided responses about their urinary voids that reflected, in part, their awareness of and sensitivity to participating in a study, which is known as the Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect is one threat to construct validity, and compensatory effects are another. Instrumentation and testing effects are threats to internal validity, not to construct validity. Page 219

Positivism and constructivism are examples of which of the following? a. paradigm b. assumption c. determinism d. intuition

a. Paradigm

Which of the following should be included in the content of informed consent? SATA a. Potential Risks b. Contact information c. Compensation d. Study variables

a. Potential Risks b. Contact information c. Compensation Risks should be communicated, as well as efforts that will be made to minimize risks. the possibility of unforeseeable risks should be discussed, if appropriate. If injury is possible , treatments that will be made available to participants should be described. When risks are more than minimal, prospective participants should be encouraged to seek advice before consenting. p. 137 Researcher should tell participants whom they should contact in the event of questions, comments, or complaints. p. 137 If stipends or reimbursements are to be paid (or if treatments are offered without any fee), these arrangements should be discussed. p. 137

Which can result in a threat to statistical conclusion validity? a. Small sample size b. Mortality c. Instrumentation d. Selection bias

a. Small sample size Inadequate statistical power is a major threat to statistical conclusion validity and small samples tend to yield insufficient power to give research hypotheses a fair test. Instrumentation, mortality, and selection bias are threats to internal validity. Page 212

Which of the following are threats to construct validity? Select all that apply. a. Treatment Diffusion or contamination b. Participants alter behavior to reflect their perceptions of the study c. Researcher Expectancies d. Data from hospital records e. Compensatory effects

a. Treatment Diffusion or contamination b. Participants alter behavior to reflect their perceptions of the study c. Researcher Expectancies e. Compensatory effects Participants may behave in a particular manner because they are aware of their role in a study (the Hawthorne effect). When people's responses reflect, in part, their perceptions of study participation, those perceptions become an unwanted part of the treatment construct under study. Strategies to reduce this problem include blinding, the use of outcome measures not susceptible to reactivity (e.g., from hospital records), and the use of preintervention strategies to satisfy participants' desire to look competent or please the researcher. Example - Hawthorne Effect similar threat stems from the researcher's influence on participant responses through subtle (or not-so-subtle) communication about desired outcomes. When this happens, the researcher's expectations become part of the treatment construct that is being tested. Blinding can reduce this threat, but another strategy is to make observations to detect verbal or behavioral signals of research staff's expectations and correct them. Compensatory effects. In intervention studies, compensatory equalization can occur if health care staff or family members try to compensate for the control group members' failure to receive a perceived beneficial treatment. The compensatory goods or services are then part of the construct description of study conditions. Compensatory rivalry is a related threat arising from the control group members' desire to demonstrate that they can do as well as those receiving a special treatment.

Analysis and interpretation often rely on the development of a coding system. What purposes do coding serve in the Qualitative analysis process? SATA a. allows the researcher to index and retrieve data b. helps the researcher to determine when the data are saturated c. can provide more insight and ideas about the meaning of the data d. to group into large units e. to comply with the opinion of all qualitative researchers that all data must be coded an analyzed

a. allowed the researcher to index and retrieve data b. helps the researcher to determine data saturation c. provide more insight and ideas about the meaning of the data Analysis and interpretation often rely on the development of a coding system that allows the researchers to index and retrieve segments for closer scrutiny. Precoding typically occurs during data collection, as researchers read interview transcripts or field notes to help them hone their questioning and select new participants. Precoding typically involves circling, underlining, or highlighting passages or concepts that strike the analyst as significant or noteworthy. Without precoding (at least mentally if not in writing), researchers would not be able to discern when their data are saturated. When data collection is complete, analysts usually develop a more formal coding scheme and then apply the codes to segments of the data—and then refine the codes as they seek to "dig deeper" or to verify the coding. When data collection is complete, analysts usually develop a more formal coding scheme and then apply the codes to segments of the data—and then refine the codes as they seek to "dig deeper" or to verify the coding. Coding is an important mechanism for organizing the data and is also a process that stimulates insights. (page 537)

A qualitative study usually begins with a broad topic and then focuses on an aspect of the topic that is poorly understood. What are some of the planning activities that the researchers must plan for in developing a qualitative study? SATA a. estimate the amount of time available for the fieldwork b. conduct a literature review before collecting data c. identify an appropriate field site d. develop plans for addressing ethical issues e. establish strict guidelines for discussion and observation of the participants

a. estimate the amount of time available for the fieldwork Although qualitative researchers do not always know in advance exactly how the study will progress, they nevertheless must have some sense of how much time is available for fieldwork and must also arrange for and test needed equipment, such as recording equipment or laptop computers. p. 53 c. identify an appropriate field site Before going into the field, qualitative researchers must identify an appropriate site. For example, if the topic is the health beliefs of the urban poor, an inner-city neighborhood with low-income residents must be identified. Page 53 d. Develop plans for addressing ethical issues Qualitative researchers, like quantitative researchers, must also develop plans for addressing ethical issues—and, indeed, there are special concerns in qualitative studies because of the more intimate nature of the relationship that typically develops between researchers and study participants - page 53

What are the three characteristics of a randomized controlled trial? Select all that apply a. Manipulation b. Control c. Intervention d. Time e. Data f. Randomization

a. manipulation b. Control f. randomization A basic distinction in quantitative research design is between experimental and nonexperimental research. In an experiment (typically called a randomized controlled trial, RCT), researchers are active agents, not simply observers. Controlled experiments are considered the gold standard for yielding reliable evidence about causes and effects. Experimenters can be relatively confident in the veracity of causal relationships because they are observed under controlled conditions and meet the criteria for causality. Hypotheses are never proved by scientific methods, but RCTs offer the most convincing evidence about whether one variable has a casual effect on another.A true experimental or RCT design is characterized by the following properties:Manipulation: the researcher does something to at least some participants—there is some type of interventionControl: the researcher introduces controls, including devising a counterfactual approximation—usually, a control group that does not receive the interventionRandomization: the researcher assigns participants to a control or experimental condition on a random basis Page 177

What does it mean the participant should have the right to full disclosure? a. no conditions allowed to withdraw from study b. no additional training needed for data collection c. intervention provided maximizes good and minimizes bad d. recruitment efforts limited based on certain criteria

a. no conditions allowed to withdraw from study People's right to make informed, voluntary decisions about study participation requires full disclosure. Full disclosure means that the researcher had fully described the study, the right to refuse participation, the researcher's responsibilities, and likely risks and benefits. p. 134

A nurse researcher is comparing qualitative and quantitative research. Which method predicts and controls the study to get reliable results? a. Quantitative Research b. Qualitative research c. exploration d. Phemonology

a. qualitative research

What method uses competing theories of hypotheses in analyzing and interpreting data? a. theory triangulation b. analysis triangulation c. investigator d. method

a. theory triangulation Page 572 Triangulation refers to the use of multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes truth; it has been compared to convergent validation. The aim of triangulation is to "overcome the intrinsic bias that comes from single-method, single-observer, and single-theory studies" (Denzin, 1989, p. 313). Patton (1999) also encouraged triangulation, arguing that "no single method ever adequately solves the problem of rival explanation" (p. 1192). Triangulation can also help to capture a more complete and contextualized portrait of key phenomena. Denzin identified four types of triangulation (data triangulation, method triangulation, investigator triangulation, and triangulation), the first two of which we describe here because they relate to data collection theory

Which statement about qualitative analysis is true? a. There are no universally adopted rules for analyzing qualitative data b. qualitative analysis is less time-consuming that quantitative analysis c. Qualitative results can be summarized in tables d. Qualitative analysis is typically undertaken after all the data have been gathered

a. there are no universally adopted rules for analyzing qualitative data Page and Header: 534, Introduction to Qualitative Analysis Qualitative analysis is arduous and time-consuming, and there are no standard "rules" for how to do it. Results from qualitative analyses rarely can be effectively summarized in tables. Data collection and analysis typically are undertaken concurrently, and the analysis helps to inform the emergent study design.

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), prolonged engagement is important to establishing the credibility of data collection. Why is prolonged engagement required? a. to gain an in-depth understanding of the people under study b. the researcher can claim saturation sooner c. eliminates testing for misinformation d. conserves time and resources

a. to gain an in-depth understanding of the people under study Page 570 An important step in establishing credibility is prolonged engagement (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)—the investment of sufficient time collecting data to have an in-depth understanding of the people under study, to test for misinformation and distortions, and to ensure saturation of key categories. Prolonged engagement is also essential for building trust and rapport with informants, which in turn makes it more likely that rich, detailed information will be obtained. In planning a qualitative study, researchers must ensure that they have adequate time and resources to stay engaged in fieldwork for a sufficiently long period.TIP Premature closure can undermine data quality (Thorne & Darbyshire, 2005). Without a commitment to prolonged engagement, researchers may make a claim of saturation simply because they have reached a convenient stopping point.

Match the types of coding with the correct description of the code a. descriptive coding b. process coding c. concept coding d. in vivo coding e. holistic coding 1. uses mainly nouns as codes and is often the method of choice of beginning qualitative researchers, does not provide much insight into meaning 2. often involves using gerunds as codes to connote action and observable activity 3. involves using a word of phrase to represent symbolically a broad meaning beyond observable facts or behaviors; the codes are usually nouns or gerunds 4. called literal or verbatim coding. involves using participants generated words and phrases; it is used an initial coding in many grounded theory studies 5. involves using codes to grasp broad ideas in large "chunks" of data, rather than coding smaller segments

a., 1 b., 2 c., 3 d., 4 e., 5

Which ethical principle should support research and participants to minimize harm? a. Autonomy b. Beneficence c. Fidelity d. Protection

b. Beneficence Beneficence imposes a duty on researchers to maximize benefits and minimize harm p. 132

A researcher plans to test a fall-prevention intervention by gathering data in 10 hospitals, 5 of which will be implementing the intervention and 5 will not. If the 5 hospitals are assigned at random to the intervention, what is this type randomization? a. Urn b. Cluster c. Randomized d. Stratified

b. Cluster Cluster randomization, involves randomly assigning clusters (e.g., hospitals) rather than people to different treatment groups. Page 184

What type of validity is of particular concern in an effectiveness study? a. Statistical conclusion validity b. External validity c. Construct validity d. Selection validity

b. External validity Tightly controlled clinical trials that emphasize internal validity are sometimes referred to as efficacy studies, whereas trials that test a promising intervention with larger samples under less restrictive conditions address the issue of generalizability (external validity) and have been called effectiveness studies. Page 220

A nurse is assessing a patient post op a hip replacement. The nurse observes that the patient is demonstrating facial grimacing, hypertonia, and nasofurrow brow. The nurse prepares to administer Morphine. The nurse's observation is an example of what type of thinking? a. Deductive reasoning b. inductive reasoning c. assumption d. determination

b. Inductive reasoning

A nurse researcher tested the effect of a telephone intervention to support family caregivers of clients with Alzheimer disease. During the trial, the researcher undertook an assessment and found that staff were not always following the established intervention procedures. The assessment focused on: a. statistical power b. intervention fidelity c. range restriction d. Attenuation

b. Intervention fidelity (or treatment fidelity) concerns the extent to which the implementation of an intervention is faithful to its plan. In this case, the researcher found implementation lapses, possibly reflecting inadequate training. Intervention infidelity can be a threat to statistical conclusion validity, as can low statistical power and range restrictions; attenuation is what results from restricted range on key variables. Page 213

The format for a research journal article consist of a methods section. What information is included in the Methods section? a. Theoretical framework b. Study procedures c. statistical test d. Current state of evidence

b. Study procedures The method section describes the methods used to answer the research questions. This section lays out methodologic decisions made in the design and planning phase (Phase 2) and may offer rationales for those decisions. In a quantitative study, the method section usually describes (1) the research design, (2) the sampling plan for selecting participants from the population of interest, (3) methods of data collection and specific instruments used, (4) study procedures (including ethical safeguards), and (5) analytic procedures and methods. Page 56 IMRAD format Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion

Which statement is true? a. Validity is a property of a study's research design b. Threats to validity are reasons that research-based inferences could be wrong c. Validity threats focus on casual relationships d. Research inferences are wither valid, or they are not

b. Threats to validity are reasons that research-based inferences could be wrong Researchers use various design strategies to minimize threats to validity, which are factors that undermine research-based inferences. Validity is a property of an inference, not of a research design. The validity of an inference is not "all or nothing"—it is a matter of degree. Validity threats can emerge in all types of research, not just in research that focuses on causal relationships.

A researcher is considering feasibility to conduct a study to further investigate a problem. Which of the following is a factor that should be considered? a. consideration if there are right/wrong answers b. adequate number of participants c. findings contribute to the unknown d. finding results that challenge current practice

b. adequate number of participants

A nurse is conducting a study on perception of abortions, to ensure that the outcome discourages it participants that no not support it are included. This is an example of: a. Triangulation b. bias c. control d. validity

b. bias a bias is an influence that produces a distortion of error. Bias can threaten a study's validity and trustworthiness and is a major concern in designing a study. p 154

What is the type of qualitative research that conducts an in depth investigation of single entity? a. holistic design b. Case studies c. Narrative analysis d. Descriptive study

b. case studies

Different types of ethnicity (Hispanic, white, black, chinese) are considered which type of variable? a. dichotmous b. categorical c. discrete d. independent

b. categorical categorical variables involve placing people into categories (e.g., gender, blood type). Categorical variables with only two categories (e.g., alive/dead) are dichotomous variables. Page 43

The National Guideline Clearinghouse is an example of: a. clinical decision rules b. clinical practice guidelines c. metasynthesis d. meta-analysis

b. clinical practice guidelines

What is the term used to refer to "a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the treatment group on the same outcome"? a. variable group b. control group c. placebo group d. Attention control group

b. control group The term control group refers to a group of participants whose performance on an outcome is used to evaluate the performance of the treatment group on the same outcome.

Which of the following is an example of a factor that affects the sample size? a. researcher high skill level b. data quality

b. data quality -generate enough in-depth data to illuminate patterns, categories. collect enough data until you reach data saturation and you find redundancy.

What type of hypotheses specifies existence and expected direction of the relationship between variables? a. nondirectional b. directional c. deductive d. inductive

b. directional A directional hypothesis is one that specifies not only the existence but also the expected direction of the relationship between variables. p. 77 1. Older patients are more likely to fall than younger patients.

What is the process called the refers to living the data, a process in which researchers try to understand their meanings, patterns, and insightful conclusions? a. focus group b. incubation c. Central category d. Emergent fit

b. incubation Page 544 Incubation is the process of living the data, a process in which researchers must try to understand the data's meanings, find their essential patterns, and draw legitimate, insightful conclusions.

Which U.S Body evaluates studies based on strict guidelines? a. Research Ethics Board b. Institutional review board c. Privacy board d. Expedited Review

b. institutional review board In the US, federally sponsored studies are subject to strict guidelines for evaluating the treatment of human participants. Before undertaking such a study, researchers must submit research plans to the IRB and must also go through formal training on ethical conduct and a certification process. p. 144

What is an example of confirmability? a. member checking b. peer review c. transcription rigor d. saturation of data

b. peer review Page 569 Confirmability refers to objectivity, that is, the potential for congruence between two or more independent people about the data's accuracy, relevance, or meaning. Confirmability is enhanced by efforts to establish that the data represent participants' viewpoints, and that the interpretations of those data are not invented by the inquirer. For this criterion to be achieved, findings must reflect the participants' voice and the conditions of the inquiry and not the researcher's biases or perspectives.

What is the term for selection of participants that will most benefit the study? a. snowball b. purposive

b. purposive -selecting specific cases that will most benefit the study. -purposely selection individuals that have gone through the phenomenon.

Which term refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study? a. credibility b. reliability c. inference d. trustworthiness

b. reliability reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. p 153

What type of study design collects data at multiple points? a. longitudinal design b. repeated measures c. trend studies d. follow up studies

b. repeated measures Studies with multiple points of data collection are sometimes described as having a repeated measures design which usually signifies a study in which data are collected three or more times. p. 164

Which of the following is the triangulation method that involves collecting data on the same phenomenon in multiple sites to test for cross site consistency? a. time b. space c. person d. multifocal

b. space

The use of multiple sources to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth is referred to as? a. bias b. triangulation c. validity d. random bias

b. triangulation Triangulation is the use of multiple sources of references to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth. p. 154

What type of study focuses on the every day social behaviors of humans? a. ethnography b. Phenomenology c.ethnomethology d.Ethoscience

c. Ethnomethology involves the description and interpretation of cultural behavior. Focuses on the way that human beings in different societies construct their social order

There are four types of validity that affect the rigor of a quantitative study. Which type of validity does a researcher specifically address in choosing to use a true experimental design? a. Statistical conclusion validity b. Extreme validity c. Internal Validity d. External Validity

c. Internal validity Internal validity concerns inferences about causality—that outcomes were caused by the independent variable rather than by other factors. A true experimental design offers the strongest evidence about cause-and-effect relationships. Other forms of validity (construct, external, and statistical conclusion validity) are not specifically about causal relationships—they are relevant in both experimental and nonexperimental research. Page 207

A problem statement is clear and consists of six components. Which of the following is a component? a. Prognosis of the select population b. harm of the population c. A proposed solution d. a comparison of an intervention

c. a proposed solution Problem statements, especially for quantitative studies, often have most of the following six components (pg. 72): Problem identification: What is wrong with the current situation?Background: What is the context of the problem that readers need to understand?Scope of the problem: How big a problem is it? How many people are affected?Consequences of the problem: What are the costs of not fixing the problem?Knowledge gaps: What information about the problem is lacking?Proposed solution: How would the proposed study contribute to the solution of the problem?

What is the meaning of between subject design? a. a study of 2 or more groups of people over time b. a study that studies only one group c. a study that compares different people d. a study that compares 10 groups at a certain time

c. a study that compares different people

What is an example of ensuring that breaches of confidentiality do not occur? a. Gathering as much personal information as possible b. Maintaining records with personal information to track c. Assigning participants an identification number d. allowing access to records so anyone interested in the data

c. assigning participants an identification number

What does the "C" mean in PICO? a. Conflict b. Contrast c. Comparison d. Catalyst

c. comparision

A flyer on a bulletin board is advertising for participants to study "Perceptions of aromatherapy use for autism." This is an example of which type of sampling? a. purposive b. snowball c. convenience

c. convenience sampling volunteer sampling cheap, easy, but maybe not as preferred.

Qualitative research conducts its methods based on which of the following? a. statistical data b. correlation of findings c. data collection through conversation d. analysis of sample readings

c. data collection through conversation

Qualitative sampling consists of the following? a. Selection of participants b. sample size are large c. lack of selection criteria

c. lack of selection criteria -Participants are not selected randomly. knowledgable people who can express inner feelings -small samples and studied intensely. Usually involve fewer than 50 people -participants are not prespecified, their selection is emergent -sample selection is driven by conceptual requirements rather than by a desire for representativeness

The initial step to conducting a literature review? a, devise search strategy b. screen sources c. locating all relevant information on a research question d. identify new references and new leads

c. locating all relevant information on a research question First, the review must be comprehensive, thorough, and up-to-date. To "own" the literature, you must be determined to become an expert on your topic, which means that you need to be diligent in hunting down leads for possible sources of evidence. pg. 85

Which of the following is a technique used by researchers to structure a study, gather, and analyze information relevant to the research question? a. Assumption b. Generalizability c. Quantitative Research d. Scientific method

c. quantitative research

For univariate descriptive studies, what is the focus? a. To describe the study in detail b. To identify the correlation between variables c. To focus on multiple variables d. to determine the risks of the variables

c. to focus on multiple variables Univariate Descriptive Studies Univariate descriptive studies are not necessarily focused on a single variable. For example, a researcher interested in women's experiences during menopause might gather data about the frequency of various symptoms and the use of medications to alleviate symptoms. The study involves multiple variables, but the primary purpose is to describe the status of each, not to study correlations among them. Page 196

The Lincoln and Guba framework proposed the most often cited criteria to enhance which component of qualitative study? a. validity b. credibility c. trustworthiness d. rigor

c. trustworthiness The most widely used term to refer to methodologic and interpretive quality in qualitative research is "trustworthiness." "Validity" and "rigor" are avoided by some (but not all) qualitative researchers because these terms are used by quantitative researchers. Credibility is one aspect of trustworthiness.

A patient's temperature is an example of what type of variable? a. Discrete b. Categorical c. Dichotomous d. Continuous

d. continuous Continuous variables have values along a continuum and, in theory, can assume an infinite number of values between two points. Consider the continuous variable weight: between 1 and 2 pounds, the number of values is limitless: 1.05, 1.8, 1.333, and so on. (pg. 44)

What is a characteristic of qualitative design? a. limiting involvement of the researcher b. aims at understanding parts of the concept c. restricts ongoing analysis of data d. merging various data collection

d. merging various data collection In general qualitative design -is flexible, capable of adjusting to new information during data collection -tends to be holistic, aimed at understanding the whole -often involves merging various data collection strategies -requires researchers to become intensely involved -relies on ongoing analysis of the data to formulate subsequent strategies and to determine when to stop collecting data.

Which is one of the steps that make up the Empirical Phase of a Quantitative study? a. Analyzing the data b. Interpreting the data c. Communicating the findings d. Preparing the data for analysis

d. preparing the data for analysis Phase 1: The Conceptual Phase; Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase; Phase 3: The Empirical Phase; Phase 4: The Analytic Phase The two steps of the Empirical Phase are: 1. Collecting the data and 2. Preparing the data for analysis p. 52

Which source of evidence is considered the highest level? a. single randomized controlled trial b. expert opinion c. single cross sectional d. systemic review

d. systemic review

Qualitative analysis begins with identifying broad categories to convert into smaller segments. What is the term for the next phase that brings meaning and identifies characteristics or experiences that the researcher uses to do the research? a. content analysis b. taxonomy c. domain d. theme

d. theme In many qualitative studies, the next phase involves the identification of themes. In their thorough review of how the term theme is used among qualitative researchers, DeSantis and Ugarriza (2000) offered this often-cited definition: "A theme is an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to a current experience and its variant manifestations. As such, a theme captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole" (p. 362).