Missed Logical Reasoning Questions (Drill Time!)

A compared gold samples from several ancient artifacts with gold samples from an ancient mine in western Asia. The rations of the trace elements in these samples were all very similar, and they were unlike the trace-elements ratios from any other known mine. It is therefore likely that the gold in the artifacts was dug from the ancient mine. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? A) The ancient mine tapped into a large underground deposit that also supplied nearby riverbeds with significant quantities of gold B) The ancient mine may have at one time been operated by the same civilization that was responsible for most of the ancient artifacts C) The ancient mine was first operate many centuries before the artifacts were constructed D) Ancient gold artifacts were often constructed from gold taken from earlier artifacts E) Much of the gold dug from the ancient mine in western Asia was transported to faraway destinations

Answer: (A)

. Further evidence of a connection between brain physiology and psychological states has recently been uncovered in the form of a correlation between electroencephalograph patterns and characteristic moods. A study showed that participants who suffered form clinical depression exhibited less left frontal lobe activity than right, while, conversely, characteristically good-natured participants exhibited greater left lobe activity. Thus one's general disposition is a result of the activity of one's frontal lobe. Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: (A) Many drugs prescribed to combat clinical depression act by causing increased left lobe activity. (B) Excessive sleep, a typical consequence of clinical depression, is known to suppress left lobe activity. (C) Frontal lobe activity is not subject to variation the way general disposition is. (D) Earlier studies indicated that frontal lobe activity and emotive states are both caused by activity in the brain's limbic system. (E) Social interaction of the kind not engaged in by most clinically depressed people is known to stimulate left lobe activity

Answer: (A)

A leading critic of space exploration contents that it would be wrong, given current technology, to send a group of explorers to Mars, since the explorers would be unlikely to survive the trip. But that exaggerates the risk. There would be a well-engineered backup system at every stage of the long and complicated journey. A fatal catastrophe is quite unlikely at any given stage if such a backup system is in place. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument A) infers that something is true of a whole merely from the fact that it is true of each of the parts B) infers that something cannot occur merely from the fact that it is unlikely to occur C) draws a conclusion about what must be the case based on evidence about what is probably the case D) infers that something will work merely because it could work E) rejects a view merely on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been made for it

Answer: (A)

A recent test of an electric insect control device discovered that, of the more than 300 insects killed during one 24-hour period, only 12 were mosquitoes. Thus this type of device may kill many insects, but will not significantly aid in controlling the potentially dangerous mosquito population. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) A careful search discovered no live mosquitoes in the vicinity of the device after the test. (B) A very large proportion of the insects that were attracted to the device were not mosquitoes. (C) The device is more likely to kill beneficial insects than it is to kill harmful insects. (D) Many of the insects that were killed by the device are mosquito-eating insects. (E) The device does not succeed in killing all of the insects that it attracts.

Answer: (A)

A six-month public health campaign sought to limit the spread of influenza by encouraging people to take precautions such as washing their hands frequently and avoiding public places when they experience influenza symptoms. Since the incidence of influenza was much lower during those months than experts had predicted, the public evidently heeded the campaign. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) The incidence of food-borne illnesses, which can be effectively controlled by frequent hand washing, was markedly lower than usual during the six-month period. B) During the six-month period, the incidence of the common cold, which has many of the same symptoms as influenza, was about the same as usual. C) There were fewer large public gatherings than usual during the six-month period. D) Independently of the public health campaign, the news media spread the message that one's risk of contracting influenza can be lessened by frequent hand washing. E) In a survey completed before the campaign began, many people admitted that they should do more to limit the spread of influenza.

Answer: (A)

A student has taken twelve courses and received a B in a majority of them. The student is now taking another course and will probably, given her record, receive a B in it. Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument EXCEPT: (A) The student previously studied alone but is receiving help from several outstanding students during the present course. (B) The twelve courses together covered a broad range of subject matter. (C) The student previously studied in the library and continues to do so. (D) The student received a B in all but one of the twelve courses. (E) The current course is a continuation of one of the twelve courses in which the student received a B.

Answer: (A)

A tax preparation company automatically adds the following disclaimer to every e-mail message sent to its clients: "Any tax advice in this e-mail should not be constructed as advocating any violation of the provisions of the tax code." The only purpose this disclaimer could serve is to provide legal protection for the company. But if the e-mail elsewhere suggests that the client do something illegal, then the disclaimer offers no legal protection. So the disclaimer serves no purpose. The argument's conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? A) If the e-mail does not elsewhere suggest that the client do anything illegal, then the company does not need legal protection B) If e-mail messages sent by the tax preparation company do elsewhere suggest that the recipient do something illegal, then the company could be subject to substantial penalties C) A disclaimer that is included in every e-mail message sent by a company will tend to be ignored by recipients who have already received many e-mails from that company D) At least some of the recipients of the company's e-mails will follow the advice contained in the body of at least some of the emails they receive E) Some of the tax preparation company's clients would try to illegally evade penalties if they know how to do so

Answer: (A)

According to the theory of continental drift, in prehistoric times, many of today's separate continents were part of a single huge landmass. As the plates on which this landmass rested began to move, the mass broke apart, and ocean water filled the newly created chasms. It is hypothesized, for example, that South America was once joined on its east coast with what is now the west coast of Africa. Which one of the following discoveries, if it were made, would most support the above hypothesis about South America and Africa? (A) A large band of ancient rock of a rare type along the east coast of South America is of the same type as a band on the west coast of Africa. (B) Many people today living in Brazil are genetically quite similar to many western Africans. (C) The climates of western Africa and of the east coast of South America resemble each other. (D) Some of the oldest tribes of people living in eastern South America speak languages linguistically similar to various languages spoken by certain western African peoples. (E) Several species of plants found in western Africa closely resemble plants growing in South America.

Answer: (A)

Archaeologist: The mosaics that were removed from Zeugma, the ancient city now flooded by the runoff from Turkey's Birecik Dam, should have been left there. We had all the information about them that we needed to draw archaeological conclusions, and future archaeologists studying the site, who may not have access to our records, might be misled by their absence. Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist's argument? (A) The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological. (B) Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time. (C) The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location. (D) Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site. (E) The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact

Answer: (A)

Because the native salmon in Lake Clearwater had nearly disappeared, sockeye salmon were introduced in 1940. After being introduced, this genetically uniform group of sockeyes split into two distinct populations that do not interbreed, one inhabiting shallow areas. Since the two populations now differ genetically, some researchers hypothesize that each has adapted genetically to its distinct habitat. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the researchers' hypothesis? A) neither of the two populations of sockeyes has interbred with the native salmon B) when the native salmon in Lake Clearwater were numerous, they compromised two distinct populations that did not interbreed C) most types of salmon that inhabit lakes spend part of the time in shallow water and part in deeper water D) one of the populations of sockeyes is virtually identical genetically to the sockeyes originally introduced in 1940 E) the total number of sockeye salmon in the lake is not as large as the number of native salmon had been many years ago

Answer: (A)

Bernard: For which language, wand thus which frequency distribution of letters and letter sequences, was the standard typewriter keyboard designed? Cora: To ask this question, you must be making a mistaken assumption: that typing speed was to be maximized. The real danger with early typewriters was that operators would hit successive keys too quickly, thereby crashing typebars into each other, bending connecting wires, and so on. So the idea was to slow the operator down by making the most common letter sequences awkward to type. Bernard: This is surely not right! These technological limitations have long since vanished, yet the keyboard is still as it was then. Which one of the following, if true, could be used by Cora to counter Bernard's rejection of her explanation? A) Typewriters and word-processing equipment are typically sold to people who have learned to use the standard keyboard and who, therefore, demand it in equipment they buy B) Typewriters have been superseded in most offices by word-processing equipment, which was inherited the standard keyboard from typewriters C) The standard keyboard allows skilled operators to achieve considerable typing speeds, though it makes acquiring such skills relatively difficult D) A person who has learned one keyboard layout can readily learn to use a second one in the place of the first, but only with difficulty to learn to use a second one alongside the first E) It is now possible to construct typewriters and word-processing equipment in which a single keyboard can accommodate two or even more different keyboard layouts, each accessible to the operator at will

Answer: (A)

Brooks: I'm unhappy in my job, but I don't know whether I can accept the risks involved quitting my job. Morgenstern: The only risk in quitting is that of finding another job. If you don't find one, you're going to be pretty unhappy. But you're already unhappy, so you might as well just quit. Morgenstern's argument is flawed in that it A) fails to take into account that unhappiness can vary in intensity or significance B) relies on an assumption that is tantamount to assuming that the conclusion is true C) mischaracterizes what Brooks says D) conflates two different types of risk E) reaches a generalization on the basis of single case

Answer: (A)

Certain bacteria that produce hydrogen sulfide as a waste product would die if directly exposed to oxygen. The hydrogen sulfide reacts with oxygen, removing it and so preventing it from harming the bacteria. Furthermore, the hydrogen sulfide tends to kill other organisms in the area, thereby providing the bacteria with a source of food. As a result, a dense colony of these bacteria produces for itself an environment in which it can continue to thrive indefinitely. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? (A) A dense colony of the bacteria can indefinitely continue to produce enough hydrogen sulfide to kill other organisms in the area and to prevent oxygen from harming the bacteria. (B) The hydrogen sulfide produced by the bacteria kills other organisms in the area by reacting with and removing oxygen. (C) Most organisms, if killed by the hydrogen sulfide produced by the bacteria, can provide a source of food for the bacteria. (D) The bacteria can continue to thrive indefinitely only in an environment in which the hydrogen sulfide they produce has removed all oxygen and killed other organisms in the area. (E) If any colony of bacteria produces hydrogen sulfide as a waste product, it thereby ensures that it is both provided with a source of food and protected from harm by oxygen.

Answer: (A)

Columnist: If you received an unsigned letter, you would likely have some doubts about the truth of its contents. But news stories often include statements from anonymous sources, and these are usually quoted with the utmost respect. It makes sense to be skeptical of these sources, for, as in the case of the writer of an unsigned letter, their anonymity makes it possible for them to plant inaccurate or slanted statements without ever having to answer for them. The columnist's argument proceeds by (A) pointing out that a certain attitude would presumably be adopted in one situation, in order to support the claim that a similar attitude would be justified in an analogous situation (B) drawing an analogy between an attitude commonly adopted in one situation and a different attitude commonly adopted in another situation, and establishing that the latter attitude is better justified than the former (C) inferring that an attitude would be justified in all situations of a given type on the grounds that this attitude is justified in a hypothetical situation of that type (D) calling into question a certain type of evidence by drawing an analogy between that evidence and other evidence that the argument shows is usually false (E) calling into question the motives of those presenting certain information, and concluding for this reason that the information is likely to be false

Answer: (A)

Columnist: It is impossible for there to be real evidence that lax radiation standards that were once in effect at nuclear reactors actually contributed to the increase in cancer rates near such sites. The point is a familiar one: who can say if a particular case of cancer is due to radiation, exposure to environmental toxins, smoking, poor diet, or genetic factors. The argument's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? (A) The argument fails to recognize that there may be convincing statistical evidence even if individual causes cannot be known. (B) The argument inappropriately presupposes that what follows a certain phenomenon was caused by that phenomenon. (C) The argument inappropriately draws a conclusion about causes of cancer in general from evidence drawn from a particular case of cancer. (D) The argument ignores other possible causes of the increase in cancer rates near the nuclear reactor complexes. (E) The argument concludes that a claim about a causal connection is false on the basis of a lack of evidence for the claim.

Answer: (A)

Columnist: Much of North America and western Europe is more heavily forested and has less acid rain and better air quality now than five decades ago. Though this may be due largely to policies advocated by environmentalists, it nonetheless lends credibility to the claims of people who reject predictions of imminent ecological doom and argue that environmental policies that excessively restrict the use of natural resources may diminish the wealth necessary to adopt and sustain the policies that brought about these improvements. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the columnist's reasoning? (A) Nations sustain their wealth largely through industrial use of the natural resources found within their boundaries. (B) The more advanced the technology used in a nation's industries, the greater is that nation's ability to devote a portion of its resources to social programs. (C) A majority of ecological disasters arise from causes that are beyond human control. (D) If a compromise between the proponents of economic growth and the environmentalists had been enacted rather than the current policies, the environment would have seen significantly less improvement. (E) The concern demonstrated by a nation for the health and integrity of its natural ecosystems leads to an increase in that nation's wealth.

Answer: (A)

Company policy: An employee of our company must be impartial, particularly when dealing with family members. This obligation extends to all aspects of the job, including hiring and firing practices and the quality of service the employee provides customers. Which one of the following employee behaviors most clearly violates the company policy cited above? (A) refusing to hire any of one's five siblings, even though they are each more qualified than any other applicant (B) receiving over a hundred complaints about the service one's office provides and sending a complimentary product to all those who complain, including one's mother (C) never firing a family member, even though three of one's siblings work under one's supervision and authority (D) repeatedly refusing to advance an employee, claiming that he has sometimes skipped work and that his work has been sloppy, even though no such instances have occurred for over two years (E) promoting a family member over another employee in the company

Answer: (A)

Counselor: Those who believe that criticism should be gentle rather than harsh should consider the following: change requires a motive, and criticism that is unpleasant provides a motive. Since harsh criticism is unpleasant, harsh criticism provides a motive. Therefore, only harsh criticism will cause the person criticized to change. The reasoning in the counselor's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument A) infers that something that is sufficient to provide a motive is necessary to provide a motive B) fails to address the possibility that in some cases the primary goal of criticism is something other than bringing about change in the person being criticized C) takes for granted that everyone who is motivated to change will change D) confuses a motive for doing something with a motive for avoiding something E) takes the refutation of an argument to be sufficient to show that the argument's conclusion is false

Answer: (A)

Criminologist: A judicial system that tries and punishes criminals without delay is an effective deterrent to violent crime. Long, drawn-out trials and successful legal maneuvering may add to criminals' feelings of invulnerability. But if potential violent criminals know that being caught means prompt punishment, they will hesitate to break the law. Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the criminologist's argument? (A) It is in the nature of violent crime that it is not premeditated. (B) About one-fourth of all suspects first arrested for a crime are actually innocent. (C) Many violent crimes are committed by first-time offenders. (D) Everyone accused of a crime has the right to a trial. (E) Countries that promptly punish suspected lawbreakers have lower crime rates than countries that allow long trials.

Answer: (A)

Decentralization enables divisions of a large institution to function autonomously. This always permits more realistic planning and strongly encourages innovation, since the people responsible for decision making are directly involved in implementing the policies they design. Decentralization also permits the central administration to focus on institution-wide issues without being overwhelmed by the details of daily operations. The statements above most strongly support which one of the following? (A) In large institutions whose divisions do not function autonomously, planning is not maximally realistic. (B) Innovation is not always encouraged in large centralized institutions. (C) For large institutions the advantages of decentralization outweigh its disadvantages. (D) The central administrations of large institutions are usually partially responsible for most of the details of daily operations. (E) The people directly involved in implementing policies are always able to make innovative and realistic policy decisions.

Answer: (A)

Environmentalist: When bacteria degrade household cleaning products, vapors that are toxic to humans are produced. Unfortunately, household cleaning products are often found in landfills. Thus, the common practice of converting landfills into public parks is damaging human health. Which one of the following is an assumption the environmentalist's argument requires? (A) In at least some landfills that have been converted into public parks there are bacteria that degrade household cleaning products. (B) Converting a landfill into a public park will cause no damage to human health unless toxic vapors are produced in that landfill and humans are exposed to them. (C) If a practice involves the exposure of humans to vapors from household cleaning products, then it causes at least some damage to human health. (D) When landfills are converted to public parks, measures could be taken that would prevent people using the parks from being exposed to toxic vapors. (E) If vapors toxic to humans are produced by the degradation of household cleaning products by bacteria in any landfill, then the health of at least some humans will suffer

Answer: (A)

In 2005, an environmental group conducted a study measuring the levels of toxic chemicals in the bodies of eleven volunteers. Scientifically valid inferences could not be drawn from the study because of the small sample size, but the results were interesting nonetheless. Among the subjects tested, younger subjects showed much lower levels of PCBs- toxic chemicals that were banned in the 1970s. This proves that the regulation banning PCBs was effective in reducing human exposure to those chemicals. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) takes an inconsistent stance regarding the status of the inferences that can be drawn from the study (B) overlooks the possibility that two or more chemicals produce the same effects (C) concludes that a generalization has been proven true merely on the grounds that it has not been proven false (D) takes something to be the cause of a reduction when it could have been an effect of that reduction (E) does not consider the possibility that PCBs have detrimental effects on human health several years after exposure

Answer: (A)

Essayist: Knowledge has been defined as a true belief formed by a reliable process. This definition has been criticized on the grounds that if someone had a reliable power of clairvoyance, we would not accept that person's claim to know certain things on the basis of this power. I agree that we would reject such claims, but we would do so because we really do not believe in clairvoyance as a reliable process. Were we to believe in clairvoyance, we would accept knowledge claims made on the basis of it. Which one of the following most accurately describes the essayist's method of defending the definition against the objection? (A) asserting that the objection is based on a belief about the reliability of clairvoyance rather than on the nature of knowledge or its definition (B) asserting that the case of clairvoyance is one of knowledge even though we do not really believe in clairvoyance as a reliable process (C) arguing against the assumption that clairvoyance is unreliable (D) explaining that the definition of knowledge is a matter of personal choice (E) demonstrating that the case of clairvoyance is not a case of knowledge and does not fit the definition of knowledge

Answer: (A)

Everyone should have access to more than one newspaper, for there are at least two sides to every story. Since all sides of an important story should be covered, and no newspaper adequately covers all sides of every one of its stories, some important stories would not be adequately covered if there were only one newspaper. Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning of the argument? (A) The argument confuses the inability to cover all sides of every story with the inability to cover all sides of any important story. (B) The argument overlooks the possibility that two newspapers could provide the same incomplete coverage of the same important stories. (C) A conclusion about what newspapers should do is inferred solely from statements about what newspapers in fact do. (D) The argument takes for granted that everyone has access to all newspapers. (E) The argument is concerned only with important stories and not with all stories.

Answer: (A)

From 1996 to 2004, the average family income in a certain country decreased by 10 percent, after adjustments for inflation. Opponents of the political party that ruled during this time claim that this was due to mismanagement of the economy by that party. Each of the following rejoinders, if true, directly counters the opponents' explanation of the decrease in average family income EXCEPT: (A) There had been a rise in family income in 1996, after adjustments for inflation. (B) For noneconomic reasons, fewer families had multiple incomes at the end of the period than at the beginning. (C) During the period, international events beyond the control of the country's government had a negative effect on family incomes in the country. (D) Younger wage earners usually earn less than older ones, and the average age of household wage earners fell during most years in the past several decades. (E) The biggest decreases in family income resulted from policies enacted before the ruling party came to power in 1996.

Answer: (A)

Gotera: Infants lack the motor ability required to voluntarily produce particular sounds, but produce various babbling sounds randomly. Most children are several years old before they can voluntarily produce most of the vowel and consonant sounds of their language. We can conclude that speech acquisition is entirely a motor control process rather than a process that is abstract or mental. Which one of the following is an assumption required by Gotera's argument? (A) Speech acquisition is a function only of one's ability to produce the sounds of spoken language. (B) During the entire initial babbling stage, infants cannot intentionally move their tongues while they are babbling. (C) The initial babbling stage is completed during infancy. (D) The initial babbling stage is the first stage of the speech acquisition process. (E) Control of tongue and mouth movements requires a sophisticated level of mental development.

Answer: (A)

High school students who feel that they are not succeeding in school often drop out before graduating and go to work. Last year, however, the city's high school dropout rate was significantly lower than the previous year's rate. This is encouraging evidence that the program instituted two years ago to improve the morale of high school students has begun to take effect to reduce dropouts Which one of the following, if true about the last year, most seriously weakens the argument? A) There was a recession that caused a high level of unemployment in the city B) The morale of students who dropped out of high school had been low even before they reached high school C) As in the preceding year, more high school students remained in school than dropped out D) High school students in the city established placement offices to assist their graduates in obtaining employment E) The anti-dropout program was primarily aimed at improving students' morale in those high schools with the highest dropout rates

Answer: (A)

History provides many examples of technological innovations being strongly resisted by people whose working conditions without those innovations were miserable. This shows that social inertia is a more powerful determinant of human behavior than is the desire for comfort or safety. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the reasoning in the argument? A) People correctly believe that technological innovations often cause job loss B) People are often reluctant to take on new challenges C) Some examples of technological innovation have been embraced by workers D) People tend to adapt easily to gradually implemented technological innovations E) People correctly believe that technological innovations almost always increase workers' productivity

Answer: (A)

Human beings can exhibit complex, goal-oriented behavior without conscious awareness of what they are doing. Thus, merely establishing that nonhuman animals are intelligent will not establish that they have consciousness. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) Complex, goal-oriented behavior requires intelligence. (B) The possession of consciousness does not imply the possession of intelligence. (C) All forms of conscious behavior involve the exercise of intelligence. (D) The possession of intelligence entails the possession of consciousness. (E) Some intelligent human behavior is neither complex nor goal-oriented.

Answer: (A)

Therapist: The ability to trust other people is essential to happiness, for without trust there can be no meaningful emotional connection to another human being, and without meaningful emotional connections to others we feel isolated. Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion of the therapist's argument to be properly inferred? (A) No one who is feeling isolated can feel happy. (B) Anyone who has a meaningful emotional connection to another human being can be happy. (C) To avoid feeling isolated, it is essential to trust other people. (D) At least some people who do not feel isolated are happy. (E) Anyone who is able to trust other people has a meaningful emotional connection to at least one other human being.

Answer: (A)

In a study, six medical students were each separately presented with the same patient, whose symptoms could be the result of any one of several medical conditions. The attending physician asked each student a leading question of the form, " What tests should we order to try to rule out a diagnosis of X?" where X was filled in with a different medical condition for each student. A week later each student was presented with a patient having similar symptoms in the presence of a different attending physician who asked for a diagnosis without asking any leading questions. Each student began by testing the diagnosis that had been suggested by the original attending physician. Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by the information above? A) On the second occasion, none of the medical students began by testing the same diagnosis as any of the other medical students. B) At most one of the medical students knew which of the several medical conditions was most likely to lead to the patients' symptoms. C) The second attending physician was unaware of the results of the students' encounter with the first attending physician. D) On the second occasion, exactly one of the students tested for the medical condition that actually caused the patient's symptoms. E) At least some of the medical students were unaware that the patients' symptoms could be the result of medical conditions other than the one suggested by the original attending physician.

Answer: (A)

In the aftermath of the Cold War, international relations between Cold War allies became more difficult. Leaders of previously allied nations were required to conduct tactful economic negotiations in order not to arouse tensions that had previously been overlooked. The situation described above conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions? (A) International economic competition is a greater cause of tension than is international military competition. (B) Bonds between allies are stronger when they derive from fear of a common enemy than when they derive from common economic goals. (C) When there is a military commitment between countries, fundamental agreement between them on economic matters is more easily reached. (D) Economic matters are considered unimportant during periods of actual or threatened war. (E) A common enemy contributes to a strengthened bond between nations, enabling them to ignore economic tensions that would otherwise be problematic.

Answer: (A)

Inspector: The only fingerprints on the premises are those of the owner, Mr. Tannisch. Therefore, whoever now has his guest's missing diamonds must have worn gloves. Which one of the following exhibits a flaw in its reasoning most similar to that in the inspector's reasoning? (A) The campers at Big Lake Camp, all of whom became ill this afternoon, have eaten food only from the camp cafeteria. Therefore, the cause of the illness must not have been something they ate. (B) The second prototype did not perform as well in inclement weather as did the first prototype. Hence, the production of the second prototype might have deviated from the design followed for the first. (C) Each of the swimmers at this meet more often loses than wins. Therefore, it is unlikely that any of them will win. (D) All of Marjorie's cavities are on the left side of her mouth. Hence, she must chew more on the left side than on the right. (E) All of these tomato plants are twice as big as they were last year. So if we grow peas, they will probably be twice as big as last year's peas

Answer: (A)

It is an absurd idea that whatever artistic endeavor the government refuses to support it does not allow, as one can see by rephrasing the statement to read: No one is allowed to create art without a government subsidy. The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? (A) The claim that any driver who is not arrested does not break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who breaks the law gets arrested. (B) The claim that any driver who is not arrested does not break the law is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: Every driver who gets arrested has broken the law. (C) The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist who is successful is so without a government grant. (D) The notion that every scientist who is supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist lacking governmental support will be successful. (E) The notion that every scientist who has been supported by a government grant will be successful is absurd, as one can see by rewording it: No scientist is allowed to do research without a government grant.

Answer: (A)

Judicial punishment's power to deter people from committing crimes is a function of the severity of the penalty and the likelihood of one's actually receiving the penalty. Occasionally, juries decide that a crime's penalty is too severe and so refuse to convict a person they are convinced has committed that crime. Thus, increasing the penalty may decrease the deterrent power of judicial punishment. The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to the pattern of reasoning in the argument above? (A) Success in attaining one's first academic job depends on the quality of one's dissertation and the amount of time spent working on it in graduate school. But sometimes, so much time is spent on a dissertation that it becomes too lengthy to be coherent and its quality suffers. So spending more time working on a dissertation can lead to less success in attaining a first academic job. (B) People who drive cars having many safety features are likely to drive more aggressively than do people who drive cars having few safety features. Thus, the people who drive the safest cars are likely to be the most dangerous drivers on the road. (C) A new surgical technique is developed to treat a dangerous condition. This technique enables people to live longer than does an older form of surgery. But the new surgery's mortality rate is also slightly higher. Thus, if more people choose to undergo the new surgery, more people may die from the dangerous condition than previously. (D) To be attractive to tourists, it is best for a city to have both wide appeal and sufficient hotel space. Though a sufficient number of hotel rooms alone cannot attract tourists, it is much harder for city governments to affect the appeal of their city than for them to affect its amount of hotel space. Thus, governments of cities that want to increase their attractiveness to tourists should put their energies into increasing their hotel space. (E) Many young, talented artists, because they are unknown, decide to charge low prices for their work. As their reputations grow, the prices they can charge for their work increase. Thus, raising the price of an artist's work can improve that artist's reputation.

Answer: (A)

Kennel club members who frequently discipline their dogs report a higher incidence of misbehavior than do members who rarely or never discipline their dogs. We can conclude from this that discipline does not improve dogs' behavior; on the contrary, it encourages misbehavior. The argument is flawed in that it fails to consider the possibility that A) dogs' misbehavior is the cause of, rather than the result of, frequent discipline B) dogs learn from past experience how their owners are likely to react to misbehavior C) discipline does not cause misbehavior on the part of animals other than dogs D) kennel club members tend to be more skilled at raising dogs than are other dogs E) kennel club members are more likely to use discipline than are other dog owners

Answer: (A)

Lawyer: A body of circumstantial evidence is like a rope, and each item of evidence is like a strand of that rope. Just as additional pieces of circumstantial evidence strengthen the body of evidence, adding strands to the rope strengthens the rope. And if one strand breaks, the rope is not broken nor is its strength much diminished. Thus, even if a few items of a body of circumstantial evidence are discredited, the overall body of evidence retains its basic strength. The reasoning in the lawyer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) takes for granted that no items in a body of circumstantial evidence are significantly more critical to the strength of the evidence than other items in that body (B) presumes, without providing justification, that the strength of a body of evidence is less than the sum of the strengths of the parts of that body (C) fails to consider the possibility that if many items in a body of circumstantial evidence were discredited, the overall body of evidence would be discredited (D) offers an analogy in support of a conclusion without indicating whether the two types of things compared share any similarities (E) draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion

Answer: (A)

Lines can be parallel in a Euclidean system of geometry. But the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification is regarded by several prominent physicists as correctly describing the universe we inhabit. If these physicists are right, in our universe there are no parallel lines. Which one of the following is an assumption that is required by the argument? A) There are no parallel lines in the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification B) Most physicists have not doubted the view that the universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification C) There are no parallel lines in every non-Euclidean system of geometry that has any empirical verification D) The universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification if prominent physicists maintain that it is E) Only physicists who are not prominent doubt the view that the universe is correctly described by the non-Euclidean system of geometry that has the most empirical verification

Answer: (A)

Many important types of medicine have been developed from substances discovered in plants that grow only in tropical rain forests. There are thousands of plant species in these rain forests that have not yet been studied by scientists, and it is very likely that many such plants also contain substances of medicinal value. Thus, if the tropical rain forests are not preserved, important types of medicine will never be developed. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) There are substances of medicinal value contained in tropical rain forest plants not yet studied by scientists that differ from those substances already discovered in tropical rain forest plants. (B) Most of the tropical rain forest plants that contain substances of medicinal value can also be found growing in other types of environment. (C) The majority of plant species that are unique to tropical rain forests and that have been studied by scientists have been discovered to contain substances of medicinal value. (D) Any substance of medicinal value contained in plant species indigenous to tropical rain forests will eventually be discovered if those species are studied by scientists. (E) The tropical rain forests should be preserved to make it possible for important medicines to be developed from plant species that have not yet been studied by scientists.

Answer: (A)

Max: Although doing so would be very costly, humans already possess the technology to build colonies on the Moon. As the human population increases and the amount of unoccupied space available for constructing housing on Earth diminishes, there will be a growing economic incentive to construct such colonies to house some of the population. Thus, such colonies will almost certainly be built and severe overcrowding on Earth relieved. Max's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? (A) It takes for granted that the economic incentive to construct colonies on the Moon will grow sufficiently to cause such a costly project to be undertaken. (B) It takes for granted that the only way of relieving severe overcrowding on Earth is the construction of colonies on the Moon. (C) It overlooks the possibility that colonies will be built on the Moon regardless of any economic incentive to construct such colonies to house some of the population. (D) It overlooks the possibility that colonies on the Moon might themselves quickly become overcrowded. (E) It takes for granted that none of the human population would prefer to live on the Moon unless Earth were seriously overcrowded.

Answer: (A)

Medical researcher: A survey of more than 1 million adults found that there was a greater frequency of illness among people who are regularly slept at least 8 hours a night than among people who slept significantly less. This shows that mild sleep deprivation is not unhealthy and, in fact, probably bolsters the body's defenses against illness. The reasoning in the medical researcher's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument A) fails to address the possibility that an observed correlation between two phenomena is due to another factor that causally contributes to both phenomena B) fails to consider that even if a given factor causally contributes to the occurrence of a given phenomenon C) concludes, from the claim that a certain condition is sufficient for that phenomenon to occur, that the condition also exists D) takes for granted that there will be an observable correlation between two phenomena if either of those phenomena causally contributes to the other E) fails to consider that even if a specific negative consequence is not associated with a given phenomena, that phenomena may have other negative consequences

Answer: (A)

More and more computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are being produced, and it is thus increasingly unnecessary for practicing engineers to have a thorough understanding of fundamental mathematical principles, Consequently, in training engineers who will work in industry, less emphasis should be placed on mathematical principles, so that space in the engineering curriculum will be available for other important subjects. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument given for the recommendation above? A) The effective use of computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering requires an understanding of mathematical principles B) Many of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering are already in routine use C) Development of composites and other such new materials has meant that the curriculum for engineers who will work in industry must allow time for teaching in properties of these materials D) Most of the computer programs that provide solutions to mathematical problems in engineering can be run on the types of computers available to most engineering firms E) The engineering curriculum already requires that engineering students be familiar with and able to use a variety of computer programs

Answer: (A)

Museum visitor: The national government has mandated a 5 percent increase in the minimum wage paid to all workers. This mandate will adversely affect the museumgoing public. The museum's revenue does not currently exceed its expenses, and since the mandate will significantly increase the museum's operating expenses, the museum will be forced either to raise admission fees or to decrease services. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the museum visitor's argument? (A) Some of the museum's employees are not paid significantly more than the minimum wage. (B) The museum's revenue from admission fees has remained constant over the past five years. (C) Some of the museum's employees are paid more than the current minimum wage. (D) The annual number of visitors to the museum has increased steadily. (E) Not all visitors to the museum are required to pay an admission fee.

Answer: (A)

One of the most useful social conventions is money, whose universality across societies is matched only by language. Unlike language, which is rooted in an innate ability, money is an artificial, human invention. Hence, it seems probable that the invention of money occurred independently in more than one society. The argument's conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? A) Some societies have been geographically isolated enough not to have been influenced by any other society. B) Language emerged independently in different societies at different times in human history. C) Universal features of human society that are not inventions are rooted in innate abilities. D) If money were not useful, it would not be so widespread. E) No human society that adopted the convention of money has since abandoned it.

Answer: (A)

One should never sacrifice one's health in order to acquire money, for without health, happiness is not obtainable The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) Money should be acquired only if its acquisition will not make happiness unobtainable B) In order to be happy one must have either money or health C) Health should be valued only as a precondition for happiness D) Being wealthy is, under certain conditions, conducive to happiness E) Health is more conducive to happiness than wealth is

Answer: (A)

One theory to explain the sudden extinction of all dinosaurs points to "drug overdoses" as the cause. Angiosperms, a certain class of plants, first appeared at the time that dinosaurs became extinct. These plants produce amino-acid-based alkaloids that are psychoactive agents. Most plant-eating mammals avoid these potentially lethal poisons because they taste bitter. Moreover, mammals have livers that help detoxify such drugs. However, dinosaurs could neither taste the bitterness nor detoxify the substance once it was ingested. This theory receives its strongest support from the fact that it helps explain why so many dinosaur fossils are found in unusual and contorted positions. Which one of the following, if true, would most undermine the theory presented above? (A) Many fossils of large mammals are found in contorted positions. (B) Angiosperms provide a great deal of nutrition. (C) Carnivorous dinosaurs mostly ate other, vegetarian, dinosaurs that fed on angiosperms. (D) Some poisonous plants do not produce aminoacid-based alkaloids. (E) Mammals sometimes die of drug overdoses from eating angiosperms.

Answer: (A)

Ordinary mountain sickness, a common condition among mountain climbers, and one from which most people can recover, is caused by the characteristic shortage of oxygen in the atmosphere at high altitudes. Cerebral edema, a rarer disruption of blood circulation in the brain that quickly becomes lifethreatening if not correctly treated from its onset, can also be caused by a shortage of oxygen. Since the symptoms of cerebral edema resemble those of ordinary mountain sickness, cerebral edema is especially dangerous at high altitudes. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) The treatment for ordinary mountain sickness differs from the treatment for cerebral edema. (B) Cerebral edema can cause those who suffer from it to slip into a coma within a few hours. (C) Unlike cerebral edema, ordinary mountain sickness involves no disruption of blood circulation in the brain. (D) Shortage of oxygen at extremely high altitudes is likely to affect thinking processes and cause errors of judgment. (E) Most people who suffer from ordinary mountain sickness recover without any special treatment.

Answer: (A)

People who have habitually slept less than six hours a night and then begin sleeping eight or more hours a night typically begin to feel much less anxious. Therefore, most people who sleep less than six hours a night can probably cause their anxiety levels to fall by beginning to sleep at least eight hours a night. The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? (A) When a small company first begins to advertise on the Internet, its financial situation generally improves. This shows that most small companies that have never advertised on the Internet can probably improve their financial situation by doing so. (B) Certain small companies that had never previously advertised on the Internet have found that their financial situations began to improve after they started to do so. So most small companies can probably improve their financial situations by starting to advertise on the Internet. (C) It must be true that any small company that increases its Internet advertising will improve its financial situation, since most small companies that advertise on the Internet improved their financial situations soon after they first began to do so. (D) Usually, the financial situation of a small company that has never advertised on the Internet will improve only if that company starts to advertise on the Internet. Therefore, a typical small company that has never advertised on the Internet can probably improve its financial situation by doing so. (E) A small company's financial situation usually improves soon after that company first begins to advertise on the Internet. Thus, most small companies that have never advertised on the Internet could probably become financially strong.

Answer: (A)

Physical education should teach people to pursue healthy, active lifestyles as they grow older. But the focus on competitive sports in most schools causes most of the less competitive students to turn away from sports. Having learned to think of themselves as un-athletic, they do not exercise enough to stay healthy. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above, if they are true? A) Physical education should include noncompetitive activities B) Competition causes most students to turn away from sports C) People who are talented at competitive physical endeavors exercise regularly D) The mental aspects of exercise are as important as the physical ones E) Children should be taught the dangers of a sedentary lifestyle

Answer: (A)

Polling data reveal that an overwhelming majority of nine-year-olds can correctly identify the logos of major cigarette brands. However, of those nine-year-olds who recognize such logos, less than 1 percent smoke. Therefore, there is little or no connection between recognition of cigarette brand logos and smoking. Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning above? (A) The concern about the long-term effect on dolphins of small quantities of mercury in the ocean is unfounded. During a three-month observation period, 1,000 dolphins were exposed to small quantities of mercury in seawater, with no effect on the animals. (B) Many ten-year-olds dream of becoming actors. Yet it is not likely they will seriously consider becoming actors, because most parents discourage their children from pursuing such a highly competitive career. (C) Most dentists recommend using fluoride to reduce the incidence of cavities, but few recommend giving up candy entirely; so, using fluoride is probably more effective in preventing cavities than is avoiding sweets. (D) A large percentage of men exercise moderately throughout their lives, but the average life span of those who do so is not significantly greater than of those who get little or no exercise. So there is little or no correlation between moderate exercise and good health. (E) Most people cannot name their legislative representatives. Nonetheless, this is insignificant, for when queried, most of them displayed an adequate command of current political issues.

Answer: (A)

Principle: If one does not criticize a form of behavior in oneself or vow to stop it, then one should not criticize that form of behavior in another. Application: If Shimada does not vow to stop being tardy himself, he should not criticize McFeney for tardiness. Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? (A) Both McFeney and Shimada are regularly tardy, but Shimada criticizes McFeney's tardiness without criticizing his own. (B) McFeney is regularly tardy, but Shimada is almost never tardy. (C) McFeney often criticizes Shimada for being tardy, but neither Shimada nor McFeney ever vows to cease being tardy. (D) Shimada criticizes McFeney for regularly being tardy, but also criticizes himself for occasional tardiness. (E) Neither McFeney nor Shimada is regularly tardy, but Shimada criticizes McFeney for tardiness nonetheless.

Answer: (A)

Pulford: Scientists who study the remains of ancient historical figures to learn about their health history need to first ask themselves if their investigation is a legitimate scientific inquiry or is motivated by mere curiosity. An investigation into a private matter such as health history is justified only if it is done for the advancement of scientific knowledge. Varela: You forget that curiosity is the root of scientific inquiry. Many great scientific discoveries were motivated by curiosity alone. Varela responds to Pulford's argument by A) contending that Pulford's argument rests on an untenable distinction B) disputing the validity of a principle that Pulford explicitly states C) offering a counterexample to a generalization in Pulford's conclusion D) attempting to draw a distinction between two vies that Pulford treats as a single view E) maintaining that Pulford's argument is based on inconsistent premises

Answer: (A)

Rachel: Though contemporary artists are pleased to be free of the constraints that bound their predecessors, this freedom has caused a decline in the quality of art. Great art can be produced only when artists struggle to express themselves within externally imposed boundaries. James: People have always been critical of the art of their own time. They forget all but the greatest art from past eras. Since inferior contemporary artworks have not yet been forgotten, people today mistakenly think that contemporary art is generally inferior to earlier art. On the basis of their statements, Rachel and James are committed to disagreeing with each other about whether (A) contemporary art is of lower quality than earlier art (B) contemporary artists are bound by the same constraints as their predecessors (C) great art is produced only when an artist struggles against limitations (D) inferior art from past eras is generally forgotten (E) one can correctly assess the quality of art only if it was produced in past eras

Answer: (A)

Recent studies have demonstrated that smokers are more likely than nonsmokers to develop heart disease. Other studies have established that smokers are more likely than others to drink caffeinated beverages. Therefore, even though drinking caffeinated beverages is not thought to be a cause of heart disease, there is a positive correlation between drinking caffeinated beverages and the development of heart disease. The argument's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument fails to take into account the possibility that (A) smokers who drink caffeinated beverages are less likely to develop heart disease than are smokers who do not drink caffeinated beverages (B) something else, such as dietary fat intake, may be a more important factor in the development of heart disease than are the factors cited in the argument (C) drinking caffeinated beverages is more strongly correlated with the development of heart disease than is smoking (D) it is only among people who have a hereditary predisposition to heart disease that caffeine consumption is positively correlated with the development of heart disease (E) there is a common cause of both the development of heart disease and behaviors such as drinking caffeinated beverages and smoking

Answer: (A)

Researcher: A number of studies have suggested that, on average, clients in short-term psychotherapy show similar levels of improvement regardless of the kind of psychotherapy they receive. So any client improvement in short-term psychotherapy must be the result of some aspect or aspects of therapy that are common to all psychotherapies—for example, the presence of someone who listens and gives attention to the client. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the researcher's argument? (A) The methods by which the studies measured whether clients improved primarily concerned immediate symptom relief and failed to address other important kinds of improvement. (B) On average, clients improve more dramatically when they receive long-term psychotherapy, a year or longer in duration, than when clients receive short-term psychotherapy. (C) The studies found that psychotherapy by a trained counselor does not result in any greater improvement, on average, among clients than does simple counseling by an untrained layperson. (D) The specific techniques and interventions used by therapists practicing different kinds of psychotherapy differ dramatically. (E) More-experienced therapists tend to use a wider range of techniques and interventions in psychotherapy than do inexperienced therapists.

Answer: (A)

Secondary school students achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles and they devote significant effort to their studies. Thus, if such broad mastery is not achieved by the students in a particular secondary school, those students are not being taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles. The conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? (A) As long as secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will devote significant effort to their studies. (B) Even if secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they do not devote significant effort to their studies. (C) Secondary school students do not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are not taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles. (D) Teaching secondary school students with methods appropriate to their learning styles does not always result in broad mastery of the curriculum by those students. (E) Secondary school students who devote significant effort to their studies do not always achieve broad mastery of the curriculum.

Answer: (A)

Sharks have a higher ratio of cartilage mass to body mass than any other organism. They also have a greater resistance to cancer than any other organism. Shark cartilage contains a substance that inhibits tumor growth by stopping the development of a new blood network. In the past 20 years, none of the responses among terminal cancer patients to various therapeutic measures has been more positive than the response among those who consumed shark cartilage. If the claims made above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: (A) No organism resists cancer better than sharks do, but some resist cancer as well as sharks. (B) The organism most susceptible to cancer has a higher percentage of cartilage than some organisms that are less susceptible to cancer. (C) The substance in shark cartilage that inhibits tumor growth is found in most organisms. (D) In the past 20 years many terminal cancer patients have improved dramatically following many sorts of therapy. (E) Some organisms have immune systems more efficient than a shark's immune system.

Answer: (A)

Some doctors believe that a certain drug reduces the duration of episodes of vertigo, claiming that the average duration of vertigo for people who suffer from it has decreased since the drug was introduced. However, during a recent three-month shortage of the drug, there was no significant change in the average duration of vertigo. Thus, we can conclude that the drug has no effect on the duration of vertigo. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) If a drug made a difference in the duration of vertigo, a three-month shortage of that drug would have caused a significant change in the average duration of vertigo. (B) If there were any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug, it would have demonstrated that the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo. (C) A period of time greater than three months would not have been better to use in judging whether the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo. (D) Changes in diet and smoking habits are not responsible for any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug. (E) There are various significant factors other than drugs that decrease the duration of vertigo for many people who suffer from it.

Answer: (A)

Some doctors believe that a certain drug reduces the duration of episodes of vertigo, claiming that the average duration of vertigo for people who suffer from it has decreased since the drug was introduced. However, during a recent three-month shortage of the drug, there was no significant change in the average duration of vertigo. Thus, we can conclude that the drug has no effect on the duration of vertigo. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) If a drug made a difference in the duration of vertigo, a three-month shortage of that drug would have caused a significant change in the average duration of vertigo. (B) If there were any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug, it would have demonstrated that the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo. (C) A period of time greater than three months would not have been better to use in judging whether the drug has an effect on the duration of vertigo. (D) Changes in diet and smoking habits are not responsible for any change in the average duration of vertigo since the introduction of the drug. (E) There are various significant factors other than drugs that decrease the duration of vertigo for many people who suffer from it.

Answer: (A)

Some people mistakenly believe that since we do not have direct access to the distant past we cannot learn much about it. Contemporary historians and archaeologists find current geography, geology, and climate to be rich in clues about a given region's distant history. However, the more distant the period we are studying is, the less useful the study of the present becomes. Of the following, which one most closely conforms to the principle that the passage illustrates? (A) Astronomers often draw inferences about the earlier years of our solar system on the basis of recently collected data. Unfortunately, they have been able to infer comparatively little about the origin of our solar system. (B) Much can be learned about the perpetrator of a crime by applying scientific methods of investigation to the crime scene. But the more the crime scene has been studied the less likely anything will be learned from further study. (C) To understand a literary text one needs to understand the author's world view. However, the farther that world view gets from one's own the less one will be able to appreciate the text. (D) We often extrapolate from ordinary sensory experience to things beyond such experience and form a rash judgment, such as the claim that the earth is the center of the universe because it appears that way to us. (E) One crucial clue to the extent of the ancient Egyptians' mathematical knowledge came from studying the pyramids. The more we studied such structures, the more impressed we were by how much the Egyptians knew.

Answer: (A)

TV meteorologist: Our station's weather forecasts are more useful and reliable than those of the most popular news station in the area. After all, the most important question for viewers in this area is whether it will rain, and on most of the occasions when we have forecast rain for the next day, we have been right. The same cannot be said for either of our competitors. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the meteorologist's argument? (A) The meteorologist's station forecast rain more often than did the most popular news station in the area. (B) The less popular of the competing stations does not employ any full-time meteorologists. (C) The most popular news station in the area is popular because of its investigative news reports. (D) The meteorologist's station has a policy of not making weather forecasts more than three days in advance. (E) On most of the occasions when the meteorologist's station forecast that it would not rain, at least one of its competitors also forecast that it would not rain.

Answer: (A)

Tariffs on particular products tend to protect the small percentage of the population that works in industries that make those products while hurting everyone else through higher costs. Polls show that in fact most people oppose such tariffs. So politicians would be more likely to be reelected if they voted against these tariffs. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? (A) Supporters of tariffs on particular products are not significantly more likely than opponents to base their vote for a politician on the politician's stand on this issue. (B) Politicians always vote according to what is most likely to get them reelected. (C) Politicians should support only general tariffs, since such tariffs would be more widely popular with voters than tariffs on particular products. (D) Politicians should never support measures that favor only a small percentage of the population. (E) People who would be hurt by tariffs generally know that they would be hurt by them.

Answer: (A)

The Jacksons regularly receive wrong-number calls for Sara, whose phone number was misprinted in a directory. Sara contacted the Jacksons, informing them of the misprint and her correct number. The Jacksons did not lead Sara to believe that they would pass along the correct number, but it would be helpful to Sara and of no difficulty for them to do so. Thus, although it would not be wrong for the Jacksons to tell callers trying to reach Sara merely that they have dialed the wrong number, it would be laudable if the Jacksons passed along Sara's correct number. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? (A) It is always laudable to do something helpful to someone, but not doing so would be wrong only if one has led that person to believe one would do it. (B) Being helpful to someone is laudable whenever it is not wrong to do so. (C) If one can do something that would be helpful to someone else and it would be easy to do, then it is laudable and not wrong to do so. (D) Doing something for someone is laudable only if it is difficult for one to do so and it is wrong for one not to do so. (E) The only actions that are laudable are those that it would not be wrong to refrain from doing, whether or not it is difficult to do so.

Answer: (A)

The fact that people who exercise vigorously are sick less often than average does not prove that vigorous exercise prevents illness, for whether one exercises vigorously or not depends in part on one's preexisting state of health. The reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? (A) Having strong verbal skills encourages people to read more, so the fact that habitual readers tend to be verbally skilled does not prove that reading produces verbal skill. (B) Musical and mathematical skills are often produced by the same talent for perceiving abstract patterns, so the fact that some mathematicians are not skilled musicians does not prove that they lack the talent that can produce musical skill. (C) Since how people choose to dress often depends on how their friends dress, the fact that a person chooses a style of dress does not prove that he or she truly prefers that style to any other. (D) The fact that taller children often outperform other children at basketball does not show that height is a decisive advantage in basketball, for taller children tend to play basketball more frequently than do other children. (E) The fact that two diseases have similar symptoms does not establish that they have the same underlying cause, for dissimilar causes can have similar effects.

Answer: (A)

The highest mountain ranges are formed by geological forces that raise the earth's crust: two continent-bearing tectonic plates of comparable density collide and crumple upward, causing a thickening of the crust. The erosive forces of wind and precipitation inexorably wear these mountains down. Yet the highest mountain ranges tend to be found in places where these erosive forces are most prevalent. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the apparent conflict described above? (A) Patterns of extreme wind and precipitation often result from the dramatic differences in elevation commonly found in the highest mountain ranges. (B) The highest mountain ranges have less erosion-reducing vegetation near their peaks than do other mountain ranges. (C) Some lower mountain ranges are formed by a different collision process, whereby one tectonic plate simply slides beneath another of lesser density. (D) The amount of precipitation that a given region of the earth receives may vary considerably over the lifetime of an average mountain range. (E) The thickening of the earth's crust associated with the formation of the highest mountain ranges tends to cause the thickened portion of the crust to sink over time.

Answer: (A)

The mayor was not telling the truth when he said that the bridge renovation did not waste taxpayers' money. The very commission he set up to look into government waste reported that the Southern Tier Project, of which the bridge renovation was a part, was egregiously wasteful. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument A) infers that a part has certain quality merely on the grounds that the whole to which it belongs has that quality B) draws a general conclusion about government waste on the basis of a single instance of such waste C) attacks the mayor's character rather than assessing the strength of the evidence supporting the mayor's claim D) puts forward evidence that presupposes an important part of the claim that the argument attempts to support E) rejects a position on the grounds that the motives of the person who has advanced the position were not disinterested

Answer: (A)

The populations of certain species of amphibians have declined dramatically in recent years, an effect many scientists attribute to industrial pollution. However, most amphibian species' populations vary greatly from year to year because of natural variations in the weather. It is therefore impossible to be sure that the recent decline in those amphibian populations is due to industrial pollution. The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? (A) The amphibian species whose population declines have been attributed by many scientists to industrial pollution are not known to be among those species whose populations do not vary greatly as a result of natural variations in the weather. (B) The variations in amphibian species' populations that result from natural variations in the weather are not always as large as the amphibian population declines that scientists have attributed to industrial pollution. (C) Either industrial pollution or natural variations in the weather, but not both, caused the amphibian population declines that scientists have attributed to industrial pollution. (D) If industrial pollution were reduced, the decline in certain amphibian populations would be reversed, and if industrial pollution increases, the decline in certain amphibian populations will be exacerbated. (E) If industrial pollution is severe, it can create more variations in the weather than would occur naturally.

Answer: (A)

The postmodern view involves the rejection of modern assumptions about order and the universality of truth. The grand theories of the modern era are now seen as limited by the social and historical contexts in which they were elaborated. Also, the belief in order has given way to a belief in the importance of irregularity and chaos. It follows that we inhabit a world full of irregular events, and in which there are no universal truths. The argument's reasoning is questionable because the argument (A) infers that something is the case because it is believed to be the case (B) uses the term "universal" ambiguously (C) relies on the use of emotional terms to bolster its conclusion (D) uses the term "order" ambiguously (E) fails to cite examples of modern theories that purport to embody universal truths

Answer: (A)

The purpose of the physical sciences is to predict the order in which events will succeed one another. Human behavior also, can sometimes be successfully predicted. However, even successful predictions of human behavior do not provide an understanding of it, for understanding a human action requires knowing its goal, even though such knowledge of goals either cannot or need not be obtained in the case of nonhuman behavior. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the argument's conclusion? A) Successful predictions of human behavior do not constitute an understanding of that behavior B) One cannot predict an instance of human behavior without an understanding of the agent's purpose in engaging in that behavior C) In some cases, but not other, understanding an event consists in the ability to predict the occurrence of that event D) The goal of the physical sciences is to predict the order in which events will occur E) The methods used to predict human behavior must involve reference to the psychological states of human agents

Answer: (A)

The studies showing that increased consumption of fruits and vegetables may help decrease the incidence of some types of cancer do not distinguish between organically grown and nonorganically grown produce; they were conducted with produce at least some of which contained pesticide residues. The studies may also be taken as showing, therefore, that there is no increased health risk associated with eating fruits and vegetables containing pesticide residues. The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the pattern of flawed reasoning in the argument above? (A) Research shows that the incidence of certain major illnesses, including heart disease and cancer, is decreased in communities that have a modern power plant. The fact that this tendency is present whether the power plant is nuclear or not shows that there is no increased health risk associated with living next to a nuclear power plant. (B) Research has shown that there is no long-term health risk associated with a diet consisting largely of foods high in saturated fat and cholesterol if such a diet is consumed by someone with a physically active lifestyle. So, exercise is a more useful strategy for achieving cardiological health than is dietary restriction. (C) Research has shown that young people who drive motorcycles and receive one full year of extensive driving instruction are in fact less likely to become involved in accidents than those who simply pass a driving test and drive cars. This shows that there is not an inherently greater risk associated with driving a motorcycle than with driving a car. (D) Research has shown that kitchen cutting boards retain significant numbers of microbes even after careful washing, but that after washing fewer microbes are found on wooden boards than on plastic boards. There is, therefore, no greater risk of contracting microbial illnesses associated with using wooden cutting boards than with using plastic cutting boards. (E) Research shows that there is no greater longterm health benefit associated with taking vitamin supplements than with a moderate increase in the intake of fruits and vegetables. Clearly, then, there is no long-term health risk associated with the failure to take vitamin supplements, so long as enough fruits and vegetables are consumed.

Answer: (A)

The use of space-based satellites to study environmental conditions on Earth is an important development in the conservation movement's history. Environmental problems may now be observed long before they otherwise would be noticed, allowing for intervention before they reach the crisis stage. It is no wonder that environmentalists fail to consider both that spacecraft may damage the ozone layer and that this damage could be serious enough to warrant discontinuing spaceflight. The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? (A) People tend to ignore possible objectionable consequences of actions that support their activities. (B) A negative consequence of an activity may be outweighed by its great positive consequences. (C) Technology usually has at least some negative impact on the environment, even if it is largely beneficial. (D) Even well-intentioned attempts to solve problems sometimes make them worse. (E) Attempts to employ technology often have unforeseen consequences that may be negative.

Answer: (A)

The view that every person is concerned exclusively with her or his own self-interest implies that government by consent is impossible. Thus, social theorist who believe that people are concerned only with their self-interest evidently believe that aspiring to democracy is futile, since democracy is not possible in the absence of government by consent. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument A) infers merely from the fact of someone's holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief B) infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group C) infers that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole D) attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory E) fails to consider that, even if an argument's conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true

Answer: (A)

The view that every person is concerned exclusively with her or his own self-interest implies that government by consent is impossible. Thus, social theorists who believe that people are concerned only with their self-interest evidently believe that aspiring to democracy is futile, since democracy is not possible in the absence of government by consent. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument A) infers merely from the fact of someone's holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief B) infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group C) infer that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole D) attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory E) fails to consider that, even if an argument's conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true

Answer: (A)

The view that every person is concerned exclusively with her or his own self-interest implies that government by consent is impossible. Thus, social theorists who believe that people are concerned only with their self-interest evidently believe that aspiring to democracy is futile, since democracy is not possible in the absence of government by consent. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument (A) infers merely from the fact of someone's holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief (B) infers that because something is true of a group of people, it is true of each individual member of the group (C) infers that because something is true of each individual person belonging to a group, it is true of the group as a whole (D) attempts to discredit a theory by discrediting those who espouse that theory (E) fails to consider that, even if an argument's conclusion is false, some of the assumptions used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true

Answer: (A)

There are 1.3 billion cows worldwide, and this population is growing to keep pace with the demand for meat and milk. These cows produce trillions of liters of methane gas yearly, and this methane contributes to global warming. The majority of the world's cows are given relatively low-quality diets even though cows produce less methane when they receive better-quality diets. Therefore, methane production from cows could be kept in check if cows were given better-quality diets. Which one of the following, if true, adds the most support for the conclusion of the argument? (A) Cows given good-quality diets produce much more meat and milk than they would produce otherwise. (B) Carbon and hydrogen, the elements that make up methane, are found in abundance in the components of all types of cow feed. (C) Most farmers would be willing to give their cows high-quality feed if the cost of that feed were lower. (D) Worldwide, more methane is produced by cows raised for meat production than by those raised for milk production. (E) Per liter, methane contributes more to global warming than does carbon dioxide, a gas that is thought to be the most significant contributor to global warming.

Answer: (A)

Toddlers are not being malicious when they bite people. For example, a child may want a toy, and feel that the person he or she bites is preventing him or her from having it. The situation as described above most closely conforms to which one of the following generalizations? (A) Biting people is sometimes a way for toddlers to try to solve problems. (B) Toddlers sometimes engage in biting people in order to get attention from adults. (C) Toddlers mistakenly believe that biting people is viewed as acceptable behavior by adults. (D) Toddlers do not recognize that by biting people they often thwart their own ends. (E) Resorting to biting people is in some cases an effective way for toddlers to get what they want.

Answer: (A)

University president: Our pool of applicants has been shrinking over the past few years. One possible explanation of this unwelcome phenomenon is that we charge too lite for tuition and fees. Prospective students and their parents conclude that the quality of education they would receive at this institution is not as high as that offered by institutions with higher tuition. So, if we want to increase the size of our applicant pool, we need to raise our tuition and fees. The university president's argument requires the assumption that A) the proposed explanation for the decline in applications applies in this case B) the quality of a university education is dependent on the amount of tuition charged by the university C) an increase in tuition in fees at the university would guarantee a larger applicant pool D) there is no additional explanation for the university's shrinking applicant pool E) the amount charged by the university for tuition has not increased in recent years

Answer: (A)

Vague laws set vague limits on people's freedom, which makes it impossible for them to know for certain whether their actions are legal. Thus, under vague laws people cannot feel secure. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) People can feel secure only if they know for certain whether their actions are legal. (B) If people do not know for certain whether their actions are legal, then they might not feel secure. (C) If people know for certain whether their actions are legal, they can feel secure. (D) People can feel secure if they are governed by laws that are not vague. (E) Only people who feel secure can know for certain whether their actions are legal.

Answer: (A)

We ought to pay attention only to the intrinsic properties of a work of art. Its other, extrinsic properties are irrelevant to our aesthetic interactions with it. For example, when we look at a painting we should consider only what is directly presented in our experience of it. What is really aesthetically relevant, therefore, is not what a painting symbolizes, but what it directly presents to experience. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is added to the premises? (A) What an artwork symbolizes involves only extrinsic properties of that work. (B) There are certain properties of our experiences of artworks that can be distinguished as symbolic properties. (C) Only an artwork's intrinsic properties are relevant to our aesthetic interactions with it. (D) It is possible in theory for an artwork to symbolize nothing. (E) An intrinsic property of an artwork is one that relates the work to itself.

Answer: (A)

Wealth is not a good thing, for good things cause no harm at all, yet wealth is often harmful to people. Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above? (A) Alex loves to golf, and no one in the chess club loves to golf. It follows that Alex is not in the chess club. (B) Isabella must be a contented baby. She smiles a great deal and hardly ever cries, like all happy people. (C) Growth in industry is not a good thing for our town. Although the economy might improve, the pollution would be unbearable. (D) Sarah's dog is not a dachshund, for he hunts very well, and most dachshunds hunt poorly. (E) There is usually more traffic at this time of day, unless it is a holiday. But since today is not a holiday, it is surprising that there is so little traffic.

Answer: (A)

When adults toss balls very young children they generally try to toss them as slowly as possible to compensate for the children's developing coordination. But recent studies show that despite their developing coordination, children actually have an easier time catching balls that are thrown at a faster speed. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why very young children find it easier to catch balls that are thrown at a faster speed? A) Balls thrown at a faster speed, unlike balls thrown at a slower speed, trigger regions in the brain that control the tracking of objects for self-defense B) Balls that are tossed more slowly tend to have a higher arc that makes it less likely that the ball will be obscured by the body of the adult tossing it C) Adults generally find it easier to catch balls that are thrown slowly than balls that are thrown at a faster speed D) Children are able to toss balls back to the adults with more accuracy when they throw fast than when they throw the ball back more slowly E) There is a limit to how fast the balls can be tossed to the children before the children start to have more difficulty in catching them

Answer: (A)

While it is true that bees' vision is well suited to the task of identifying flowers by their colors, it is probable that flowers developed in response to the type of vision that bees have, rather than bees' vision developing in response to flower color. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above? (A) Many insects that have vision very similar to that of bees do not depend on perceiving an object's color. (B) Some flowers rely on insects other than bees. (C) The number of different species of flowers is greater than the number of different species of bees. (D) Many nonflowering plants rely on bees. (E) Present-day bees rely exclusively on flowers for their food.

Answer: (A)

Widespread use of the Internet has led to an increase in certain crimes such as information theft and to new crimes like hacking. This seems due, at least in part, to the impersonal nature of the Internet. People seem to feel more free to harm others through the Internet than in person, suggesting that people feel less morally constrained when they use the Internet. For this reason, steps should be taken to educate people about the ethical use of the Internet. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? (A) Education about the ethical use of a tool increases one's sense of moral responsibility regarding its use. (B) When new technologies emerge, society needs to formulate new ethical guidelines to cover the use of those technologies. (C) The more educated that people are about the ethical usage of the Internet, the greater the amount of harm that they can do to others. (D) People feel morally constrained from doing an action only if that action causes harm to others. (E) People who harm others through impersonal means are no less culpable for their actions than are people who harm others in person.

Answer: (A)

Worldwide, more books were sold last year than in any previous year. In particular, there were more cookbooks sold. For the first time ever, most of the cookbooks sold were not intended for beginners. Indeed, more cookbooks than ever were purchased by professional cooks. However, one of the few books available on every continent is a cookbook written for beginners, entitled "Problem-Free Cooking." Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? A) Last year there were more cookbooks sold that were not intended for beginners than in any previous year B) The best-selling cookbook last year was a cookbook that was intended for beginners C) Sales of cookbooks intended for beginners were lower last year than in previous years D) Most of the cookbooks purchased last year that were not intended for beginners were purchased by professional cooks E) "Problem-Free Cooking" sold more copies last year than did any cookbook written for professional cookbooks

Answer: (A)

A bacterial species will inevitably develop greater resistance within a few years to any antibiotics used against it, unless those antibiotics eliminate that species completely. However, no single antibiotic now on the market is powerful enough to eliminate bacterial species X completely. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the statements above? (A) It is unlikely that any antibiotic can be developed that will completely eliminate bacterial species X. (B) If any antibiotic now on the market is used against bacterial species X, that species will develop greater resistance to it within a few years. (C) The only way of completely eliminating bacterial species X is by a combination of two or more antibiotics now on the market. (D) Bacterial species X will inevitably become more virulent in the course of time. (E) Bacterial species X is more resistant to at least some antibiotics that have been used against it than it was before those antibiotics were used against it.

Answer: (B)

A professor of business placed a case-study assignment for her class on her university's computer network. She later found out that instead of reading the assignment on the computer screen, 50 out of the 70 students printed it out on paper. Thus, it is not the case that books delivered via computer will make printed books obsolete. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) Several colleagues of the professor have found that, in their non-business courses, several of their students behave similarly in relation to assignments placed on the computer network. (B) Studies consistently show that most computer users will print reading material that is more than a few pages in length rather than read it on the computer screen. (C) Some people get impaired vision from long periods of reading printed matter on computer screens, even if they use high quality computer screens. (D) Scanning technology is very poor, causing books delivered via computer to be full of errors unless editors carefully read the scanned versions. (E) Books on cassette tape have only a small fraction of the sales of printed versions of the same books, though sales of videos of books that have been turned into movies remain strong.

Answer: (B)

A recently discovered fossil, which is believed to be by some to come from Archa. lia., a species of dinosaur, can serve as evidence that birds evolved from dinosaurs only if the entire fossil is from a single animal. However, the fossil is a composite of bones collected from dinosaurs only if the entire fossil is from a single animal. However, the fossil is a composite of bones collected from various parts of the discovery site, so it does not provide evidence that birds evolved from dinosaurs. The conclusion drawn in the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) The only paleontologists who believe that the entire fossil is from a single animal are those who were already convinced that birds evolved from dinosaurs B) If the fossil is a composite, then it has pieces of more than one animal C) There are other fossils that provide evidence that birds evolved from dinosaurs D) If the entire fossil is from a single animal, then it is a well-preserved specimen E) The fossil was stolen from the discovery site and sold by someone who cared much more about personal profit than about the accuracy of the fossil record

Answer: (B)

A spy fails by being caught, and it is normally only through being caught that spies reveal their methods. The successful spy is never caught. So the available data are skewed: One can learn a lot about what makes a spy fail but very little about what makes a spy succeed. Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? (A) Of those who participated in the marathon, some succeeded and others failed. But those who did not participate at all neither succeeded nor failed, since both success and failure require participation. (B) People who are aware of their motives can articulate them. But unconscious motives are usually impossible to acknowledge. So people are more likely to hear about other people's conscious motives than their unconscious ones. (C) It is unclear whether the company's venture succeeded, because the criteria for its success are undefined. But if the venture had bad a measurable goal, then it would have been possible to judge its success. (D) A teacher is someone who teaches. In addition, there are people who teach but are not called teachers. So while the number of those called teachers is large, the number of those who teach is even larger. (E) Because someone intervened in the conflict, the effects of that intervention can be discerned. But since no one can investigate what does not happen, it is impossible to discern what would have happened had someone not intervened.

Answer: (B)

According to the "bottom-up" theory of how ecosystems are structure, the availability of edible plants is what primarily determines an ecosystem's characteristics since it determines how many herbivores the ecosystem can support, which in turn determine show many predators it can support. This theory also holds that a reduction in the number of predators will have little impact on the rest of the ecosystem. Which one of the following, if true, would provide evidence against the bottom-up theory? A) In an effort to build up the population of a rare species of money on Vahique Island, monkeys were bred in zoos and released into the wild. However, the effort failed because the trees on which the monkeys fed were also nearly extinct. B) After hunting virtually eliminated predators on Rigu Island, the population of many herbivore species increased more than tenfold, causing the density of plants to be dramatically reduced C) After many of the trees on Jaevix Island were cleared, the island's leaf-cutter ants, which require a forested ecosystem, experienced a substantial decrease in population, as did the island's aneaters D) After a new species of fern was introduced to Lisdok Island, native ferns were almost eliminated. However, this did not affect the population of the herbivores that had eaten the native ferns, since they also thrived on a diet of the new fern E) Plants that are a dietary staple of wild pigs on Sedif Island have flourished over the last 3 decades, and the population of the pigs has not changed much in spite of extensive hunting

Answer: (B)

Activist: Any member of the city council ought either to vote against the proposal or to abstain. But if all the members abstain, the matter will be decided by the city's voters. So at least one member of the city council should vote against the proposal. The conclusion of the activist's argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) If all the members of the city council abstain in the vote on the proposal, the city's voters will definitely decide in favor of the proposal B) The proposal should not be decided by the city's voters C) No members of the city council will vote in favor of the proposal D) If not ever y member of the city council abstains in the vote on the proposal, the matter will not be decided by the city's voters E) If one member of the city council ought to vote against the proposal, the other members should abstain in the vote on the proposal

Answer: (B)

Advertisement: Our oat bran cereal is the only one that has printed right on its package all of its claimed health benefits. And really healthconscious consumers have demonstrated that these health claims are true by buying our cereal since they would not have bought our cereal unless the claims were true. How do we know these consumers are really healthconscious? No really health-conscious consumer would buy food in a package that did not have accurate information about the food's health benefits printed on it. Which one of the following employs a flawed argumentative strategy that is most closely parallel to the flawed argumentative strategy in the advertisement above? (A) Greeting one's coworkers must be a polite thing to do, because people who are considered polite always greet their coworkers. The proof that these people really are polite is that they are consistently polite in their daily lives. (B) This card game must be intellectually challenging, because it is played by highly intelligent people, who play only intellectually challenging card games. In fact, these players' intelligence is demonstrated by the fact that they play this game. (C) When coffee is being chosen, Brand Z is the coffee chosen by people with highly developed taste in coffee. These people showed their highly developed taste in coffee by correctly distinguishing eight brands of coffee from each other in a taste test. (D) That jacket must have been made for a very short person, because only very short people were able to fit into it. We know that they were very short because we saw them before they tried on the jacket. (E) This painting is a poor imitation, because only people with poor eyesight mistook it for the original. That these people have poor eyesight is demonstrated by the fact that they also mistook a vase of flowers in the painting for a peacock.

Answer: (B)

Advertiser: Most TV shows depend on funding from advertisers and would be canceled without such funding. However, advertisers will not pay to have their commercials aired during a TV show unless many people watching the show buy the advertised products as a result. So if people generally fail to buy the products advertised during their favorite shows, these shows will soon be canceled. Thus, anyone who feels that a TV show is worth preserving ought to buy the products advertised during that show. The advertiser's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? (A) If a TV show that one feels to be worth preserving would be canceled unless one took certain actions, then one ought to take those actions. (B) If a TV show would be canceled unless many people took certain actions, then everyone who feels that the show is worth preserving ought to take those actions. (C) If a TV show is worth preserving, then everyone should take whatever actions are necessary to prevent that show from being canceled. (D) If one feels that a TV show is worth preserving, then one should take at least some actions to reduce the likelihood that the show will be canceled. (E) If a TV show would be canceled unless many people took certain actions, then those who feel most strongly that it is worth preserving should take those actions.

Answer: (B)

Aerobics instructor: Compared to many forms of exercise, kickboxing aerobics is highly risky. Overextending when kicking often leads to hip, knee, or lower-back injuries. Such overextension is very likely to occur when beginners try to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the aerobics instructor's statements? A) Skilled practitioners of kickboxing aerobics are unlikely to experience injuries from overextending while kicking B) To reduce the risk of injuries, beginners at kickboxing aerobics should avoid trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners C) Beginners at kickboxing aerobics will not experience injuries if they avoid trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners D) Kickboxing aerobics is more risky than forms of aerobic exercise that do not involve high kicks E) Most beginners at kickboxing aerobics experience injuries from trying to match the high kicks of more skilled practitioners

Answer: (B)

Council member: I recommend that the abandoned shoe factory be used as a municipal emergency shelter. Some council members asset that the courthouse would be a better shelter site, but they have provided no evidence of this. Thus, the shoe factory would be a better shelter site. A questionable technique used in the council member's argument is that of A) asserting that a lack of evidence against a view is proof that the view is correct B) accepting a claim simply because advocates of an opposing claim have not adequately defended their view C) attacking the proponents of the courthouse rather than addressing their argument D) attempting to persuade its audience by appealing to their fear E) attacking an argument that is not held by any actual council member

Answer: (B)

After an oil spill, rehabilitation centers were set up to save sea otters by removing oil from them. The effort was not worthwhile, however, since 357 affected live otters and 900 that had died were counted, but only 222 affected otters, or 18 percent of those counted, were successfully rehabilitated and survived. Further, the percentage of all those affected that were successfully rehabilitated was much lower still, because only a fifth of the otters that died immediately were ever found. Which one of the following, as potential challenges, most seriously calls into question evidence offered in support of the conclusion above? A) Do sea otters of species other than those represented among the otters counted exist in areas that were not affected by the oil spill? B) How is it possible to estimate, of the sea otters that died, how many were not found? C) Did the process of capturing sea otters unavoidably involve trapping and releasing some otters that were not affected by the spill? D) Were other species of wildlife besides sea otters negatively affected by the oil spill? E) What was the eventual cost, per otter rehabilitated, of the rehabilitation operation?

Answer: (B)

After being subjected to clinical tests like those used to evaluate the effectiveness of prescription drugs, a popular nonprescription herbal remedy was found to be as effective in treating painful joints as is a certain prescription drug that has been used successfully to treat this condition. The manufacturer of the herbal remedy cited the test results as proof that chemical agents are unnecessary for the successful treatment of painful joints. The test results would provide the proof that the manufacturer claims they do if which one of the following is assumed? (A) People are likely to switch from using prescription drugs to using herbal remedies if the herbal remedies are found to be as effective as the prescription drugs. (B) The herbal remedy contains no chemical agents that are effective in treating painful joints. (C) None of the people who participated in the test of the prescription drug had ever tried using an herbal remedy to treat painful joints. (D) The researchers who analyzed the results of the clinical testing of the herbal remedy had also analyzed the results of the clinical testing of the prescription drug. (E) The prescription drug treats the discomfort associated with painful joints without eliminating the cause of that condition.

Answer: (B)

After the United Nations Security Council authorized military intervention by a coalition of armed forces intended to halt civil strife in a certain country, the parliament of one UN member nation passed a resolution condemning its own prime minister for promising to commit military personnel to the action. A parliamentary leader insisted that the overwhelming vote for the resolution did not imply the parliament's opposition to the anticipated intervention; on the contrary, most members of parliament supported the UN plan. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy presented above? (A) The UN Security Council cannot legally commit the military of a member nation to armed intervention in other countries. (B) In the parliamentary leader's nation, it is the constitutional prerogative of the parliament, not of the prime minister, to initiate foreign military action. (C) The parliament would be responsible for providing the funding necessary in order to contribute military personnel to the UN intervention. (D) The public would not support the military action unless it was known that the parliament supported the action. (E) Members of the parliament traditionally are more closely attuned to public sentiment, especially with regard to military action, than are prime ministers.

Answer: (B)

All etching tools are either pin-tipped or bladed. While some bladed etching tools are used for engraving, some are not. On the other hand, all pin-tipped etching tools are used for engraving. Thus, there are more etching tools that are used for engraving than there are etching tools that are not used for engraving. The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) All tools used for engraving are etching tools as well B) There are as many pin-tipped etching tools as there are bladed etching tools C) No etching tool is both pin-tipped and bladed D) The majority of bladed etching tools are not used for engraving E) All etching tools that are not used for engraving are bladed

Answer: (B)

An analysis of the number and severity of health problems among the population of a certain community showed that elderly people who were born in the community and resided there all their lives had significantly worse health than elderly people who had moved there within the past five years. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in health between these two groups EXCEPT: (A) People who have the means to relocate tend to be in better-than-average health. (B) Although most people who have moved into the community are young, most people who have lived in the community all their lives are elderly. (C) The quality of health care available to the community is lower than that for the rest of the country. (D) Changes in one's environment tend to have a beneficial effect on one's health. (E) People in good health are more likely to move to new communities than are people in poor health.

Answer: (B)

An association between two types of conditions does not establish that conditions of one type cause conditions of the other type. Even persistent and inviolable association is inconclusive; such association is often due to conditions of both types being effects of the same kind of cause. Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle stated above? (A) Some people claim that rapid growth of the money supply is what causes inflation. But this is a naive view. What these people do not realize is that growth in the money supply and inflation are actually one and the same phenomenon. (B) People who have high blood pressure tend to be overweight. But before we draw any inferences, we should consider that an unhealthy lifestyle can cause high blood pressure, and weight gain can result from living unhealthily. (C) In some areas, there is a high correlation between ice cream consumption and the crime rate. Some researchers have proposed related third factors, but we cannot rule out that the correlation is purely coincidental. (D) People's moods seem to vary with the color of the clothes they wear. Dark colors are associated with gloomy moods, and bright colors are associated with cheerful moods. This correlation resolves nothing, however. We cannot say whether it is the colors that cause the moods or the converse. (E) Linguists propose that the similarities between Greek and Latin are due to their common descent from an earlier language. But how are we to know that the similarities are not actually due to the two languages having borrowed structures from one another, as with the languages Marathi and Telegu?

Answer: (B)

Any driver involved in an accident leading to personal injury or property damage exceeding $500 is legally required to report the accident to the department of motor vehicles, unless the driver is incapable of doing so. Ted is not required to report the accident in which he was involved as a driver. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? A) If Ted is incapable of reporting the accident, then the accident did not lead to property damage exceeding $500 B) If Ted's car was damaged in excess of $500 in the accident to the department of motor vehicles C) Someone other than Ted is legally required to report the accident to the department of motor vehicles D) If Ted is incapable of reporting the accident to the department of motor vehicles, then he was injured in the accident E) Either no one was injured in the accident or the accident did not lead to property damage exceeding $500

Answer: (B)

As a general rule, the larger a social group of primates, the more time its members spend grooming one another. The main purpose of this social grooming is the maintenance of social cohesion. Furthermore, a group size among primates tends to increase proportionally with the size of the neocortex, the seat of higher thought in the brain. Extrapolating upon the relationship between size and neocortex size, we can infer that early human groups were quite large. But unexpectedly, there is strong evidence that, apart from parents grooming their children, these humans spent virtually no time grooming one another. Which one of the following, if true, would do most to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? A) Early humans were much more likely to groom themselves than are the members of other primate species B) Early humans developed languages, which provided a more effective way of maintaining social cohesion than social grooming C) Early humans were not as extensively covered with hair as are other primates, and consequently they had less need for social grooming D) While early humans probably lived in large groups, there is strong evidence that they hunted in small groups E) Many types of primates other than humans have fairly large neocortex regions and display frequent social grooming

Answer: (B)

Astronomer: I have asserted that our solar system does not contain enough meteoroids and other cosmic debris to have caused the extensive cratering on the far side of the moon. My opponents have repeatedly failed to demonstrate the falsity of this thesis. Their evidence is simply inconclusive; thus they should admit that my thesis is correct. The reasoning in the astronomer's argument is flawed because this argument (A) criticizes the astronomer's opponents rather than their arguments (B) infers the truth of the astronomer's thesis from the mere claim that it has not been proven false (C) ignores the possibility that alternative explanations may exist for the cratering (D) presumes that the astronomer's thesis should not be subject to rational discussion and criticism (E) fails to precisely define the key word "meteoroids"

Answer: (B)

Babblers, a bird species, live in large cooperative groups. Each member attempts to defend the group by sounding a loud barklike call when it spots a predator, inciting the others to bark too. Babblers, however, are extremely well camouflaged and could usually feed safely, unnoticed by predators. These predators, indeed, generally become aware of the presence of babblers only because of their shrill barks, which continue long after most members of the group have been able to take cover and which signal the group's approximate location to the predators. Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain the babblers' strange behavior? (A) Babblers fly much faster than the predators that prey upon them. (B) Babblers' predators are generally intimidated by large numbers of babblers. (C) There is more than one type of predator that preys upon babblers. (D) Babblers' predators have very good eyesight but relatively weak hearing. (E) Animals that live in close proximity to babblers are also preyed upon by the predators that prey upon babblers.

Answer: (B)

Before 1986 physicists believed they could describe the universe in terms of four universal forces. Experiments then suggested, however, a fifth universal force of mutual repulsion between particles of matter. This fifth force would explain the occurrence in the experiments of a smaller measurement of the gravitational attraction between bodies than the established theory predicted. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument that there is a fifth universal force? (A) The extremely sophisticated equipment used for the experiments was not available to physicists before the 1970s. (B) No previously established scientific results are incompatible with the notion of a fifth universal force. (C) Some scientists have suggested that the alleged fifth universal force is an aspect of gravity rather than being fundamental in itself. (D) The experiments were conducted by physicists in remote geological settings in which factors affecting the force of gravity could not be measured with any degree of precision. (E) The fifth universal force was postulated at a time in which many other exciting and productive ideas in theoretical physics were developed.

Answer: (B)

Before their larvae hatch, each parental pair of Nicrophorus beetles buries the carcass of a small vertebrate nearby. For several days after the larvae hatch, both beetles feed their voracious larvae from the carcass, which is entirely consumed within a week. Since both parents help with feeding, larvae should benefit from both parents' presence; however, removing one parent before the hatching results in larvae that grow both larger and heavier than they otherwise would be. Which one of the following, if true, best helps to explain why removing one parent resulted in larger, heavier larvae? (A) Two beetles can find and bury a larger carcass than can a single beetle. (B) Both parents use the carcass as their own food supply for as long as they stay with the larvae. (C) Beetle parents usually take turns feeding their larvae, so that there is always one provider available and one at rest. (D) After a week, the larvae are capable of finding other sources of food and feeding themselves. (E) Two parents can defend the carcass from attack by other insects better than a single parent can.

Answer: (B)

Council member: The profits of downtown businesses will increase if more consumers live in the downtown area, and a decrease in the cost of living in the downtown area will guarantee that the number of consumers living there will increase. However, the profits of downtown businesses will not increase unless downtown traffic congestion decreases. If all the council member's statements are true, which one of the following must be true? A) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the number of consumers living in the downtown area will increase B) If the cost of living in the downtown area decreases, the profits of downtown businesses will increase C) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the cost of living in the downtown area will increase D) If downtown traffic congestion decreases, the cost of living in the downtown area will decrease E) If the profits of downtown businesses increase, the number of consumers living in the downtown area will increase

Answer: (B)

Biologist: Researchers believe that dogs are the descendants of domesticated wolves that were bred to be better companions for humans. It has recently been found that some breeds of dog are much more closely related genetically to wolves than to most other breeds of dog. This shows that some dogs are descended from wolves that were domesticated much more recently than others. Which one of the following principles underlies the biologist's argument? (A) If one breed of dog is descended from wolves that were domesticated more recently than were the wolves from which most other breeds of dog are descended, the former breed may be more closely related to wolves than those other breeds are. (B) If one breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than to another breed of dog, then the former breed of dog has more recent undomesticated wolf ancestors than the latter breed has. (C) Any breed of dog descended from wolves that were domesticated is more closely related genetically to at least some other breeds of dog than to wolves. (D) If one breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than another breed of dog is, then the former breed of dog is more closely related to wolves than to the latter breed of dog. (E) Any two breeds of dog that are more closely related to each other than to wolves are both descended from wolves that were domesticated long ago.

Answer: (B)

City council member: Despite the city's desperate need to exploit any available source of revenue, the mayor has repeatedly blocked council members' attempts to pass legislation imposing real estate development fees. It is clear that in doing so the mayor is sacrificing the city's interests to personal interests. The mayor cites figures to show that, in the current market, fees of the size proposed would significantly reduce the number of building starts and thus, on balance, result in a revenue loss to the city. But the important point is that the mayor's family is heavily involved in real estate development and thus has a strong financial interest in the matter. The reasoning in the city council member's argument is flawed because (A) the issue of the mayor's personal interest in the proposed legislation is irrelevant to any assessment of the mayor's action with respect to that legislation (B) the mayor's course of action being personally advantageous is not inconsistent with the mayor's action being advantageous for the city (C) the council member's own absence of personal interest in the proposed legislation has not been established (D) that a person or a municipality has a need for something does not, in itself, establish that that person or that municipality has a right to that thing (E) the possibility remains open that the mayor's need to avoid loss of family revenue is as desperate as the city's need to increase municipal revenue

Answer: (B)

Columnist: Shortsighted motorists learn the hard way about the wisdom of preventive auto maintenance; such maintenance almost always pays off in the long run. Our usually shortsighted city council should be praised for using similar wisdom when they hired a long-term economic development adviser. In hiring this adviser, the council made an investment that is likely to have a big payoff in several years. Other cities in this region that have devoted resources to economic development planning have earned large returns on such an investment. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the columnist's argument? A) Even some cars that receive regular preventive maintenance break down, requiring costly repairs. B) The columnist's city has a much smaller population and economy than the other cities did when they began devoting resources to economic development planning. C) Most motorists who fail to perform preventive maintenance on their cars do so for nonfinancial reasons. D) Qualified economic development advisers generally demand higher salaries than many city councils are willing to spend. E) Cities that have earned large returns due to hiring economic development advisers did not earn any returns at all in the advisers' first few years of employment.

Answer: (B)

Columnist: Shortsighted motorists learn the hard way about the wisdom of preventive auto maintenance; such maintenance almost always pays off in the long run. Our usually shortsighted city council should be praised for using similar wisdom when they hired a long-term economic development adviser. In hiring this adviser, the council made an investment that is likely to have a big payoff in several years. Other cities in this region that have devoted resources to economic development planning have earned large returns on such an investment. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the columnist's argument? (A) Even some cars that receive regular preventive maintenance break down, requiring costly repairs. (B) The columnist's city has a much smaller population and economy than the other cities did when they began devoting resources to economic development planning. (C) Most motorists who fail to perform preventive maintenance on their cars do so for nonfinancial reasons. (D) Qualified economic development advisers generally demand higher salaries than many city councils are willing to spend. (E) Cities that have earned large returns due to hiring economic development advisers did not earn any returns at all in the advisers' first few years of employment.

Answer: (B)

Columnist: Video games are not works of art. No matter how rich the aesthetic experience produced by a video game might be, it is interactive: players make choices that affect the outcome of the game. For something to be a work of art, it must produce an aesthetic experience that is controlled by the artist or artists who created the work. The conclusion of the columnist's argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Most video game creators do not intend their video games to be works of art. (B) An aesthetic experience cannot be both interactive and controlled by the artist or artists who created the work. (C) For something to be a work of art, it must produce a rich aesthetic experience. (D) Typically, video game players do not themselves create video games. (E) Players' choices that have no effect on the outcome of a video game are irrelevant to the aesthetic experience produced by that game.

Answer: (B)

Commentator: Human behavior cannot be fully understood without inquiring into nonphysical aspects of persons. As evidence of this, I submit the following: suppose that we had a complete scientific account of the physical aspects of some particular human action—every neurological, physiological, and environmental event involved. Even with all that we would obviously still not truly comprehend the action or know why it occurred. Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument's reasoning? A) No support is offered for its conclusion other than an analogy that relates only superficially to the issue at hand. B) The purported evidence that it cites in support of its conclusion presumes that the conclusion is true. C) It concludes that a proposition must be true merely on the grounds that it has not been proven false. D) It fails to indicate whether the speaker is aware of any evidence that could undermine the conclusion. E) It presumes, without providing justification, that science can provide a complete account of any physical phenomenon.

Answer: (B)

Critic: Although some people claim it is inconsistent to support freedom of speech and also support legislation limiting the amount of violence in TV programs, it is not. We can limit TV program content because the damage done by violent programs is more harmful than the decrease in freedom of speech that would result from the limitations envisioned by the legislation. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the critic's reasoning? (A) In evaluating legislation that would impinge on a basic freedom, we should consider the consequences of not passing the legislation. (B) One can support freedom of speech while at the same time recognizing that it can sometimes be overridden by other interests. (C) When facing a choice between restricting freedom of speech or not, we must decide based on what would make the greatest number of people the happiest. (D) If the exercise of a basic freedom leads to some harm, then the exercise of that freedom should be restricted. (E) In some circumstances, we should tolerate regulations that impinge on a basic freedom.

Answer: (B)

Critic: It is common to argue that there is a distinction between "literary" and "genre" fiction. The first should be interpreted, so this argument goes, while the second is merely a source of easy pleasure. But this is a specious distinction-not because every work should be interpreted, but because no work should be. When we evaluate a work principally for its themes and ideas, we cut ourselves off from the work's emotional impact Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the critic's argument by the claim that when we evaluate a work principally for its themes and ideas, we cut ourselves off from the work's emotional impact? (A) It states the conclusion. (B) It is offered as support for the conclusion. (C) It attempts to spell out the practical implications of the critic's conclusion. (D) It attempts to explain the nature of the distinction that the critic considers. (E) It attempts to anticipate an objection to the critic's conclusion.

Answer: (B)

Critic: The more a novel appeals to the general public, the more money its author will make from it. However, since any serious novelist cares about literary style, no serious novelist is motivated primarily by the desire to make money. The conclusion of the critic's argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A)No novel written by a serious novelist in fact appeals to the general public. B) No novelist who cares about literary style is motivated primarily by the desire to make money. C) No novelist whose novels exhibit good literary style is motivated primarily by the desire to make money. D) Any novelist who is motivated primarily by the desire to make money writes novels that in fact appeal to the general public. E) Any novel that in fact appeals to the general public was written by a novelist motivated primarily by the desire to make money.

Answer: (B)

Dana: It is wrong to think that the same educational methods should be used with all children. Many children have been raised in more communal environments than others and would therefore learn better through group, rather than individual, activities. A child's accustomed style of learning should always dictate what method is used. Pat: No, not always. The flexibility of being able to work either on one's own or in a group is invaluable in a world where both skills are in demand. The conversation lends the most support to the claim that Dana and Pat disagree on which one of the following? A) All children can learn valuable skills from individual activities B) All children should learn to adapt to various educational methods C) Many children would learn better through group rather than individual, activities D) The main purpose of education is to prepare children to meet the demands of the job market as adults E) It is sometimes desirable to tailor educational methods to the way a child learns best

Answer: (B)

Despite increasing international efforts to protect the natural habitats of endangered species of animals, the rate at which these species are becoming extinct continues to rise. It is clear that these efforts are wasted. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? (A) Scientists are better able to preserve the habitats of endangered species now than ever before. (B) Species that would have become extinct have been saved due to the establishment of animal refuges. (C) Scientists estimate that at least 2000 species become extinct every year. (D) Many countries do not recognize the increased economic benefit of tourism associated with preserved natural habitats. (E) Programs have been proposed that will transfer endangered species out of habitats that are in danger of being destroyed.

Answer: (B)

Each of the smallest particles in the universe has an elegantly simple structure. Since these particles compose the universe, we can conclude that the universe itself has an elegantly simple structure. Each of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning similar to that in the argument above EXCEPT: (A) Each part of this car is nearly perfectly engineered. Therefore this car is nearly perfect, from an engineering point of view. (B) Each part of this desk is made of metal. Therefore this desk is made of metal. (C) Each brick in this wall is rectangular. Therefore this wall is rectangular. (D) Each piece of wood in this chair is sturdy. Therefore this chair is sturdy. (E) Each sentence in this novel is well constructed. Therefore this is a well-constructed novel.

Answer: (B)

Earthworms, vital to the health of soil, prefer soil that is approximately neutral on the acid-to-alkaline scale. Since decomposition of dead plants makes the top layer of soil highly acidic, application of crushed limestone, which is highly alkaline, to the soil's surface should make the soil more attractive to earthworms. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) As far as soil health is concerned, aiding the decomposition of dead plants is the most important function performed by earthworms. (B) After its application to the soil's surface, crushed limestone stays in the soil's top layer long enough to neutralize some of the top layer's acidity. (C) Crushed limestone contains available calcium and magnesium, both of which are just as vital as earthworms to healthy soil. (D) By itself, acidity of soil does nothing to hasten decomposition of dead plants. (E) Alkaline soil is significantly more likely to benefit from an increased earthworm population than is highly acidic soil.

Answer: (B)

Student: Before completing my research paper, I want to find the book from which I copied a passage to quote in the paper. Without the book, I will be unable to write an accurate citation, and without an accurate citation, I will be unable to include the quotation. Hence, since the completed paper will be much better with the quotation that without, _______ Which one of the following most logically completes the student's argument? A) I will have to include an inaccurate citation B) I will be unable to complete my research paper C) if I do not find the book, my research paper will suffer D) if I do not find the book, I will include the quotation without an accurate citation E) if I do not find the book, I will be unable to complete my research paper

Answer: (C)

Economist: ChesChem, a chemical manufacturer located in Chester, used natural gas for its enormous energy needs. Currently, natural gas costs twice as much in Chester as it does in Tilsen. If the cost of natural gas in Chester becomes more than twice that in Tilsen, ChesChem will move its manufacturing operations to Tilsen. So if the cost of natural gas in Chester increases at all, ChesChem will move its manufacturing operations to Tilsen. The Economist's argument requires assuming that: A) ChesChem spends far more on natural gas than any other expense B) the price of natural gas in Tilsen will not increase C) ChesChem would not be profitable if its energy costs increased D) the only benefit ChesChem would receive by moving its manufacturing operations to Tilsen is lower energy costs E) ChesChem will not move its manufacturing operations to Tilsen unless the price of natural gas in Chester increases

Answer: (B)

Economist: Countries with an uneducated population are destined to be weak economically and politically, whereas those with an educated population have governments that display a serious financial commitment to public education. So any nation with a government that has made such a commitment will avoid economic and political weakness. The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the economist's argument? (A) Animal species with a very narrow diet will have more difficulty surviving if the climate suddenly changes, but a species with a broader diet will not; for changes in the climate can remove the traditional food supply. (B) People incapable of empathy are not good candidates for public office, but those who do have the capacity for empathy are able to manipulate others easily; hence, people who can manipulate others are good candidates for public office. (C) People who cannot give orders are those who do not understand the personalities of the people to whom they give orders. Thus, those who can give orders are those who understand the personalities of the people to whom they give orders. (D) Poets who create poetry of high quality are those who have studied traditional poetry, because poets who have not studied traditional poetry are the poets most likely to create something shockingly inventive, and poetry that is shockingly inventive is rarely fine poetry. (E) People who dislike exercise are unlikely to lose weight without sharply curtailing their food intake; but since those who dislike activity generally tend to avoid it, people who like to eat but dislike exercise will probably fail to lose weight.

Answer: (B)

Editorial: The government claims that the country's nuclear power plants are entirely safe and hence that the public's fear of nuclear accidents at these plants is groundless. The government also contends that its recent action to limit the nuclear industry's financial liability in the case of nuclear accidents at power plants is justified by the need to protect the nuclear industry from the threat of bankruptcy. But even the government says that unlimited liability poses such a threat only if injury claims can be sustained against the industry; and the government admits that for such claims to be sustained, injury must result from a nuclear accident. The public's fear, therefore, is well founded. 21. If all of the statements offered in support of the editorial's conclusion correctly describe the government's position, which one of the following must also be true on the basis of those statements? (A) The government's claim about the safety of the country's nuclear power plants is false. (B) The government's position on nuclear power plants is inconsistent. (C) The government misrepresented its reasons for acting to limit the nuclear industry's liability. (D) Unlimited financial liability in the case of nuclear accidents poses no threat to the financial security of the country's nuclear industry. (E) The only serious threat posed by a nuclear accident would be to the financial security of the nuclear industry.

Answer: (B)

Editorial: The town would not need to spend as much as it does on removing trash if all town residents sorted their household garbage. However, while telling residents that they must sort their garbage would get some of them to do so, many would resent the order and refuse to comply. The current voluntary system, then, is to be preferred, because it costs about as much as a nonvoluntary system would and it does not engender nearly a much resentment. The contention that the town would not have to spend as much as it does on removing trash if all town residents sorted their garbage plays which one of the following roles in the editorial's argument? A) It is a claim that the editorial is trying to show is false B) It is a fact granted by the editorial that lends some support to an alternative to the practice that the editorial defends as preferable C) It is an example of a difficulty facing the claim that the editorial is attempting to refute D) It is a premise that the editorial's argument relies on in reaching its conclusion E) It is the conclusion that the editorial's argument purports to establish

Answer: (B)

Editorial: supporters of proposed law that would require bicyclists to wear helmets are seriously misguided. The number of pedestrians who die yearly as a result of accidents involving automobiles is five times the number of deaths resulting from bicycle accidents, and drunken driving exacts a much higher toll than both combined. Yet there are no calls for a ban on alcohol or walking down the street. Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of flawed reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? A) It is silly to recommend that test pilots give up cigarette smoking. Their risk of death from other causes is so high that it is unlikely they will live long enough to develop lung cancer. B) It is foolish to require lab workers to wear safety goggles when working with acids and other dangerous liquids. No one suggests that people stop eating or socializing, even though more people become ill due to food poisoning and contagious diseases than are injured in laboratory accidents C) The proposal to introduce foreign language study to students in their first years of school is misguided. Young students should master their own language first and learn basic mathematics before studying a foreign language. D) The recommendation that this company replace the radio communication system in our fleet of trucks with an entirely new system is unwise. Most of our are scheduled to be replaced by the end of next year, so updating the communication system then would be more cost effective E) The mayor's directive that all city employees be tested for Lyme disease is inefficient. Not one case of the disease has been reported among office workers. The directive should apply only to those employees who work outside and may have been exposed to the ticks that carry the disease.

Answer: (B)

Editorialist: The positions advanced by radical environmentalists often contain hypotheses that are false and proposals that are economically infeasible. But there is a positive role to be played even by these extremists, for those social and political inertia that attends environmental issues is so stubborn that even small areas of progress can be made only if the populace fears environmental disaster, however untenable the reasons for those fears may be. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the editorialist's argument? A) The little progress that has been made in improving the environment is mainly due to the fear created by radical environmentalists B) Radical environmentalists, by promoting their views, stimulate progress on environmental issues C) Social and political inertia is most effectively overcome by an extremely populace, regardless of whether its fears are well-founded D) Radical environmentalists often put forth untenable positions in order to produce the fear that is required to bring about moderate reforms E) Radical environmentalists advocate positions without regard for factual support or economic feasibility

Answer: (B)

Farmers who use genetically engineered plants on a large scale are at great financial risk because at any time a study could be published that would undermine what little confidence consumers have in genetically engineered foods. It is unwise for farmers to grow such crops. They do not fetch a high enough price to compensate for the risk. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the argument as a whole? (A) A farmer who grows genetically engineered crops on a large scale is taking a financial risk. (B) It is not prudent for a farmer to grow genetically engineered crops. (C) The price paid for genetically engineered crops does not compensate for the financial risk farmers incur by growing them. (D) A study could come out at any time that would greatly undermine public confidence in genetically engineered foods. (E) Consumers have very little confidence in genetically engineered foods.

Answer: (B)

If Suarez is not the most qualified of the candidates for sheriff, then Anderson is. Thus, if the most qualified candidate is elected and Suarez is not elected, then Anderson will be. The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? A) If the excavation contract does not go to the lowest bidder, then it will go to Caldwell. B) If the lowest bidder on the sanitation contract is not Dillon, then it is Ramsey. So if the contract goes to the lowest bidder and it does not go to Dillon, then it will go to Ramsey. C) If Kapshaw is not awarded the landscaping contract, then Johnson will be. So if the contract goes to the lowest bidder and it does not go to Johnson, then it will go to Kapshaw D) If Holihan did not submit the lowest bid on the maintenance contract, then neither did Easton. So if the contract does not go to Easton, then it will not go to Holihan eihter. E) If Perez is not the lowest bidder on the catering contract, then Sullivan is. So if Sullivan does not get the contract and Perez does not get it either, then it will not be awarded to the lowest bidder.

Answer: (B)

If a child is to develop healthy bones, the child's diet must include sufficient calcium. It therefore follows that the diets of children who do not develop healthy bones do not include sufficient calcium. Flawed reasoning in which one of the following most closely parallels the flawed reasoning in the argument above? (A) If bread is to have a firm crust, it must be baked at the right temperature. It therefore follows that bread that is not baked at the right temperature will not have a firm crust. (B) A cake must contain the right amount of flour in order to taste good. It therefore follows that cakes that do not taste good do not contain the right amount of flour. (C) The Bake-a-Thon, which is open to contestants of all ages, has never been won by a person under the age of 30. It therefore follows that the winner of this year's Bake-a-Thon will not be under the age of 30. (D) Both yeast and baking powder can cause sweet rolls to rise. It therefore follows that yeast can always be substituted for baking powder in a recipe for sweet rolls. (E) In recipe contests, there are always more contestants in the pie category than there are in the cake category. It therefore follows that contestants generally have a better chance of winning in the cake category than in the pie category

Answer: (B)

If one wants to succeed, then one should act as though one were genuinely confident about one's abilities, even if one actually distrusts one's skills. Success is much more easily obtained by those who genuinely believe themselves capable of succeeding than by those filled with self-doubts. Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) Those who convince others that they are capable of succeeding usually have few self-doubts. (B) Genuine confidence is often a by-product of pretended self-confidence. (C) Success is usually more a matter of luck or determination than of skill. (D) Many people who behave in a self-confident manner are genuinely confident about their abilities. (E) Self-doubt can hamper as well as aid the development of the skills necessary for success.

Answer: (B)

In a study, pairs of trained dogs were placed side by side and given a command such as "sit." After both obeyed the command, one dog was given a treat while its partner was given no reward at all. Over time, the dogs who went unrewarded began to disobey the command. This shows that dogs have an aversion to being treated unfairly. Which one of the following would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the argument? A) Were dogs who were accustomed to receiving regular rewards prior to the study more inclined to obey the command? B) Is there a decline in obedience if rewards are withheld from both dogs in the pair? C) Were dogs who received treats in one trial used as dogs that did not receive treats in other trials? D) were there any cases in which the dog who was given a reward became more inclined to obey the command? E) How many repetitions were required before the unrewarded dogs began to disobey the command?

Answer: (B)

In an experiment, two groups of mice - one whose diet included ginkgo extract and one that had a normal diet - were taught to navigate a maze. The mice whose diet included ginkgo were more likely to remember to navigate the maze the next day than were the other mice. However, the ginkgo may not have directly enhanced memory. Other studies have found that ginkgo reduces stress in mice, and lowering very high stress levels is known to improve recall. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? A) The doses of ginkgo in the diet of the mice in the experiment were significantly higher than the doses that have been shown to reduce stress in mice B) Neither the mice who received the ginkgo nor the other mice in the experiment exhibited physiological signs of the higher-than-normal stress C) Some chemical substances that reduce stress in mice also at least temporarily impair their memory D) Scientists have not yet determined which substances in ginkgo are responsible for reducing stress in mice E) The mice who received the ginkgo took just as long as the other mice to learn to navigate the maze

Answer: (B)

In an experiment, two groups of mice---one whose diet included ginkgo extract and one that had a normal diet---were taught to navigate a maze. The mice whose diet included ginkgo were more likely to remember how to navigate the maze the next day then were the other mice. However, the ginkgo may not have directly enhanced memory. Other studies have found that ginkgo reduces stress in mice, and lowering very high stress levels is known to improve recall. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? A) the doses of ginkgo in the diet of the mice in the experiment were significantly higher than the doses that have been shown to reduce stress in mice B) neither the mice who received the ginkgo nor the other mice in the experiment exhibited physiological signs of higher-than-normal stress C) some chemical substances that reduce stress in mice also at least temporarily impair their memory D) scientists have not yet determined which substances in ginkgo are responsible for reducing stress in mice E) the mice who received the ginkgo took just as long as the other mice to learn to navigate the maze

Answer: (B)

In criminal proceedings, defense attorneys occasionally attempt to establish that a suspect was not present at the commission of a crime by comparing the suspect's DNA to the DNA of blood or hair samples taken from the scene of the crime. Although every person's DNA is unique, DNA tests often fail to distinguish among DNA samples taken from distinct individuals. Hence, it is a mistake to exonerate a suspect simply because that person's DNA did not match the DNA samples taken from the scene of the crime. Which one of the following is an error in the reasoning above? (A) It assumes without warrant that the use of physical evidence in identifying suspects is never mistaken. (B) It confuses a test that incorrectly identifies DNA samples as coming from the same person with a test that incorrectly shows as coming from different persons samples that come from a single person. (C) It generalizes about the reliability of all methods used to identify those involved in the commission of a crime on the basis of results that pertain to only a few such methods. (D) It relies on experimental data derived from DNA testing that have not been shown to hold under nonexperimental conditions. (E) It fails to demonstrate that physical evidence taken from the scene of a crime is the only sort of evidence that should be admitted in criminal court proceedings.

Answer: (B)

It is said that people should accept themselves as they are instead of being dissatisfied with their own abilities. But this is clearly a bad principle if the goal is a society whose citizens are genuinely happy, for no one can be genuinely happy if he or she is not pursuing personal excellence and is unwilling to undergo personal change of any kind. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) Those who are willing to change will probably find genuine happiness. (B) People who are not dissatisfied with themselves are less likely than others to pursue personal excellence. (C) Personal excellence cannot be acquired by those who lack genuine confidence in their own abilities. (D) People are justified in feeling content with themselves when they have achieved some degree of personal excellence. (E) Happiness is not genuine unless it is based on something that is painful to obtain.

Answer: (B)

Journalist: A manufacturers' trade group that has long kept its membership list secret inadvertently sent me a document listing hundreds of manufacturing companies. A representative of the trade group later confirmed that every company listed in the document does indeed belong to the trade group. Because Bruch Industries is not listed on the document, it is evidently not a member of the trade group. The journalist's reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the journalist (A) gives no reason to think that Bruch Industries would want to belong to the trade group (B) does not present any evidence that the document names every member of the trade group (C) does not explain how it is that the trade group could have inadvertently sent out a secret document (D) presents no reason why Bruch Industries would not want its membership in the trade group to be known (E) takes for granted the accuracy of a statement by a representative who had a reason to withhold information

Answer: (B)

Journalist: Recent studies have demonstrated that a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette will typically display significantly better short-term memory skills than a nonsmoker, whether or not the nonsmoker has also just smoked a cigarette for the purposes of the study. Moreover, the majority of those smokers who exhibit this superiority in shortterm memory skills will do so for at least eight hours after having last smoked. If the journalist's statements are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: (A) The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are usually substantially worse than the short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has not recently smoked a cigarette. (B) The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette. (C) The short-term memory skills exhibited by a nonsmoker who has just smoked a cigarette are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has not smoked for more than eight hours. (D) A regular smoker who, immediately after smoking a cigarette, exhibits short-term memory skills no better than those typically exhibited by a nonsmoker is nevertheless likely to exhibit superior short-term memory skills in the hours following a period of heavy smoking. (E) The short-term memory skills exhibited by a regular smoker who last smoked a cigarette five hours ago are typically superior to those exhibited by a regular smoker who has just smoked a cigarette.

Answer: (B)

Lawyer: Did Congleton assign the best available graphic artist to the project? Witness: Yes. Lawyer: And the best writer? Witness: Yes. Lawyer: In fact everyone she assigned to work on the project was top notch? Witness: That's true. Lawyer: So, you lied to the court when you said, earlier, that Congleton wanted the project to fail? Each of the following accurately describes a flaw in the lawyer's reasoning displayed above EXCEPT: (A) It takes for granted that Congleton was not forced to assign the people she did to the project. (B) It takes for granted that the project could fail only if Congleton wanted it to fail. (C) It ignores the possibility that Congleton knew that the people assigned to the project would not work well together. (D) It ignores the possibility that the witness failed to infer from known facts what should have been inferred and therefore was not lying. (E) It ignores the possibility that Congleton failed to allot enough time or resources to the project team.

Answer: (B)

Medications with an unpleasant taste are generally produced only in tablet, capsule, or soft-gel form. The active ingredient in medication M is a waxy substance that cannot tolerate the heat used to manufacture tablets because it has a low melting point. So, since the company developing M does not have soft-gel manufacturing technology and manufactures all its medications itself, M will most likely be produced in capsule form. The conclusion is most strongly supported by the reasoning in the argument if which one of the following is assumed? A) Medication M can be produced in liquid form B) Medication M has an unpleasant taste C) No medication is produced in both capsule and soft-gel form D) Most medications with a low melting point are produced in soft-gel form E) Medications in capsule form taste less unpleasant than those in tablet or soft-gel form

Answer: (B)

Members of large-animal species must consume enormous amounts of food to survive. When climatic conditions in their environment deteriorate, such animals are often unable to find enough food. This fact helps make large-animal species more vulnerable to extinction than small-animal species, which can maintain greater populations on smaller amounts of food. The statements above, if true, most support which one of the following? (A) The maximum population size that an animal species could maintain on any given amount of food is the main factor determining whether that species will become extinct. (B) The vulnerability of an animal species to extinction depends at least in part on how much food individuals of that species must consume to survive. (C) When conditions deteriorate in a given environment, no small-animal species will become extinct unless some large-animal species also becomes extinct. (D) Within any given species, the prospects for survival of any particular individual depend primarily on the amount of food that individual requires. (E) Whenever climatic conditions in a given environment are bad enough to threaten large animal species with extinction, small-animal species are able to find enough food to survive

Answer: (B)

Members of large-animal species must consumer enormous amounts of food to survive. When climatic conditions in their environment deteriorate, such animals are often unable to find enough food. This fact helps make large-animal species more vulnerable to extinction than small-animal species, which can maintain greater populations on smaller amounts of food. The statements above, if true, most support which one of the following? A) The maximum population size that an animal species could maintain on any given amount of food is the main factor determining whether that species will become extinct B) The vulnerability of an animal species to extinction depends at least in part on how much food individuals of that species must consume to survive C) When conditions deteriorate in a given environment, no small-animal species will become extinct unless some large-animal species also becomes extinct D) Within any given species, the prospects for survival of any particular individual depend primarily on the amount of food that individual requires E) Whenever climatic conditions in a given environment are bad enough to threaten large-animal species with extinction, small-animal species are able to find enough food to survive

Answer: (B)

Microbiologist: Because heavy metals are normally concentrated in sewage sludge during the sewage treatment process, the bacteria that survive in the sludge have evolved the unusual ability to resist heavy-metal poisoning. The same bacteria also show a strong resistance to antibiotics. This suggests that the bacteria's exposure to the heavy metals in the sewage sludge has somehow promoted their resistance to antibiotics. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the microbiologist's argument? (A) Most bacteria that are not resistant to antibiotics are not resistant to heavy-metal poisoning either. (B) Bacteria that live in sewage sludge that is free of heavy metals, but is in other respects similar to normal sewage, are generally resistant to neither heavy-metal poisoning nor antibiotics. (C) Antibiotic resistance of bacteria that survive in sewage sludge in which heavy metals are concentrated contributes to their resistance to heavy-metal poisoning. (D) Sewage sludge that contains high concentrations of heavy metals almost always contains significant concentrations of antibiotics. (E) Many kinds of bacteria that do not live in sewage sludge are resistant to both heavy-metal poisoning and antibiotics.

Answer: (B)

Millions of homes are now using low-energy lighting, but millions more have still to make the switch, a fact that the government and the home lighting industry are eager to change. Although low-wattage bulbs cost more per bulb than normal bulbs, their advantages to the homeowner are enormous, and therefore everyone should use low-wattage bulbs. Information about which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument? (A) the actual cost of burning low-wattage bulbs compared to that of burning normal bulbs (B) the profits the home lighting industry expects to make from sales of low-wattage bulbs (C) the specific cost of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb (D) the opinion of current users of low-wattage bulbs as to their effectiveness (E) the average life of a low-wattage bulb compared with that of a normal bulb

Answer: (B)

Music professor: Because rap musicians can work alone in a recording studio, they need not accommodate supporting musicians' wishes. Further, learning to rap is not as formal a process as learning an instrument. Thus, rap is an extremely individualistic and nontraditional musical form Music critic: But rap appeals to tradition by using bits of older songs. Besides, the themes and styles of rap developed into a tradition. And successful rap musicians do not perform purely idiosyncratically but conform their work to the preferences of the public The music's critic's response to the music professor's argument A) challenges it by offering evidence against one of the stated premises on which its conclusion concerning rap music is based B) challenges its conclusion concerning rap music by offering certain additional observations that the music professor does not take into account in his argument C) challenges the grounds on which the music professor generalizes from the particular context of rap music to the broader context of musical tradition and individuality D) challenges it by offering an alternative explanation of phenomena that the music professor cites as evidence for his thesis about rap music E) challenges each of a group of claims about tradition and individuality in music that the music professor gives as evidence is his argument

Answer: (B)

My father likes turnips, but not potatoes, which he says are tasteless. So it is not true that whoever likes potatoes likes turnips. The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely resembles that in which one of the following? (A) This book is not a paperback, but it is expensive. So it is not true that some paperbacks are expensive. (B) Although this recently published work of fiction has more than 75 pages, it is not a novel. Thus, it is not the case that all novels have more than 75 pages. (C) All ornate buildings were constructed before the twentieth century. This house is ornate, so it must be true that it was built before the twentieth century. (D) Erica enjoys studying physics, but not pure mathematics, which she says is boring. So it is not true that whoever enjoys studying physics enjoys studying pure mathematics. (E) People who do their own oil changes are car fanatics. My next-door neighbors are car fanatics, so it follows that they do their own oil changes.

Answer: (B)

Numismatist: In medieval Spain, most gold coins were minted from gold mined in West Africa, in the area that is now Senegal. The gold mined in this region was the purest known. Its gold content of 92 percent allowed coins to be minted without refining the gold, and indeed coins minted from this source of gold can be recognized because they have that gold content. The mints could refine gold and produced other kinds of coins that had much purer gold content, but the Senegalese gold was never refined. Which one of the following inferences about gold coins minted in medieval Spain is most strongly supported by the information the numismatist gives? (A) Coins minted from Senegalese gold all contained the same weight, as well as the same proportion, of gold. (B) The source of some refined gold from which coins were minted was unrefined gold with a gold content of less than 92 percent. (C) Two coins could have the same monetary value even though they differed from each other in the percentage of gold they contained. (D) No gold coins were minted that had a gold content of less than 92 percent. (E) The only unrefined gold from which coins could be minted was Senegalese gold.

Answer: (B)

On the basis of relatively minor morphological differences, some scientists suggest that Neanderthals should be considered a species distinct from CroMagnons, the forerunners of modern humans. Yet the fact that the tools used by these two groups of hominids living in different environments were of exactly the same type indicates uncanny behavioral similarities, for only if they faced the same daily challenges and met them in the same way would they have used such similar tools. This suggests that they were members of the same species, and that the morphological differences are due merely to their having lived in different environments. If the statements above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: (A) Morphological differences between the members of two populations do not guarantee that the two populations do not belong to the same species. (B) The daily challenges with which an environment confronts its inhabitants are unique to that environment. (C) There are greater morphological differences between Cro-Magnons and modern humans than there are between Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals. (D) Use of similar tools is required if members of two distinct groups of tool-making hominids are to be considered members of the same species. (E) Through much of their coexistence, Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals were geographically isolated from one another.

Answer: (B)

One child pushed another child from behind, injuring the second child. The first child clearly understands the difference between right and wrong, so what was done was wrong if it was intended to injure the second child. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? A) An action that is intended to harm another person is wrong only if the person who performed the action understands the difference between right and wrong. B) It is wrong for a person who understands the difference between right and wrong intentionally harm another person C) Any act that is wrong is done with the intention of causing harm D) An act that harms another person is wrong if the person who did it understands the difference between right and wrong and did not think about whether the act would injure the other person E) A person who does not understand the difference between right and wrong does not bear any responsibility for harming another person

Answer: (B)

Opposition leader: Our country has the least fair court system of any country on the continent and ought not to be the model for others. Thus, our highest court is the least fair of any on the continent and ought not to be emulated by other countries. The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the opposition leader's argument? (A) The residents of medium-sized towns are, on average, more highly educated than people who do not live in such towns. Therefore, Maureen, who was born in a medium-sized town, is more highly educated than Monica, who has just moved to such a town. (B) At a certain college, either philosophy or engineering is the most demanding major. Therefore, either the introductory course in philosophy or the introductory course in engineering is the most demanding introductory-level course at that college. (C) For many years its superior engineering has enabled the Lawson Automobile Company to make the best racing cars. Therefore, its passenger cars, which use many of the same parts, are unmatched by those of any other company. (D) Domestic cats are closely related to tigers. Therefore, even though they are far smaller than tigers, their eating habits are almost the same as those of tigers. (E) If a suit of questionable merit is brought in the first district rather than the second district, its chances of being immediately thrown out are greater. Therefore, to have the best chance of winning the case, the lawyers will bring the suit in the second district.

Answer: (B)

People often praise poems for their truth. But to argue that expressing true propositions contributes to the aesthetic merit of a poem is misguided. Most of the commonplace beliefs of most people are true. Whatever the basis of poetic excellence is, it must certainly be rare rather than common. Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that whatever the basis of poetic excellence is, it must certainly be rare rather than common? A) it is the overall conclusion drawn by the argument B) It is a premise that, in conjunction with another premise, is intended to support the argument's conclusion C) It is a premise offered as the sole support for the argument's conclusion D) It is background information that, in itself, does not provide support for the argument's conclusion E) It is a proposition for which the argument seeks to advance an explanation

Answer: (B)

People who browse the web for medical information often cannot discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery. Much of the quackery is particularly appealing to readers with no medical background because it is usually written more clearly than scientific papers. Thus, people who rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good. Which one of the following is an assumption the argument requires? A) People who browse the web for medical information typically do so in an attempt to diagnose their medical conditions B) People who attempt to diagnose their medical conditions are likely to do themselves more harm than good unless they rely exclusively on scientifically valid information C) People who have sufficient medical knowledge to discriminate between scientifically valid information and quackery will do themselves no harm if they rely on the web when attempting to diagnose their medical conditions D) Many people who browse the web assume that information is not scientifically valid unless it is clearly written E) People attempting to diagnose their medical conditions will do themselves more harm than good only if they rely on quackery instead of scientifically valid information

Answer: (B)

People who have specialized knowledge about a scientific or technical issue are systematically excluded from juries for trials where that issue is relevant. Thus, trial by jury is not a fair means of settling disputes involving such issues. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) The more complicated the issue being litigated, the less likely it is that a juror without specialized knowledge of the field involved will be able to comprehend the testimony being given. (B) The more a juror knows about a particular scientific or technical issue involved in a trial, the more likely it is that the juror will be prejudiced in favor of one of the litigating parties before the trial begins. (C) Appointing an impartial arbitrator is not a fair means of settling disputes involving scientific or technical issues, because arbitrators tend to favor settlements in which both parties compromise on the issues. (D) Experts who give testimony on scientific or technical issues tend to hedge their conclusions by discussing the possibility of error. (E) Expert witnesses in specialized fields often command fees that are so high that many people involved in litigation cannot afford their services.

Answer: (B)

People who say that Dooney County is flat are clearly wrong. On flat land, soil erosion by water is not a problem. Consequently, farmers whose land is flat do not build terraces to prevent erosion. Yet I hear that the farms in Dooney County are dotted with terraces. 12. The author's conclusion in the passage depends on the assumption that (A) the only cause of soil erosion is water (B) there are terraces on farmland in Dooney County which were built to prevent soil erosion (C) terraces of the kind found on farmland in Dooney County have been shown to prevent soil erosion (D) on flat land there is no soil erosion (E) the only terraces in Dooney County are on farmland

Answer: (B)

Philosopher: An event is intentional if it is a human action performed on the basis of a specific motivation. An event is random if it is not performed on the basis of a specific motivation and it is not explainable by normal physical processes. Which one of the following inferences conforms most closely to the philosopher's position? (A) Tarik left the keys untouched on the kitchen counter, but he did not do so on the basis of a specific motivation. Therefore, the keys' remaining on the kitchen counter was a random event. (B) Ellis tore the envelope open in order to read its contents, but the envelope was empty. Nevertheless, because Ellis acted on the basis of a specific motivation, tearing the envelope open was an intentional event. (C) Judith's hailing a cab distracted a driver in the left lane. She performed the action of hailing the cab on the basis of a specific motivation, so the driver's becoming distracted was an intentional event. (D) Yasuko continued to breathe regularly throughout the time that she was asleep. This was a human action, but it was not performed on the basis of a specific motivation. Therefore, her breathing was a random event. (E) Henry lost his hold on the wrench and dropped it because the handle was slippery. This was a human action and is explainable by normal physical processes, so it was an intentional event.

Answer: (B)

Philosopher: Groups are not the type of entity that can be worthy of praise or blame. Blameworthiness implies conscience and agency. Nations do not have consciences. Families are not agents. Hence, any ascription of praise or blame to a group must be translated into some statement about individuals if we are to evaluate it properly. Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the philosopher's argument by the claim that nations do not have consciences? A) It is an intermediate conclusion offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion. B) It is offered as support for an intermediate conclusion that is in turn offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion. C) It is cited as an implication of the main conclusion drawn in the argument. D) It is cited as an instance of a general conclusion drawn in the argument. E) It is the main conclusion drawn in the argument.

Answer: (B)

Politician: The current crisis in mathematics education must be overcome if we are to remain competitive in the global economy. Alleviating this crisis requires the employment of successful teaching methods. No method of teaching a subject can succeed that does not get students to spend a significant amount of time outside of class studying that subject. Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? (A) If students spend a significant amount of time outside of class studying mathematics, the current crisis in mathematics education will be overcome. (B) The current crisis in mathematics education will not be overcome unless students spend a significant amount of time outside of class studying mathematics. (C) Few subjects are as important as mathematics to the effort to remain competitive in the global economy. (D) Only if we succeed in remaining competitive in the global economy will students spend a significant amount of time outside of class studying mathematics. (E) Students' spending a significant amount of time outside of class studying mathematics would help us to remain competitive in the global economy

Answer: (B)

If this parking policy is unpopular with the faculty, then we should modify it. If it is unpopular among students, we should adopt a new policy. And, it is bound to be unpopular either with the faculty or among students. If the statements above are true, which one of the following must be true? A) We should attempt to popularize this parking policy among either the faculty or students B) We should modify this parking policy only if this will not reduce its popularity among students C) We should modify this parking policy if modification will not reduce its popularity with the faculty D) If this parking policy is popular among students, then we should adopt a new policy E) If this parking policy is popular with the faculty, then we should adopt a new policy

Answer: (E)

Psychiatrist: Psychological stress is known both to cause negative emotions and to impair physical health. This suggests that overcoming such negative emotions when they arise could cause one's health to improve. The psychiatrist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? A) It presumes without justification that two conditions that together have a certain effect causally influence one another. B) It presumes, merely on the basis that two conditions have a common cause, that one of these two conditions can causally influence the other. C It confuses two causes that together are necessary to bring about an effect with causes that are sufficient for that effect. D) It takes for granted that two conditions that together have a certain effect can, each by itself, produce the same effect. E) It takes for granted that removing a condition that causally contributes to another condition suffices to eliminate the latter condition

Answer: (B)

Psychiatrist: Psychological stress is known both to cause negative emotions and to impair physical health. This suggests that overcoming such negative emotions when they arise could cause one's health to improve. The psychiatrist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? A) It presumes without justification that two conditions that together have a certain effect causally influence one another. B) It presumes, merely on the basis that two conditions have a common cause, that one of these two conditions can causally influence the other. C) It confuses two causes that together are necessary to bring about an effect with causes that are sufficient for that effect. D) It takes for granted that two conditions that together have a certain effect can, each by itself, produce the same effect. E) It takes for granted that removing a condition that causally contributes to another condition suffices to eliminate the latter condition.

Answer: (B)

Radio airplay restrictions are nationally imposed regulations. The City Club has compiled a guide to all nationally imposed regulations except those related to taxation or to labor law. Radio airplay restrictions are related neither to taxation nor to labor law, so the City Club's guide covers radio airplay restrictions. Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? (A) All prepackaged desserts pose a risk of tooth decay. The Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding all prepackaged desserts that are not high in vitamins or protein. Many prepackaged snack foods are low in vitamins or protein, so the Nutrition Foundation recommends avoiding prepackaged snack foods as well. (B) Coreopsis is a perennial. The Garden Club awards a prize each year for each perennial except those that are shrubs or not native to North America. Coreopsis is native to North America and is not a shrub. So the Garden Club awards a prize each year for coreopsis. (C) The Windsor Coalition is an example of a community organizing to discourage overdevelopment. The Neighborhood Association is in favor of this sort of community organizing, except when it poses a threat to regional economic growth. Therefore, the Neighborhood Association is in favor of the Windsor Coalition. (D) Compact discs are a kind of data storage device. Leotol Corporation does not produce data storage devices that use analog storage methods. Compact discs do not use analog storage methods, so it follows that Leotol Corporation produces compact discs. (E) Traffic laws are a type of government regulation. The association supports traffic laws that are in the public interest, even if they have not been shown to reduce the accident rate. Thus, the association should support all government regulations that are in the public interest.

Answer: (B)

Raisins are made by drying grapes in the sun. Although some of the sugar in the grapes is caramelized in the process, nothing is added. Moreover, the only thing removed from the grapes is the water that evaporates during the drying, and water contains no calories or nutrients. The fact that raisins contain more iron per calorie than grapes do is thus puzzling. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why raisins contain more iron per calorie than do grapes? (A) Since grapes are bigger than raisins, it takes several bunches of grapes to provide the same amount of iron as a handful of raisins does. (B) Caramelized sugar cannot be digested, so its calories do not count toward the calorie content of raisins. (C) The body can absorb iron and other nutrients more quickly from grapes than from raisins because of the relatively high water content of grapes. (D) Raisins, but not grapes, are available year-round, so many people get a greater share of their yearly iron intake from raisins than from grapes. (E) Raisins are often eaten in combination with other iron-containing foods, while grapes are usually eaten by themselves.

Answer: (B)

Researcher: Each subject in this experiment owns one car, and we asked to estimate what proportion of all automobiles registered in the nation are the same makes as the subject's car. The estimate of nearly every subject has been significantly higher than the actual national statistic for the make of that subject's car. I hypothesize that certain makes of car are more common in some regions of the nation than in other regions; obviously, that would lead many people to overestimate how common their make of car is nationally. That is precisely the result found in this experiment, so certain makes of car must indeed be more common in some areas of the nation in other. Which one of the following most accurately expresses a reasoning flaw in the researcher's argument? A) the argument fails to estimate the likelihood that most subjects in the experiment did not know the actual statistics about how common their make of car is nationwide B) the argument treats a result that supports a hypothesis as a result that proves a hypothesis C) the argument fails to take into account the possibility that the subject pool may come from a wide variety of geographical regions D) the argument attempts to draw its main conclusion from a set of premises that are mutually contradictory E) the argument applies a statistical generalization to a particular case to which it was not intended to apply

Answer: (B)

Since the sweetness of sugared beverages makes athletes more likely to drink them, they can be helpful in avoiding dehydration. Furthermore, small amounts of sugar enhance the body's absorption of water and delay muscle fatigue by maintaining the body's glucose level. Still, one must use sugared beverages cautiously, for large amounts draw water from the blood to the stomach, thereby exacerbating the dehydration process. If the statements above are true, then each of the following could also be true EXCEPT: (A) Glucose is not the only type of sugar whose absence or scarcity in one's diet causes muscle fatigue. (B) Problems caused by dehydration are invariably exacerbated if substances that delay muscle fatigue are consumed. (C) Dehydrated athletes find beverages containing large amounts of sugar to be too sweet. (D) Some situations that exacerbate the problems caused by muscle fatigue do not exacerbate those caused by dehydration. (E) The rate at which the body absorbs water depends primarily on the amount of water already present in the blood.

Answer: (B)

Researchers had three groups of professional cyclists cycle for one hour at different levels of intensity. Members of groups A, B, and C cycled at rates that sustained, for an hour, pulses of about 60 percent, 70 percent, and 85 percent, respectively, of the recommended maximum pulse rate for recreational cyclists. Most members of Group A reported being less depressed and angry afterward. Most members of Group B did not report these benefits. Most members of Group C reported feeling worse in these respects than before the exercise. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? (A) The higher the pulse rate attained in sustained exercise, the less psychological benefit the exercise tends to produce. (B) The effect that a period of cycling has on the mood of professional cyclists tends to depend at least in part on how intense the cycling is. (C) For professional cyclists, the best exercise from the point of view of improving mood is cycling that pushes the pulse no higher than 60 percent of the maximum pulse rate. (D) Physical factors, including pulse rate, contribute as much to depression as do psychological factors. (E) Moderate cycling tends to benefit professional cyclists physically as much or more than intense cycling.

Answer: (B)

Roxanne: To protect declining elephant herds from poachers seeking to obtain ivory, people concerned about such endangered species should buy no new ivory. The new ivory and old ivory markets are entirely independent, however, so purchasing antique ivory provides no incentive to poachers to obtain more new ivory. Therefore, only antique ivory—that which is at least 75 years old—can be bought in good conscience. Salvador: Since current demand for antique ivory exceeds the supply, many people who are unconcerned about endangered species but would prefer to buy antique ivory are buying new ivory instead. People sharing your concern about endangered species, therefore, should refrain from buying any ivory at all—thereby ensuring that demand for new ivory will drop. 23. A point on which Roxanne's and Salvador's views differ is whether (A) there are substances that can serve as satisfactory substitutes for ivory in its current uses (B) decreased demand for antique ivory would cause a decrease in demand for new ivory (C) people should take steps to avert a threat to the continued existence of elephant herds (D) a widespread refusal to buy new ivory will have a substantial effect on the survival of elephants (E) people concerned about endangered species should refuse to buy ivory objects that are less than 75 years old

Answer: (B)

Sarah: Our regulations for staff review are vague and thus difficult to interpret. For instance, the regulations state that a staff member who is performing unsatisfactorily will face dismissal, but they fail to define unsatisfactory performance. Thus, some staff may be dismissed merely because their personal views conflict with those of their supervisors. Which one of the following generalizations, if applicable to Sarah's company, most helps to justify her reasoning? (A) Performance that falls only somewhat below expectations results in disciplinary measures short of dismissal. (B) Interpreting regulations is a prerogative that belongs solely to supervisors. (C) A vague regulation can be used to make those subject to it answer for their performance. (D) A vague regulation can be used to keep those subject to it in subordinate positions. (E) Employees usually consider specific regulations to be fairer than vague regulations.

Answer: (B)

Science writer: The deterioration of cognitive faculties associated with Alzheimer's disease is evidently caused by the activities of microglia—the brain's own immune cells. For one thing, this deterioration can be slowed by some anti-inflammatory drugs, such as acetylsalicylic acid. Furthermore, patients with Alzheimer's are unable to eliminate the protein BA from the brain, where it accumulates and forms deposits. The microglia attack these protein deposits by releasing poisons that destroy surrounding healthy brain cells, thereby impairing the brain's cognitive functions. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to support the science writer's argument? (A) The inability of Alzheimer's patients to eliminate the protein BA from the brain is due to a deficiency in the brain's immune system. (B) Acetylsalicylic acid reduces the production of immune cells in the brain. (C) The activity of microglia results in a decrease in the buildup of protein deposits in the brain. (D) The protein BA directly interferes with the cognitive functions of the brain. (E) Immune reactions by microglia occur in certain diseases of the brain other than Alzheimer's.

Answer: (B)

Sigatoka disease drastically reduces the yield of banana trees and is epidemic throughout ares of the world where bananas are grown. The fungus that causes disease can be controlled with fungicides, but the fungicides can pose a health hazard to people living nearby. The fungicides are thus unsuitable for small banana groves in populated areas. Fortunately, most large banana plantations are in locations so isolated that fungicides can be used safely there. Therefore, most of the world's banana crop is not seriously threatened by Sigatoka disease. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A) It will eventually be possible to breed strains of bananas that are resistant to Sigatoka disease B) Large plantations produce most or all of the world's bananas C) Sigatoka disease spreads more slowly on large plantations than in small banana groves D) Sigatoka disease is the only disease that threatens bananas on a worldwide scale E) Most of the bananas trees that have not been exposed to the Sigatoka fungus grow in small banana groves

Answer: (B)

Since the sweetness of sugared beverages makes athletes more likely to drink them, they can be helpful in avoiding dehydration. Furthermore, small amounts of sugar enhance the body's absorption of water and delay muscle fatigue by maintaining the body's glucose level. Still, one must use sugared beverages cautiously, for large amounts draw water from the blood to the stomach, thereby exacerbating the dehydration process. If the statements above are true, then each of the following could also be true EXCEPT: A) Glucose is not the only type of sugar whose absence or scarcity in one's diet causes muscle fatigue. B) Problems caused by dehydration are invariably exacerbated if substances that delay muscle fatigue are consumed C) Dehydrated athletes find beverages containing large amounts of sugar to be too sweet D) Some situations that exacerbate the problems caused by muscle fatigue do not exacerbate those caused by dehydration. E) The rate at which the body absorbs water depends primarily on the amount of water already present in the blood.

Answer: (B)

Tanner: The public should demand political debates before any election. Voters are better able to choose the candidate best suited for office if they watch the candidates seriously debate one another. Saldanda: Political debates almost always benefit the candidate who has the better debating skills. Thus, they don't really help voters determine which candidate is most qualified for office. The dialogue provides the most supports for the claim that Tanner and Saldana disagree over which one of the following? A) Political candidates with strong debating skills are most likely to win elections than those with weak debating skills B) A voter who watches a political debate will likely be better able, as a result, to determine which candidate is more qualified for office C) Debating skills are of little use to politicians in doing their jobs once they are elected to office D) The candidates with the best debating skills are the one who are most qualified for the political offices for which they are running E) Political debates tend to have a major effect on which candidate among those participating in a debate will win the election

Answer: (B)

The Asian elephant walks with at least two, and sometimes three, feet on the ground at all times. Even though it can accelerate, it does so merely by taking quicker and longer steps. The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) If an animal cannot accelerate, then it cannot run B) To run, an animal must have all of its feet off the ground at once C) The Asian elephant can walk as quickly as some animals run D) It is unusual for a four-legged animal to keep three feet on the ground while walking E) All four-legged animals walk with at least two feet on the ground at all times

Answer: (B)

The mayor has been accused of taking a bribe based on the fact that a consultant that does business with the city paid for improvements to the mayor's vacation house. In his own defense, the mayor has said that he paid every bill for those improvements that was presented to him. Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the mayor's defense? A) Authorities are investigating the consultant for taking bribes from officials of other cities. B) The mayor was aware that many of the bills were being presented to the consultant rather than to the mayor. C) The building contractor in charge of the improvements to the mayor's house had done business with the city in the past. D) The improvements to the mayor's house were done with expensive materials and involved thousands of hours of labor. E) The amount of money that the city paid the consultant over the last year greatly exceeded the cost of the improvements to the mayor's house.

Answer: (B)

The three-spine stickleback is a small fish that lives both in oceans and in freshwater lakes. While ocean stickleback are covered with armor to protect them from their predators, lake stickleback have virtually no armor. Since armor limits the speed of a stickleback's growth, this indicates that having a larger size is a better defense against the lake stickleback's predators than having armor. Which one of the following, if true, weakens the argument? A) Sticklebacks with armor are unable to swim as fast, making them most vulnerable to fast-moving predators. B) Having a larger size is an important factor in whether lake stickleback, but not ocean stickleback, survive cold winters. C) Unlike ocean stickleback, the lake stickleback are more often preyed upon by predatory insects than by larger fish. D) Both ocean stickleback and lake stickleback feed primarily on the same types of foods. E) Sticklebacks originated in the ocean but began populating freshwater lakes and streams following the last ice age.

Answer: (B)

The three-spine stickleback is a small fish that lives both in oceans and in freshwater lakes. While ocean stickleback are covered with armor to protect them from their predators, lake stickleback have virtually no armor. Since armor limits the speed of a stickleback's growth, this indicates that having a larger size is a better defense against the stickleback's predators than having armor. Which one of the following, if true, weakens the argument? A) Sticklebacks with armor are unable to swim as fast, making them most vulnerable to fast-moving predators. B) Having a larger size is an important factor in whether lake stickleback, but not ocean stickleback, survive cold winters. C) Unlike ocean stickleback, the lake stickleback are more often preyed upon by predatory insects than by larger fish. D) Both ocean stickleback and lake stickleback feed primarily on the same types of foods. E) Sticklebacks originated in the ocean but began populating freshwater lakes and streams following the last ice age.

Answer: (B)

There can be no individual freedom without the rule of law, for there is no individual freedom without social integrity, and pursuing the good life is not possible without social integrity. The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) There can be no rule of law without social integrity. (B) There can be no social integrity without the rule of law. (C) One cannot pursue the good life without the rule of law. (D) Social integrity is possible only if individual freedom prevails. (E) There can be no rule of law without individual freedom.

Answer: (B)

Three million dollars was recently stolen from the City Treasurer's Office, and, from what we know so far, we can conclude that some members of the mayor's staff are suspects. The suspects are all former employees of the City Treasurer's Office, and the mayor's staff includes former employees of that office. The flawed nature of the argument above can most effectively be demonstrated by noting that, by parallel reasoning, we could conclude that A) some painters are sculptors since some sculptors are famous and some painters are famous B) some cabins are skyscrapers since all skyscrapers are buildings and some buildings are cabins C) some tables are chairs since all tables are furniture and all chairs are furniture D) all supermarkets sell asparagus since all supermarkets sell food and asparagus is a food E) all animals are dogs since some dogs are pets and some animals are pets

Answer: (B)

All societies recognize certain rules to be so crucial that they define those rules as duties, such as rules restricting violence and those requiring the keeping of agreements. Contained in the notion of a duty is the idea that its fulfillment is so fundamental to a properly functioning society that persons obligated by it cannot be excused on the ground that its fulfillment would be harmful to their self-interest. This shows that _______. Which one of the following most reasonably completes the argument? (A) all societies overrate the benefits of certain rules, such as those governing the keeping of agreements (B) all societies have certain rules that no people are capable of following (C) all societies recognize the possibility of clashes between individual self-interest and the performance of duty (D) a properly functioning society will recognize that some duties take priority over others (E) societies have no right to expect people always to perform their duties

Answer: (C)

To win democratic elections that are not fully subsidized by the government, nonwealthy candidates must be supported by wealthy patrons. This makes plausible the belief that these candidates will compromise their views to win that support. But since the wealthy are dispersed among the various political parties in roughly equal proportion to their percentage in the overall population, this belief is false. The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to consider that (A) the primary function of political parties in democracies whose governments do not subsidize elections might not be to provide a means of negating the influence of wealth on elections (B) in democracies in which elections are not fully subsidized by the government, positions endorsed by political parties might be much less varied than the positions taken by candidates (C) in democracies, government-subsidized elections ensure that the views expressed by the people who run for office might not be overly influenced by the opinions of the wealthiest people in those countries (D) in democracies in which elections are not fully subsidized by the government, it might be no easier for a wealthy person to win an election than it is for a nonwealthy person to win an election (E) a democracy in which candidates do not compromise their views in order to be elected to office might have other flaws

Answer: (B)

Traffic engineers have increased the capacity of the Krakkenbak Bridge to handle rush-hour traffic flow. The resultant increase in rush-hour traffic flow would not have occurred had the city not invested in computer modeling technology last year at the request of the city's mayor, and the city's financial predicament would not have been resolved if the traffic flow across the bridge during rush hour had not been increased. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the information above? (A) The city's financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city chosen a competing computer modeling software package. (B) The city's financial predicament would not have been resolved had the city not invested in computer modeling technology. (C) On an average day, more traffic crosses the Krakkenbak Bridge this year as compared to last year. (D) Traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour would not have increased had the city's mayor not made investing in computer modeling technology the highest budgetary priority last year. (E) The city's mayor was a proponent of investing in computer modeling technology because of the city's need to increase traffic flow across the Krakkenbak Bridge during rush hour.

Answer: (B)

Unlike many machines that are perfectly useful in isolation from others, fax machines must work with other fax machines. Thus, in the fax industry, the proliferation of incompatible formats, which resulted from the large number of competing manufacturers, severely limited the usefulness—and hence the commercial viability—of fax technology until the manufacturers agreed to adopt a common format for their machines. The information above provides the most support for which one of the following propositions? (A) Whenever machines are dependent on other machines of the same type, competition among manufacturers is damaging to the industry. (B) In some industries it is in the interest of competitors to cooperate to some extent with one another. (C) The more competitors there are in a high-tech industry, the more they will have to cooperate in determining the basic design of their product. (D) Some cooperation among manufacturers in the same industry is more beneficial than is pure competition. (E) Cooperation is beneficial only in industries whose products depend on other products of the same type.

Answer: (B)

Unquestionably, inventors of useful devices deserve credit for their ingenuity, but the engineers who help develop an invention get too little recognition. Although inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers, more often, engineers must translate an inventor's insight into something workable and useful. Therefore, engineers also deserve credit for their contribution. The claim that inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers plays which one of the following roles in the argument? (A) It separates the practical and theoretical aspects of the argument. (B) It indicates that the problem identified in the argument does not arise in every instance. (C) It supports an earlier statement regarding what is at issue in the argument. (D) It concedes that a distinction on which the argument relies is unclear. (E) It introduces an alternative solution to the problem the argument is addressing.

Answer: (B)

Unquestionably, investors of useful devices deserve credit for their ingenuity, but the engineers who help develop an invention get too little recognition. Although investors sometimes serve as their own engineers, more often, engineers must translate an investor's insight into something workable and useful. Therefore, engineers also deserve credit for their contribution. The claim that investors sometimes serve as their own engineers plays which one of the following roles in the argument? A) It separates the practical and theoretical aspects of the argument B) It indicates that the problem identified in the argument does not arise in every instance C) It supports an earlier statement regarding what is at issue in the argument D) It concedes that a distinction on which the argument relies is unclear E) It introduces an alternative solution to the problem the argument is addressing

Answer: (B)

Zoologist: Every domesticated large mammal species now in existence was domesticated thousands of years ago. Since those days, people undoubtedly tried innumerable times to domesticate each of the wild large mammal species that seemed worth domesticating. Clearly, therefore, most wild large mammal species in existence today either would be difficult to domesticate or would not be worth domesticating. The zoologist's argument requires the assumption that (A) in spite of the difficulties encountered, at one time or another people have tried to domesticate each wild large mammal species (B) it is not much easier today to domesticate wild large mammal species than it was in the past (C) not all of the large mammal species that were domesticated in the past are still in existence (D) the easier it is to domesticate a wild large mammal species, the more worthwhile it is to do so (E) of all the domesticated large mammal species in existence today, the very first to be domesticated were the easiest to domesticate

Answer: (B)

Researcher: Every year approximately the same number of people die of iatrogenic "disease"-that is, as a direct result of medical treatments or hospitilization-as die of all other causes combined. Therefore, if medicine could find ways of preventing all iatrogenic disease, the number of deaths per year would decrease by half. The reasoning in the researcher's argument is flawed because the argument fails to consider that A) prevention of noniatrogenic disease will have an effect on the occurrence of iatrogenic disease B) some medical treatments can be replaced by less invasive or damaging alternatives C) people who do not die of one cause may soon die of another cause D) there is no way to prevent all cases of death from iatrogenic disease E) whenever a noniatrogenic disease occurs, there is a risk of iatrogenic disease

Answer: (C)

. Books that present a utopian future in which the inequities and sufferings of the present are replaced by more harmonious and rational social arrangements will always find enthusiastic buyers. Since gloomy books predicting that even more terrifying times await us are clearly not of this genre, they are unlikely to be very popular. The questionable pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? (A) Art that portrays people as happy and contented has a tranquilizing effect on the viewer, an effect that is appealing to those who are tense or anxious. Thus, people who dislike such art are neither tense nor anxious. (B) People who enjoy participating in activities such as fishing or hiking may nevertheless enjoy watching such spectator sports as boxing or football. Thus, one cannot infer from someone's participating in vigorous contact sports that he or she is not also fond of less violent forms of recreation. (C) Action movies that involve complicated and dangerous special-effects scenes are enormously expensive to produce. Hence, since traditional dramatic or comedic films contain no such scenes, it is probable that they are relatively inexpensive to produce. (D) Adults usually feel a pleasant nostalgia when hearing the music they listened to as adolescents, but since adolescents often like music specifically because they think it annoys their parents, adults rarely appreciate the music that their children will later listen to with nostalgia. (E) All self-employed businesspeople have salaries that fluctuate with the fortunes of the general economy, but government bureaucrats are not self-employed. Therefore, not everyone with an income that fluctuates with the fortunes of the general economy is a government bureaucrat.

Answer: (C)

. It is primarily by raising interest rates that central bankers curb inflation, but an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation. Accordingly, central bankers usually try to raise interest rates before inflation becomes excessive, at which time inflation is not yet readily apparent either. But unless inflation is readily apparent, interest rate hikes generally will be perceived as needlessly restraining a growing economy. Thus, central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath. Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the claim that it is primarily by raising interest rates that central bankers curb inflation? (A) It is presented as a complete explanation of the fact that central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath. (B) It is a description of a phenomenon for which the claim that an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation is offered as an explanation. (C) It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that central bankers' success in temporarily restraining inflation may make it harder for them to ward off future inflation without incurring the public's wrath. (D) It is a conclusion for which the statement that an increase in interest rates takes up to two years to affect inflation is offered as support. (E) It is a premise offered in support of the conclusion that unless inflation is readily apparent, interest rate hikes generally will be perceived as needlessly restraining a growing economy.

Answer: (C)

A law is successful primarily because the behavior it prescribes has attained the status of custom. Just as manners are observed not because of sanctions attached to them but because, through repetition, contrary behavior becomes unthinkable, so societal laws are obeyed not because the behavior is ethically required or because penalties await those who act otherwise, but because to act otherwise would be uncustomary. Which one of the following comparisons is utilized by the argument? A) As with manners and other customs, laws vary from society to society. B) As with manners, the primary basis for a society to consider when adopting a law is custom. C) As with manners, the main factor accounting for compliance with laws is custom. D) As with manners, most laws do not prescribe behavior that is ethically required. E) As with manners, most laws do not have strict penalties awaiting those who transgress them

Answer: (C)

A newspaper article on Britain's unions argued that their strength was declining. The article's evidence was the decreasing number and size of strikes, as if the reason for the unions' existence was to organize strikes. Surely, in a modern industrial society, the calling of a strike is evidence that the negotiating position of the union was too weak. Strong unions do not need to call strikes. They can concentrate their efforts on working with others in the labor market to achieve common goals, such as profitable and humane working conditions. The argument criticizing the newspaper article employs which one of the following strategies? (A) questioning the accuracy of the statistical evidence that the newspaper article uses (B) detailing historical changes that make the newspaper article's analysis outdated (C) reinterpreting evidence that the newspaper article uses as indicating the opposite of what the newspaper concludes (D) arguing that the newspaper article's conclusion is motivated by a desire to change the role of unions (E) pointing to common interests among unions and management which the newspaper article ignores

Answer: (C)

A newspaper article on Britain's unions argued that their strength was declining. The article's evidence was the decreasing number and size of strikes, as if the reason for the unions' existence was to organize strikes. Surely, in a modern industrial society, the calling of a strike is evidence that the negotiating position of the union was too weak. Strong unions do not need to call strikes. They can concentrate their efforts on working with others in the labor market to achieve common goals, such as profitable and humane working conditions. 23. The argument criticizing the newspaper article is directed toward establishing which one of the following as its main conclusion? (A) The negotiating position of a union is weak if the only means it has of achieving its end is a strike or the threat of a strike. (B) Although unions represent the interests of their members, that does not preclude them from having interests in common with other participants in the labor market. (C) There is no reason to believe, on the basis of what the newspaper article said, that union strength in Britain is declining. (D) The reason for unions' existence is to work for goals such as profitable and humane working conditions by organizing strikes. (E) With strong unions it is possible for a modern industrial society to achieve profitable and humane working conditions, but without them it would be impossible.

Answer: (C)

A recent epidemiological study found that businesspeople who travel internationally on business are much more likely to suffer from chronic insomnia than are businesspeople who do not travel on business. International travelers experience the stresses of dramatic changes in climate, frequent disruption of daily routines, and immersion in cultures other than their own, stresses not commonly felt by those who do not travel. Thus, it is likely that these stresses cause the insomnia. Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the reasoning above? (A) Most international travel for the sake of business occurs between countries with contiguous borders. (B) Some businesspeople who travel internationally greatly enjoy the changes in climate and immersion in another culture. (C) Businesspeople who already suffer from chronic insomnia are no more likely than businesspeople who do not to accept assignments from their employers that require international travel. (D) Experiencing dramatic changes in climate and disruption of daily routines through international travel can be beneficial to some people who suffer from chronic insomnia. (E) Some businesspeople who once traveled internationally but no longer do so complain of various sleep-related ailments

Answer: (C)

A recent study revealed that the percentage of people treated at large, urban hospitals who recover from their illnesses is lower than the percentage for people treated at smaller, rural hospitals. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in recovery rates EXCEPT: (A) Because there are fewer patients to feed, nutritionists at small hospitals are better able to tailor meals to the dietary needs of each patient. (B) The less friendly, more impersonal atmosphere of large hospitals can be a source of stress for patients at those hospitals. (C) Although large hospitals tend to draw doctors trained at the more prestigious schools, no correlation has been found between the prestige of a doctor's school and patients' recovery rate. (D) Because space is relatively scarce in large hospitals, doctors are encouraged to minimize the length of time that patients are held for observation following a medical procedure. (E) Doctors at large hospitals tend to have a greater number of patients and consequently less time to explain to staff and to patients how medications are to be administered

Answer: (C)

A recent study revealed that the percentage of people treated at large, urban hospitals who recover from their illnesses is lower than the percentage for people treated at smaller, rural hospitals. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in recovery rates EXCEPT: (A) Because there are fewer patients to feed, nutritionists at small hospitals are better able to tailor meals to the dietary needs of each patient. (B) The less friendly, more impersonal atmosphere of large hospitals can be a source of stress for patients at those hospitals. (C) Although large hospitals tend to draw doctors trained at the more prestigious schools, no correlation has been found between the prestige of a doctor's school and patients' recovery rate. (D) Because space is relatively scarce in large hospitals, doctors are encouraged to minimize the length of time that patients are held for observation following a medical procedure. (E) Doctors at large hospitals tend to have a greater number of patients and consequently less time to explain to staff and to patients how medications are to be administered.

Answer: (C)

A recent study showed that the immune system blood cells of the study's participants who drank tea but no coffee took half as long to respond to germs as did the blood cells of participants who drank coffee but no tea. Thus, drinking tea boosted the participants' immune system defenses. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) All of the participants in the study drank either tea or coffee, and none drank both. (B) Coffee has no health benefits that are as valuable as the boost that tea purportedly gives to the body's immune system. (C) In the study, drinking coffee did not cause the blood cell response time to double. (D) Coffee drinkers in general are no more likely to exercise and eat healthily than are tea drinkers. (E) Coffee and tea do not have in common any chemicals that fight disease in the human body.

Answer: (C)

A retrospective study is a scientific study that tries to determine the causes of subjects' present characteristics by looking for significant connections between the present characteristics of subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past, before the study began. Because retrospective studies of human subjects must use the subjects' reports about their own pasts, however, such studies cannot reliably determine the causes of human subjects' present characteristics. Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? A) Whether or not a study of human subjects can reliably determine the causes of those subjects' present characteristics may depend at least in part on the extent to which that study uses inaccurate reports about the subjects' pasts. B) A retrospective study cannot reliable determine the causes of human subjects' present characteristics unless there exist correlations between the present characteristics of the subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past C) In studies of human subjects that attempt to find connections between subjects' present characteristics and what happened to those subjects in the past, the subjects' reports about their own pasts are highly susceptible to inaccuracy D) If a study of human subjects uses only accurate reports about the subjects' past, then that study can reliably determine the causes of those subjects' present characteristics E) Every scientific study in which researchers look for significant connections between the present characteristics of subjects and what happened to those subjects in the past must use the subjects' reports about their own pasts.

Answer: (C)

A study of 86 patients, all of whom suffered from disease T and received the same standard medical treatment, divided the patients into 2 equal groups. One group's members all attended weekly support group meetings, but no one from the other group attended support group meetings. After 10 years, 41 patients from each group had died. Clearly, support group meetings do not help patients with disease T live longer. Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) Of the 4 patients who survived more than 10 years, the 2 who had attended weekly support group meetings lived longer than the 2 who had not. (B) For many diseases, attending weekly support group meetings is part of the standard medical treatment. (C) The members of the group that attended weekly support group meetings lived 2 years longer, on average, than the members of the other group. (D) Some physicians have argued that attending weekly support group meetings gives patients less faith in the standard treatment for disease T. (E) Everyone in the group whose members attended weekly support group meetings reported after 1 year that those meetings had helped them to cope with the disease.

Answer: (C)

Anthropologist: In an experiment, two groups of undergraduates were taught how to create one of the types of stone tools that the Neanderthals made in prehistoric times. One group was taught using both demonstrations and elaborate verbal explanations, whereas the other group learned by silent example alone. The two groups showed a significant difference neither in the speed with which they acquired the toolmaking skills nor in the level of proficiency they reached. This shows that Neanderthals could just as well have created their sophisticated tools even if they had no language. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the anthropologist's argument? (A) Apart from the sophistication of their stone tools, there is a great deal of evidence suggesting that Neanderthals possessed some form of language. (B) The students who were taught with verbal explanations were allowed to discuss the toolmaking techniques among themselves, whereas the students who learned by silent example were not. (C) The tools that the undergraduates were taught to make were much simpler and easier to make than most types of tools created by Neanderthals. (D) The instructor who taught the group of students who learned by silent example alone was much less proficient at making the stone tools than was the instructor who taught the other group of students. (E) The tools created by Neanderthals were much less sophisticated than the tools created by anatomically modem humans who almost certainly possessed language and lived at the same time as the Neanderthals.

Answer: (C)

Any writer whose purpose is personal expression sometimes uses words ambiguously. Every poet's purpose is personal expression. Thus no poetry reader's enjoyment depends on attaining a precise understanding of what the poet means. The conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Writers who sometimes use words ambiguously have no readers who try to attain a precise understanding of what the writer means. (B) Writers whose purpose is personal expression are unconcerned with whether anyone enjoys reading their works. (C) No writer who ever uses words ambiguously has any reader whose enjoyment depends on attaining a precise understanding of what the writer means. (D) Most writers whose readers' enjoyment does not depend on attaining a precise understanding of the writers' words are poets. (E) Readers who have a precise understanding of what a writer has written derive their enjoyment from that understanding.

Answer: (C)

Art critic: Criticism focuses on two issues: first, whether the value of an artwork is intrinsic to the work; and second, whether judgments about an artwork's quality are objective rather than merely matters of taste. These issues are related, for if an artwork's value is not intrinsic, then it must be extrinsic, and thus judgments about the quality of the work can only be a matter of taste. The art critic's reasoning is most vulnerable to the criticism that it takes for granted that (A) judgments about the quality of an artwork are always a matter of taste (B) people sometimes agree about judgments that are only matters of taste (C) judgments about extrinsic value cannot be objective (D) judgments about intrinsic value are always objective (E) an artwork's value is sometimes intrinsic to it

Answer: (C)

Astronomer: In most cases in which a planet has been detected orbiting a distant star, the planet's orbit is distinctly oval, whereas the orbits of Earth and several other planets around our sun are approximately circular. However, many comets orbiting our sun have been thrown into oval orbits by close encounters with planets orbiting our sun. So some of the planets in oval orbits around distant starts were probably thrown into those orbits by close encounters with other planets orbiting the same stars. Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the astronomer's argument? A) When two planets or other large objects in orbit have a close encounter, usually the smaller of the two is the more greatly affected B) There is no indication that the orbit of any planet orbiting our sun has been affected by a close encounter with another planet orbiting our sun C) In most cases in which planets have been discovered orbiting a distant star, more than one planet has been found orbiting the star D) Most comets with an oval orbit around our sun were thrown into that orbit by a close encounter with some other object E) For each distant star that has been found to have a planet, no other object large enough to affect the planet's orbit has been found orbiting the sun

Answer: (C)

At Southgate Mall, mattresses are sold only at Mattress Madness. Every mattress at Mattress Madness is on sale at a 20 percent discount. So every mattress for sale at Southgate Mall is on sale at a 20 percent discount. Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? (A) The only food in Diane's apartment is in her refrigerator. All the food she purchased within the past week is in her refrigerator. Therefore, she purchased all the food in her apartment within the past week. (B) Diane's refrigerator, and all the food in it, is in her apartment. Diane purchased all the food in her refrigerator within the past week. Therefore, she purchased all the food in her apartment within the past week. (C) All the food in Diane's apartment is in her refrigerator. Diane purchased all the food in her refrigerator within the past week. Therefore, she purchased all the food in her apartment within the past week. (D) The only food in Diane's apartment is in her refrigerator. Diane purchased all the food in her refrigerator within the past week. Therefore, all the food she purchased within the past week is in her apartment. (E) The only food that Diane has purchased within the past week is in her refrigerator. All the food that she has purchased within the past week is in her apartment. Therefore, all the food in her apartment is in her refrigerator.

Answer: (C)

Automobile-emission standards are enforced through annual inspection. At those inspections cars are tested while idling; that is, standing still with their engines running. Testing devices measure the levels of various pollutants as exhaust gases leave the tail pipe. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly indicates that current enforcement of automobile emission standards might be ineffective in controlling overall pollutant levels? (A) As an emission-control technology approaches its limits, any additional gains in effectiveness become progressively more expensive. (B) The testing devices used must be recalibrated frequently to measure pollutant levels with acceptable accuracy. (C) The adjustments needed to make a car idle cleanly make it likely that the car will emit high levels of pollutants when moving at highway speeds. (D) Most car owners ask their mechanics to make sure that their cars are in compliance with emission standards. (E) When emission standards are set, no allowances are made for older cars.

Answer: (C)

Barnes: The two newest employees at this company have salaries that are too high for the simple tasks normally assigned to new employees and duties that are too complex for inexperienced workers. Hence, the salaries and the complexity of the duties of these two newest employees should be reduced. Which one of the following is an assumption on which Barnes's argument depends? (A) The duties of the two newest employees are not less complex than any others in the company. (B) It is because of the complex duties assigned that the two newest employees are being paid more than is usually paid to newly hired employees. (C) The two newest employees are not experienced at their occupations. (D) Barnes was not hired at a higher-than-average starting salary. (E) The salaries of the two newest employees are no higher than the salaries that other companies pay for workers with a similar level of experience.

Answer: (C)

Biologist: Lions and tigers are so similar to each other anatomically that their skeletons are virtually indistinguishable. But their behaviors are known to be quite different: tigers hunt only as solitary individuals, whereas lions hunt in packs. Thus, paleontologists cannot reasonably infer solely on the basis of skeletal anatomy that extinct predatory animals, such as certain dinosaurs, hunted in packs. The conclusion is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? (A) The skeletons of lions and tigers are at least somewhat similar in structure in certain key respects to the skeletons of at least some extinct predatory animals. (B) There have existed at least two species of extinct predatory dinosaurs that were so similar to each other that their skeletal anatomy is virtually indistinguishable. (C) If skeletal anatomy alone is ever an inadequate basis for inferring a particular species' hunting behavior, then it is never reasonable to infer, based on skeletal anatomy alone, that a species of animals hunted in packs. (D) If any two animal species with virtually indistinguishable skeletal anatomy exhibit quite different hunting behaviors, then it is never reasonable to infer, based solely on the hunting behavior of those species, that the two species have the same skeletal anatomy. (E) If it is unreasonable to infer, solely on the basis of differences in skeletal anatomy, that extinct animals of two distinct species differed in their hunting behavior, then the skeletal remains of those two species are virtually indistinguishable.

Answer: (C)

Biologists have noted reproductive abnormalities in fish that are immediately downstream of paper mills. One possible cause is dioxin, which paper mills release daily and which can alter the concentration of hormones in fish. However, dioxin is unlikely to be the cause, since the fish recover normal hormone concentrations relatively quickly during occasional mill shutdowns and dioxin decomposes very slowly in the environment. Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) Some of the studies that show that fish recover quickly during shutdowns were funded by paper manufacturers. (B) The rate at which dioxin decomposes varies depending on the conditions to which it is exposed. (C) Normal river currents carry the dioxin present in the river far downstream in a few hours. (D) Some of the fish did not recover rapidly from the physiological changes that were induced by the changes in hormone concentrations. (E) The connection between hormone concentrations and reproductive abnormalities is not thoroughly understood.

Answer: (C)

Cecile's association requires public disclosure of an officer's investments in two cases only: when an officer is authorized to disburse association funds, and when an officer sits on the board of a petrochemical company. Cecile, an officer who is not authorized to disburse funds, sits on the board of just one company, a small timber business. Therefore, there is no reason for Cecile to publicly disclose her investments at this time. The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) Cecile will not be appointed to a position in the association that authorizes her to disburse funds B) Cecile's office and her position on the timber business's board create no conflicts of interest. C) The association's requirements provide the only reasons there might be for Cecile to disclose her investments. D) The timber business on whose board Cecile sits is owned by a petrochemical company. E) Cecile owns no investments in the petrochemical industry

Answer: (C)

Cities with healthy economies typically have plenty of job openings. Cities with high-technology businesses also tend to have healthy economies, so those in search of jobs should move to a city with high-technology businesses. The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to the reasoning in the argument above? (A) Older antiques are usually the most valuable. Antique dealers generally authenticate the age of the antiques they sell, so those collectors who want the most valuable antiques should purchase their antiques from antique dealers. (B) Antique dealers who authenticate the age of the antiques they sell typically have plenty of antiques for sale. Since the most valuable antiques are those that have had their ages authenticated, antique collectors in search of valuable antiques should purchase their antiques from antique dealers. (C) Antiques that have had their ages authenticated tend to be valuable. Since antique dealers generally carry antiques that have had their ages authenticated, those collectors who want antiques that are valuable should purchase their antiques from antique dealers. (D) Many antique collectors know that antique dealers can authenticate the age of the antiques they sell. Since antiques that have had their ages authenticated are always the most valuable, most antique collectors who want antiques that are valuable tend to purchase their antiques from antique dealers. (E) Many antiques increase in value once they have had their ages authenticated by antique dealers. Since antique dealers tend to have plenty of valuable antiques, antique collectors who prefer to purchase the most valuable antiques should purchase antiques from antique dealers

Answer: (C)

Columnist: Taking a strong position on an issue makes one likely to misinterpret or ignore additional evidence that conflicts with one's stand. But in order to understand an issue fully, it is essential to consider such evidence impartially. Thus, it is best not to take a strong position on an issue unless one has already considered all important evidence conflicting with that position. The columnist's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? (A) It is reasonable to take a strong position on an issue if one fully understands the issue and has considered the evidence regarding that issue impartially. (B) To ensure that one has impartially considered the evidence regarding an issue on which one has taken a strong position, one should avoid misinterpreting or ignoring evidence regarding that issue. (C) Anyone who does not understand an issue fully should avoid taking a strong position on it. (D) One should try to understand an issue fully if doing so will help one to avoid misinterpreting or ignoring evidence regarding that issue. (E) It is reasonable to take a strong position on an issue only if there is important evidence conflicting with that position.

Answer: (C)

Columnist: Taking a strong position on an issue makes one likely to misinterpret or ignore additional evidence that conflicts with one's stand. But in order to understand an issue fully, it is essential to consider such evidence impartially. Thus, it is best not to take a strong position on an issue unless one has already considered all important evidence conflicting with that position. The columnist's reasoning most closely conforms to which one of the following principles? (A) It is reasonable to take a strong position on an issue if one fully understands the issue and has considered the evidence regarding that issue impartially. (B) To ensure that one has impartially considered the evidence regarding an issue on which one has taken a strong position, one should avoid misinterpreting or ignoring evidence regarding that issue. (C) Anyone who does not understand an issue fully should avoid taking a strong position on it. (D) One should try to understand an issue fully if doing so will help one to avoid misinterpreting or ignoring evidence regarding that issue. (E) It is reasonable to take a strong position on an issue only if there is important evidence conflicting with that position.

Answer: (C)

Consumer advocate: The manufacturer's instructions for assembling a product should be written in such a way that most consumers would find it much easier to put the product together if the instructions were available than if they were not. Which one of the following, if true, would provide the strongest reason for thinking that the principle advanced by the consumer advocate cannot always be followed? (A) The typical consumer who assembles a product does so using the manufacturer's instructions, but still has great difficulty. (B) Often the store at which a consumer purchases an unassembled product will offer, for a fee, to assemble the product and deliver it. (C) For the typical product, most consumers who assemble it do so very easily and without ever consulting the manufacturer's instructions. (D) Usually a consumer who is trying to assemble a product using the manufacturer's instructions has no difficulty understanding the instructions. (E) Some consumers refer to the manufacturer's instructions for assembling a product only if they have difficulty assembling the product.

Answer: (C)

Court analyst: Courts should not allow the use of DNA tests in criminal cases. There exists considerable controversy among scientific experts about how reliable these tests are. Unless there is widespread agreement in the scientific community about how reliable a certain test is, it is unreasonable for the courts to allow evidence based on that test. The court analyst's reasoning is flawed because it fails to take into account that A) courts have the authority to admit or exclude any evidence irrespective of what experts have to say about its reliability B) the standard against which evidence in a criminal case is measured should not be absolute certainty C) experts may agree that the tests are highly reliable while disagreeing about exactly how reliable they are D) data should not be admitted as evidence in a court of law without scientific witnesses having agreed about how reliable they are E) there are also controversies about reliability of evidence in noncriminal cases

Answer: (C)

Critic: A novel cannot be of the highest quality unless most readers become emotionally engaged with the imaginary world it describes. Thus shifts of narrative point of view within a novel, either between first and third person or of some other sort, detract from the merit of the work, since such shifts tend to make most readers focus on the author. Which one of the following is an assumption necessary for the critic's conclusion to be properly drawn? (A) Most readers become emotionally engaged with the imaginary world described by a novel only if the novel is of the highest quality. (B) A novel is generally not considered to be of high quality unless it successfully engages the imagination of most readers. (C) Most readers cannot become emotionally involved with a novel's imaginary world if they focus on the author. (D) Most readers regard a novel's narrative point of view as representing the perspective of the novel's author. (E) Shifts in narrative point of view serve no literary purpose.

Answer: (C)

Customer advocate: TMD, a pesticide used on peaches, shows no effects on human health when it is ingested in the amount present in the per capita peach consumption in this country. But while 80 percent of the population eat no peaches, others, including small children, consume much more than the national average, and thus ingest disproportionately large amounts of TMD. So even though the use of TMD on peaches poses minimal risk to most of the population, it has not been shown to be an acceptable practice. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the consumer advocate's argumentation? A) The possibility that more data about a pesticide's health effect might reveal previously unknown risks at low doses warrants caution in assessing that pesticide's overall risks B) The consequences of using a pesticide are unlikely to be acceptable when a majority of the population is likely to ingest it C) Use of a pesticide is acceptable only if it is used for its intended purpose and the pesticide has been sown not to harm any portion of the population D) Society has a special obligation to protect small children from pesticides unless average doses received by the population are low and have not been shown to be harmful to children's health E) Measures taken to protect the population from a harm sometimes turn out to be the cause of a more serious harm to certain segments of the population

Answer: (C)

Deep tillage is even more deleterious to the world's topsoil supply than previously believed. For example, farmers who till deeply are ten times more likely to lose topsoil to erosion than are farmers who use no-till methods. Results like these make it clear that farmers who now till deeply should strive, by using other topsoil aeration techniques, to incorporate no-till methods instead. The argument depends on assuming which one of following? A) Topsoil erosion does not make farmers want to till more deeply B) In deep-tillage farming, the deeper one tills, the greater the susceptibility to topsoil erosion C) Tilling by any method other than deep tillage is not a viable option D) The most expensive farming methods employ topsoil aeration techniques other than deep tillage E) On average, topsoil that is no-tilled is more aerated than topsoil that is tilled deeply

Answer: (C)

Swimming pools should be fenced to protect children from drowning, but teaching children to swim is even more important. And there is a principle involved here that applies to childrearing generally. Thus, while we should restrict children's access to the soft drinks and candies advertised on television shows directed towards children, it is even more important to teach them _______. Which one of the following most logically completes the passage? (A) that television can be a good source of accurate information about many things (B) that television advertisements are deceptive and misleading (C) how to make nutritional choices that are conducive to their well-being (D) the importance of physical activity to health and well-being (E) how to creatively entertain themselves without watching television

Answer: (C)

Economist: The increase in the minimum wage in Country X will quickly lead to a decrease in Country X's rate of unemployment. Raising the minimum wage will lead to more disposable income for a large segment of the working population. Much of this increased income will be spent on consumer goods. Surely this increase in demand for consumer goods will lead to an increase in the number of factory jobs necessary to meet production. Each of the following, if true, would weaken the economist's argument EXCEPT: A) The cost of a minimum-wage increase in Country X will be passed on to consumers in the form of significantly higher prices for consumer goods. B) Most of the consumer goods sold in Country X are produced outside the country. C) In many factories in Country X, most workers are paid much more than the current minimum wage. D) The cost to employers of an increase in the minimum wage in Country X will be made up by reductions in the workforce. E) Most factories that produce consumer goods in Country X have large surpluses of goods as a result of years of overproduction.

Answer: (C)

Editorial: The gates at most railroad crossings, while they give clear warning of oncoming trains, are not large enough to prevent automobile drivers from going around them onto the tracks. Some people claim that the ensuing accidents are partly the fault of the railroad company, but this is a mistake. Granted, if one has a small child in the house, then one ought to block access to the stairs completely; but a licensed driver is a capable adult who should know better. The editorial's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) The gates could be made larger, yet irresponsible drivers might still be able to go around them onto the tracks B) Capable adults have a responsibility to take some measures of their own safety C) When the warnings of companies are disregarded by capable adults, the adults are fully responsible for any resulting accidents D) Small children are not involved in accidents resulting from drivers going around the gates E) Any company's responsibility to promote public safety is not unlimited

Answer: (C)

Even those who believe that the art of each age and culture has its own standards of beauty must admit that some painters are simply superior to others in the execution of their artistic visions. But this superiority must be measured in light of the artist's purposes, since the high merits, for example, of Jose Rey Toledo's work and his extraordinary artistic skills are not in doubt, despite the fact that his paintings do not literally resemble what they represent. The claim that some painters are superior to others in the execution of their artistic visions plays which one of the following roles in the argument? (A) It is a hypothesis that the argument attempts to refute. (B) It is a generalization, one sort of objection to which the argument illustrates by giving an example. (C) It is a claim that, according to the argument, is to be understood in a manner specified by the conclusion. (D) It is a claim that the argument derives from another claim and that it uses to support its conclusion. (E) It is a generalization that the argument uses to justify the relevance of the specific example it cites.

Answer: (C)

Failure to rotate crops depletes the soil's nutrients gradually unless other preventive measures are taken. If the soil's nutrients are completely depleted, additional crops cannot be grown unless fertilizer is applied to the soil. All other things being equal, if vegetables are grown in soil that has had fertilizer applied rather than being grown in non-fertilized soil, they are more vulnerable to pests and, as a consequence, must be treated with larger amounts of pesticides. The more pesticides used on vegetables, the greater the health risks to humans from eating those vegetables. Suppose there were some vegetables that were grown in soil to which fertilizer had never been applied. On the basis of the passage, which one of the following would have to be true regarding those vegetables? (A) The soil in which the vegetables were grown may have been completely depleted of nutrients because of an earlier failure to rotate crops. (B) It is not possible that the vegetables were grown in soil in which crops had been rotated. (C) The vegetables were grown in soil that had not been completely depleted of nutrients but not necessarily soil in which crops had been rotated. (D) Whatever the health risks to humans from eating the vegetables, these risks would not be attributable to the use of pesticides on them. (E) The health risks to humans from eating the vegetables were no less than the health risks to humans from eating the same kinds of vegetables treated with pesticides.

Answer: (C)

Food co-ops are a type of consumer cooperative. Consumer cooperatives offer the same products as other stores but usually more cheaply. It is therefore more economical to shop at a food co-op than at a supermarket. Which one of the following is most appropriate as an analogy demonstrating that the reasoning in the argument above is flawed? A) By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that people who own sports cars use much more gasoline in their cars than people who own other types of cars, since sports cars use more gasoline per mile than most other cars. B) By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that it is better to buy frozen vegetables than fresh vegetables, since fresh vegetables are more expensive than frozen vegetables and spoil more quickly C) By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that a person who rides a bicycle causes more pollution per mile traveled than one who rides a public bus, since bicycling is a private means of transportation and private means of transportation tend to generate more pollution per mile traveled than do public means D) By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that more people must be shopping at health food stores than ever before, since people tend to choose healthful food over unhealthful food as long as the healthful food tastes at least as good, and healthful food today is better tasting than ever

Answer: (C)

For each action we perform, we can know only some of its consequences. Thus the view that in no situation can we know what action is morally right would be true if an action's being morally right were the same as the action's having the best consequences. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) On some occasions we can come to learn that it is morally wrong to perform a certain action. (B) On some occasions we can know what action is morally right. (C) Knowing that an action has the best consequences requires knowing all the consequences of that action. (D) Only the immediate consequences of our actions are relevant in determining whether they are morally right. (E) An action may be morally right for one particular person without being morally right for all people.

Answer: (C)

Had the party's economic theories been sound and had it succeeded in implementing its program, the inflation rate would have lessened considerably. But because the inflation rate actually increased, the party's economic theories were far off the mark. The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles the flawed reasoning in the argument? A) If the people who inhabited the valley for so long had been invaded, or if there had been a dramatic climatic change, there would have been changes in the valley's architecture. But architecture in the valley remained the same throughout their stay. Thus, the valley people must not have been invaded at any time during their stay. B) Many people fear that if the opposition party wins the election and keeps its promise to cut wages dramatically, workers in key industries will strike. But because the workers have promised not to strike, these workers must think the party will not keep its promise of a dramatic wage cut. C) If the company had succeeded in selling its subsidiaries and used the cash to purchase the new patent, its stock price would have doubled in the last two year. But the price of the stock did not increase in that time. Thus, the company must have failed to sell its subsidiaries. D) City residents were expected to show a great deal of support for the rebels if the battle was won and the jailed rebel leaders freed. Residents have shown a great deal of support for the rebels for the last 3 days. Therefore, the rebels must have won the battle. E) If the TV station's new weather forecasting equipment had been worth the investment, the accuracy its forecasts would have risen, along with its ratings. But the station's ratings actually decreased. Thus, the new equipment is no improvement on the old.

Answer: (C)

In a recent study of arthritis, researchers tried but failed to find any correlation between pain intensity and any of those features of the weather—humidity, temperature swings, barometric pressure—usually cited by arthritis sufferers as the cause of their increased pain. Those arthritis sufferers in the study who were convinced of the existence of such a correlation gave widely varying accounts of the time delay between the occurrence of what they believed to be the relevant feature of the weather and the increased intensity of the pain. Thus, this study _______. Of the following, which one most logically completes the argument? (A) indicates that the weather affects some arthritis sufferers more quickly than it does other arthritis sufferers (B) indicates that arthritis sufferers' beliefs about the causes of the pain they feel may affect their assessment of the intensity of that pain (C) suggests that arthritis sufferers are imagining the correlation they assert to exist (D) suggests that some people are more susceptible to weather-induced arthritis pain than are others (E) suggests that the scientific investigation of possible links between weather and arthritis pain is impossible

Answer: (C)

In an experiment, volunteers witnessed a simulated crime. After they witnessed the simulation the volunteers were first questioned by a lawyer whose goal was to get them to testify inaccurately about the event. They were then cross-examined by another lawyer whose goal was to cause them to correct the inaccuracies in their testimony. The witnesses who gave testimony containing fewer inaccurate details than most of the other witnesses during the first lawyer's questioning also gave testimony containing a greater number of inaccurate details than most of the other witnesses during cross-examination. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict in the results concerning the witnesses who gave testimony containing fewer inaccurate details during the first lawyer's questioning? (A) These witnesses were more observant about details than were most of the other witnesses. (B) These witnesses had better memories than did most of the other witnesses. (C) These witnesses were less inclined than most of the other witnesses to be influenced in their testimony by the nature of the questioning. (D) These witnesses were unclear about the details at first but then began to remember more accurately as they answered questions. (E) These witnesses tended to give testimony containing more details than most of the other witnesses.

Answer: (C)

In modern deep-diving marine mammals, such as whales, the outer shell of the bones is porous. This has the effect of making the bones light enough so that it is easy for the animals to swim back to the surface after a deep dive. The outer shell of the bones was also porous in the ichthyosaur, an extinct prehistoric marine reptile. We can conclude from this that ichthyosaurs were deep divers. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? (A) Some deep-diving marine species must surface after dives but do not have bones with porous outer shells. (B) In most modern marine reptile species, the outer shell of the bones is not porous. (C) In most modern and prehistoric marine reptile species that are not deep divers, the outer shell of the bones is porous. (D) In addition to the porous outer shells of their bones, whales have at least some characteristics suited to deep diving for which there is no clear evidence whether these were shared by ichthyosaurs. (E) There is evidence that the bones of ichthyosaurs would have been light enough to allow surfacing even if the outer shells were not porous.

Answer: (C)

In some countries, national planners have attempted to address the problems resulting from increasing urbanization by reducing migration from rural areas. But some economists have suggested an alternative approach. These economists assert that planners could solve these problems effectively by trading goods or services produced by a predominantly urban population in order to obtain the agricultural products that were previously produced domestically. Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the economists' assertion? (A) Government subsidies to urban manufacturers can ease the problems caused by the migration of people from rural to urban areas. (B) All problems that have economic causes must have economic solutions. (C) A scarcity of agricultural products is a central element of many problems created by urbanization. (D) Problems associated with migration to cities from rural areas are primarily due to trade imbalances between countries. (E) Free trade policies can exacerbate the problems caused by increasing urbanization.

Answer: (C)

Storytelling appears to be a universal aspect of both past and present cultures. Comparative study of traditional narratives from widely separated epochs and diverse cultures reveals common themes such as creation, tribal origin, mystical beings and quasi-historical figures, and common story types such as fables and tales in which animals assume human personalities. The evidence cited above from the study of traditional narratives most supports which one of the following statements? A) Storytellers routinely borrow themes from other cultures B) Storytellers have long understood that the narrative is a universal aspect of the human nature C) Certain human concerns and interests arise in all of the world's cultures D) Storytelling was no less important in ancient cultures than it is in modern cultures E) The best way to understand a culture is to understand what motivates its storytellers

Answer: (C)

Last winder was mild enough to allow most bird species to forage naturally, which explains why the proportion of birds visiting feeders was much lower than usual. The mild winter also allowed many species to stay in their summer range all winter without migrating south, thereby limiting the usual attrition accompanying migration. Hence, last year's mild winter is responsible for this year's larger-than-usual bird population. Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the reasoning in the argument? A) Increases in bird populations sometimes occur following unusual weather patterns B) When birds do not migrate south, the mating behaviors they exhibit differ from those they exhibit when they do migrate C) Birds eating at feeders are more vulnerable to predators than are birds foraging naturally D) Birds that remain in their summer range all winter often exhaust that range's food supply before spring E) Birds sometimes visit feeders even when they are able to find sufficient food for survival by foraging naturally

Answer: (C)

Last winter was mild enough to allow most bird species to forage naturally, which explains why the proportion of birds visiting feeders was much lower than usual. The mild winter also allowed many species to stay in their summer range all winter without migrating south, thereby limiting the usual attrition accompanying migration. Hence, last year's mild winter is responsible for this year's larger-than-usual bird population. Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the reasoning in the argument? (A) Increases in bird populations sometimes occur following unusual weather patterns. (B) When birds do not migrate south, the mating behaviors they exhibit differ from those they exhibit when they do migrate. (C) Birds eating at feeders are more vulnerable to predators than are birds foraging naturally. (D) Birds that remain in their summer range all winter often exhaust that range's food supply before spring. (E) Birds sometimes visit feeders even when they are able to find sufficient food for survival by foraging naturally

Answer: (C)

Literary critic: Often the heirs of a successful writer decide to publish the manuscripts and the letters the dead writer left behind, regardless of the merit of the work. However, many writers have manuscripts that they judge to be unworthy of publication and with which they would not like to be publicly associated even after they die. Hence a successful writer who decides not to publish a recently completed manuscript should destroy it immediately. Which one of the following statements, if true, most calls into question the soundness of the literary critic's advice? (A) Some writers whose work becomes both popular and respected after they die received no literary recognition during their lifetimes. (B) Writers who achieve a certain degree of fame can expect that some of their personal correspondence will become publicly available after they die. (C) Most successful writers' judgments of their recently completed work is unnecessarily harsh and is often later revised. (D) Many posthumously published books would have been published by the author had the author lived. (E) Some heirs of successful writers do not consider themselves qualified to judge the merits of a literary work.

Answer: (C)

Lutsina: Because futuristic science fiction does not need to represent current social realities, its writers can envisage radically new social arrangements. Thus it has the potential to be a richer source of social criticism than is conventional fiction. Priscilla: That futuristic science fiction writers more skillfully envisage radically new technologies than new social arrangements shows how writers' imaginations are constrained by current realities. Because of this limitation, the most effective social criticism results from faithfully presenting the current social realities for critical examination, as happens in conventional fiction. Lutsina and Priscilla disagree with each other about whether (A) some science fiction writers have succeeded in envisaging convincing, radically new social arrangements (B) writers of conventional fiction are more skillful than are writers of futuristic science fiction (C) futuristic science fiction has more promise as a source of social criticism than does conventional fiction (D) envisaging radically new technologies rather than radically new social arrangements is a shortcoming of futuristic science fiction (E) criticism of current social arrangements is not effective when those arrangements are contrasted with radically different ones

Answer: (C)

Many people have a negative reaction to modern art. Some critics have hypothesized that these people simply have an unalterable, innate dislike for the abstraction typical of modern art. But consider this analogy: Many people who have had only superficial contact with a sport such as baseball find it silly or boring. Yet when these same people come to understand baseball's subtleties, they overcome their dislike and even become baseball enthusiasts. Thus, the critics' hypothesis about modern art may be wrong, for it may be that __________. Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? A) for many people the abstraction typical of modern art does not provide a sufficient degree of subtlety to engage their interest B) people who have a negative reaction to modern art have not yet become sufficiently familiar with its subtleties C) the dislike many people have for modern art is not innate but is instead a result of their not wanting to be distracted from their current enthusiasms D) the critics place excessive value on the abstraction found in typical examples of modern art E) people who dislike modern art do not know anyone who is sufficiently enthusiastic about modern art to cause them to reconsider their aversion

Answer: (C)

Many scientific studies have suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep. But this does not mean that melatonin is helpful in treating insomnia. Most of the studies examined only people without insomnia, and in many of the studies, only a few of the subjects given melatonin appeared to be significantly affected by it. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) A weaker correlation between taking melatonin and the inducement of sleep was found in the studies that included people with insomnia than in the studies that did not. (B) None of the studies that suggested that taking melatonin tablets can induce sleep examined a fully representative sample of the human population. (C) In the studies that included subjects with insomnia, only subjects without insomnia were significantly affected by doses of melatonin. (D) Several people who were in control groups and only given placebos claimed that the tablets induced sleep. (E) If melatonin were helpful in treating insomnia, then every person with insomnia who took doses of melatonin would appear to be significantly affected by it.

Answer: (C)

Microbiologist: Because heavy metals are normally concentrated in sewage sludge during the sewage treatment process, the bacteria that survive in the sludge have evolved the unusual ability to resist heavy-metal poisoning. The same bacteria also show a strong resistance to antibiotics. This suggests that the bacteria's exposure to the heavy metals in the sewage sludge has somehow promoted their resistance to antibiotics. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens microbiologist's argument? A) Most bacteria that are not resistant to antibiotics are not resistant to heavy-metal poisoning either B) Bacteria that live in sewage sludge that is free of heavy metals, but is in other respects similar to normal sewage, are generally resistant to neither heavy-metal poisoning nor antibiotics C) Antibiotic resistance of bacteria that survive are concentrated contributes to their resistance for heavy-metal poisoning D) Sewage sludge that contains high concentrations of heavy metals almost always contains significant concentrations of antibiotics E) Many kinds of bacteria that do not live in sewage sludge are resistant to both heavy-metal poisoning and antibiotics

Answer: (C)

One should not play a practical joke on someone if it shows contempt for that person or if one believes it might bring significant harm to that person. The principle stated above, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in which one of the following arguments? (A) I should not have played that practical joke on you yesterday. Even if it was not contemptuous, I should have realized that it would bring significant harm to someone. (B) I have no reason to think that the practical joke I want to play would harm anyone. So, since the joke would show no contempt for the person the joke is played on, it would not be wrong for me to play it. (C) Because of the circumstances, it would be wrong for me to play the practical joke I had intended to play on you. Even though it would not show contempt for anyone, it could easily bring you significant harm. (D) It would have been wrong for me to play the practical joke that I had intended to play on you. Even though I did not have reason to think that it would significantly harm anyone, I did think that it would show contempt for someone. (E) Someone was harmed as a result of my practical joke. Thus, even though it did not show contempt for the person I played the joke on, I should not have played it.

Answer: (C)

Pat: E-mail fosters anonymity, which removes barriers to self-revelation. This promotes a degree of intimacy with strangers that would otherwise take years of direct personal contact to attain. Amar: Frankness is not intimacy. Intimacy requires a real social bond, and social bonds cannot be formed without direct personal contact. The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Pat and Amar disagree with each other about whether A) barriers to self-revelation hinder the initial growth of intimacy B) E-mail can increase intimacy between friends C) intimacy between those who communicate with each other solely by e-mail is possible D) real social bonds always lead to intimacy E) the use of e-mail removes barriers to self-revelation

Answer: (C)

People who say that Dooney County is flat are clearly wrong. On flat land, soil erosion by water is not a problem. Consequently, farmers whose land is flat do not build terraces to prevent erosion. Yet I hear that the farms in Dooney County are dotted with terraces. The reasoning in the passage is most similar to that in which one of the following? (A) If we paint the room white, it will get smudged, and we will have to paint it again soon. Therefore, we should paint it dark blue. (B) People with children need more space than those without children. Yet people with no children can usually afford bigger houses. (C) People who get a lot of exercise have no trouble falling asleep; hence, people who get a lot of exercise do not use medication to help them fall asleep. Jack is taking many kinds of medication, so he must not be getting a lot of exercise. (D) If I go grocery shopping when I am hungry, I buy snack foods and cannot resist eating them. Therefore, I cannot lose weight. (E) People who have many friends tend to go out often, so they need cars. Therefore, if Joe wants to have many friends, he must buy a car.

Answer: (C)

Philosopher: It has been argued that because particular moral codes differ between cultures, morality must be entirely a product of culture and cannot be grounded in some universal human nature. This argument is flawed. Research suggests that certain moral attitudes, such as disapproval of unfairness and cruelty, are shared across all cultures. And just as certain universal tastes like sweetness and saltiness can, in different cultural contexts, provide the basis for many different cuisines, __ _ Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? (A) moral codes tend to be based in the specific contexts in which they arise (B) the moral codes of most cultures resemble each other in many respects (C) a variety of moral codes can be based in shared moral attitudes (D) it is possible to understand the basis of the moral codes of different cultures (E) moral attitudes can be adapted to suit the moral codes of many different cultures

Answer: (C)

Political commentators see recent policies of the government toward Country X as appeasement, pure and simple. This view is fundamentally mistaken, for polls show that most people disagree with the political commentators' assessment of government policies toward Country X. The reasoning in the argument is questionable because (A) the term "policies" is used ambiguously in the argument (B) the political commentators discussed in the passage are not identified (C) a claim is inferred to be false merely because a majority of people believe it to be false (D) the claim that the political commentators are mistaken is both a premise and a conclusion in the argument (E) it is assumed that what is true of persons individually is true of a country as a whole

Answer: (C)

Political leader: In this political dispute, our side will benefit from showing a desire to compromise with the opposition. If the opposition responds positively, then a compromise will be reached. If they do not, then they will be held responsible for the failure to reach a compromise and our side will benefit. The conclusion of the political leader's argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) The political leader's side has a desire to compromise with the opposition. (B) The opposition is rarely willing to compromise with the political leader's side. (C) The political leader's side will benefit if a compromise is reached. (D) The opposition would benefit from showing a desire to compromise. (E) The opposition will compromise if the political leader's side shows a desire to compromise.

Answer: (C)

Politician: Union leaders argue that increases in multinational control of manufacturing have shifted labor to nations without strong worker protections, resulting in a corresponding global decrease in workers' average wages. Given that these leaders have a vested interest in seeing wages remain high, they would naturally want to convince legislators to oppose multinational control. Thus, legislators should reject this argument. The reasoning in the politician's argument is flawed in that the argument A) treats the mere fact that certain people are union members as sufficient to cast doubt on all of the viewpoints expressed by those people B) presumes, without providing justification, that anyone who political motivations are clearly discernible is an unreliable source of information to legislators C) treats circumstances potentially affecting the union leaders' argument as sufficient to discredit those leaders' argument D) presumes, without providing justification, that the argument it cites is the union leaders' only argument for their view E) presumes, without providing evidence, that leaders of all unions argue against increases in multinational control of manufacturing

Answer: (C)

Politician: Union leaders argue that increases in multinational control of manufacturing have shifted labor to nations without strong worker protections, resulting in a corresponding global decrease in workers' average wages. Given that these leaders have a vested interest in seeing wages remain high, they would naturally want to convince legislators to oppose multinational control. Thus, legislators should reject this argument. The reasoning in the politician's argument is flawed in that the argument A) treats the mere fact that certain people are union members as sufficient to cast doubt on all of the viewpoints expressed by those people B) presumes, without providing justification, that anyone whose political motivations are clearly discernible is an unreliable source of information to legislators C) treats circumstances potentially affecting the union leaders' argument as sufficient to discredit those leaders' argument D) presumes, without providing justification, that the argument it cites is the union leaders' only argument in their view E) presumes, without providing evidence, that leaders of all unions argue against increases in multinational control of manufacturing

Answer: (C)

Principle: Meetings should be kept short, addressing only those issues relevant to a majority of those attending. A person should not be required to attend a meeting if none of the issues to be addressed at the meeting are relevant to that person. Application: Terry should not be required to attend today's two o'clock meeting. Which one of the following, if true, most justifies the stated application of the principle? (A) The only issues on which Terry could make a presentation at the meeting are issues irrelevant to at least a majority of those who could attend. (B) If Terry makes a presentation at the meeting, the meeting will not be kept short. (C) No issue relevant to Terry could be relevant to a majority of those attending the meeting. (D) If Terry attends the meeting a different set of issues will be relevant to a majority of those attending than if Terry does not attend. (E) The majority of the issues to be addressed at the meeting are not relevant to Terry.

Answer: (C)

Principle: Only if a professor believes a student knowingly presented someone else's ideas without attribution should the professor make an official determination that the student has committed plagiarism. Application: It is not the case that Professor Serfin should make an official determination that Walters committed plagiarism in the term paper about Willa Cather that Walters wrote for Serfin's class. Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? A) Professor Serfin does not have completely compelling evidence to conclude that Walters presented someone else's ideas as it they were his own in the term paper about Willa Cather B) If Walters had realized that the main thesis of his term paper is identical to the main thesis of a book he had read, Walters would have attributed to the idea to the book C) Although the main thesis of Walter's term paper is identical to that of a book that he did not cite, Professor Serfin is convinced that Walters did not knowingly try to pass anyone else's ideas off as his own D) Walters does not believe that Professor Serfin should make an official determination that he plagiarized E) Professor Serfin has no intention of making an official determination that Walters plagiarized in the class

Answer: (C)

Professor: It has been argued that freedom of thought is a precondition for intellectual progress, because freedom of thought allows thinkers to pursue their ideas, regardless of whom these ideas offend, in whatever direction they lead. However, it is clear that one must mine the full implications of interrelated ideas to make intellectual progress, and for this, thinkers need intellectual discipline. Therefore, this argument for freedom of thought fails. The conclusion drawn by the professor follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Thinkers who limit their line of thought to a particular orthodoxy are hindered in their intellectual progress. (B) Thinkers can mine the full implications of interrelated ideas only in the context of a society that values intellectual progress. (C) In societies that protect freedom of thought, thinkers invariably lack intellectual discipline. (D) Freedom of thought engenders creativity, which aids the discovery of truth. (E) Without intellectual discipline, thinkers can have no freedom of thought.

Answer: (C)

Psychologist: People tend to make certain cognitive errors when they predict how a given even would affect their future happiness. But people should not necessarily try to rid themselves of this tendency. After all, in a visual context, lines that are actually parallel often appear to people as if they converge. If a surgeon offered to restructure your eyes and visual cortex so that parallel lines would no longer ever appear to converge, it would not be reasonable to take the surgeon up on the offer. The psychologist's argument does which one of the following? A) attempts to refute a claim that a particular even is inevitable by establishing the possibility of an alternative event B) attempts to undermine a theory by calling into question an assumption on which the theory is based C) argues that an action might not be appropriate by suggesting that a corresponding action in an analogous situation is not appropriate D) argues that two situations are similar by establishing that the same action would be reasonable in each situation E) attempts to establish a generalization and then uses that generalization to argue against a particular action

Answer: (C)

Science writer: Scientists' astounding success rate with research problems they have been called upon to solve causes the public to believe falsely that science can solve any problem. In fact, the problems scientists are called upon to solve are typically selected by scientists themselves. When the problems are instead selected by politicians or business leaders, their formulation is nevertheless guided by scientists in such a way as to make scientific solutions feasible. Scientists are almost never asked to solve problems that are not subject to such formulation. The science writer's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? (A) If a problem can be formulated in such a way as to make a scientific solution feasible, scientists will usually be called upon to solve that problem. (B) Any problem a scientist can solve can be formulated in such a way as to make a scientific solution feasible. (C) Scientists would probably have a lower success rate with research problems if their grounds for selecting such problems were less narrow. (D) Most of the problems scientists are called upon to solve are problems that politicians and business leaders want solved, but whose formulation the scientists have helped to guide. (E) The only reason for the astounding success rate of science is that the problems scientists are called upon to solve are usually selected by the scientists themselves.

Answer: (C)

Scientists examine diamonds that were formed on Earth about 2.9 billion years ago. These diamonds had a higher-than-normal concentration of sulfur-33. This concentration can be explained only by certain chemical reactions that are stimulated by ultraviolet light. If there had been more than a trace of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere 2.9 billion years ago, then not enough ultraviolet would have reached Earth's surface to stimulate the chemical reactions. The information above most strongly supports which one of the following? A) Most diamonds with higher-than-normal concentrations of sulfur-33 were formed at least 2.9 billion years ago B) Ultraviolet light causes the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere to react chemically with sulfur-33 C) Earth's atmosphere contained very little, if any, oxygen 2.9 billion years ago D) Sulfur-33 is rarely found in diamonds that were formed more recently than 2.9 billion years ago E) The formation of diamonds occurs only in the presence of ultraviolet

Answer: (C)

Sherrie: Scientists now agree that nicotine in tobacco is addictive inasmuch as smokers who try to stop smoking suffer withdrawal symptoms. For this reason alone, tobacco should be treated the same way as other dangerous drugs. Governments worldwide have a duty to restrict the manufacture and sale of tobacco. Fran: By your own admission, "addictive" is broad enough to include other commonly consumed products, such as coffee and soft drinks containing caffeine. But of course the manufacture and sale of these products should not be restricted. The dialogue above lends the most support to the claim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following statements? (A) The manufacture and sale of all drugs should be regulated by governments. (B) Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeine should not be regulated by governments. (C) Agreement by scientists that a substance is addictive justifies government restrictions on products containing that substance. (D) Scientists are not proper authorities with respect to the question of whether a given substance is addictive. (E) Scientists and governments have a duty to cooperate in regulating drugs to protect the public health.

Answer: (C)

Some argue that because attaining governmental power in democracies requires building majority coalitions, it is a necessary evil that policymakers do not adhere rigorously to principle when dealing with important issues, but rather shift policies as they try to please different constituents at different times. But it is precisely this behavior that allows a democracy to adapt more easily to serve public interests, and thus it is more a benefit than an evil. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) Government policymakers cannot retain power if they ignore any of the various factions of their original winning coalition. (B) Democracies are more likely than nondemocratic forms of government to have policymakers who understand the complexity of governmental issues. (C) In the formulation of government policy, the advantage conferred by adaptability to diverse or fluctuating public interests outweighs the detriment associated with a lack of strict fidelity to principle. (D) In dealing with an important issue, policymakers in a democracy appeal to a principle in dealing with an issue only when that principle has majority support. (E) Democracies appear to be more flexible than nondemocratic forms of government, but are not actually so.

Answer: (C)

Some food historians conclude that recipes compiled by an ancient Roman named Apicius are a reliable indicator of how wealthy Romans prepared and spiced their food. Since few other recipes from ancient Rome have survived, this conclusion is far too hasty. After all, the recipes of Apicius may have been highly atypical, just like the recipes of many notable modern chefs. The argument does which one of the following? A) It rejects a view held by some food historians solely on the grounds that there is sufficient evidence to support it B) It offers support for a view held by some food historians by providing a modern analogue to that view C) It takes issue with the view of some food historians by providing a modern analogue that purportedly undercuts their view D) It uses a conclusion drawn by some food historians as the basis for a conclusion about a modern analogue E) It tries to bolster a conclusion about the similarity of historical times to modern times by comparing a conclusion drawn by some food historians to a modern analogue

Answer: (C)

Some potential anticancer drugs work by depriving growing tumors of needed blood vessels. The creation of blood vessels is called angiogenesis, and the experimental drugs work by inhibiting this process. The same drugs have been found to prevent obesity in rodents. The statements above, if true, lend the strongest support to which one of the following? A) The cells in tumors are more similar in structure to fat cells than to other cells in the body. B) Drugs that inhibit angiogenesis would probably enable obese humans to lose weight. C) Fat tissue depends on angiogenesis in order to grow. D) Rodents with cancer are more likely to be obese than healthy rodents. E) Drugs that inhibit angiogenesis also prevent absorption of vital nutrients.

Answer: (C)

Some twentieth-century art is great art. All great art involves original ideas, and any art that is not influential cannot be great art. Each of the following statements follows logically from the set of statements above EXCEPT: (A) Some influential art involves original ideas. (B) Some twentieth-century art involves original ideas. (C) Only art that involves original ideas is influential. (D) Only art that is influential and involves original ideas is great art. (E) Some twentieth-century art is influential and involves original ideas.

Answer: (C)

Teresa: If their goal is to maximize profits, film studios should concentrate on producing big-budget films rather than small-budget ones. For, unlike big-budget films, small-budget films never attract mass audiences. While small-budget films are less expensive to produce and, hence, involve less risk of unprofitability than big-budget films, low production costs do not guarantee the highest possible profits. Which one of the following is an assumption required by Teresa's argument? (A) Each big-budget film is guaranteed to attract a mass audience. (B) A film studio cannot make both big-budget films and small-budget films. (C) A film studio will not maximize its profits unless at least some of its films attract mass audiences. (D) It is impossible to produce a big-budget film in a financially efficient manner. (E) A film studio's primary goal should be to maximize profits.

Answer: (C)

The Iliad and the Odyssey were both attributed to Homer in ancient times. But these two poems differ greatly in tone and vocabulary and in certain details of the fictional world they depict. So they are almost certainly not the work of the same poet. Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the reasoning above? (A) Several hymns that were also attributed to Homer in ancient times differ more from the Iliad in the respects mentioned than does the Odyssey. (B) Both the Iliad and the Odyssey have come down to us in manuscripts that have suffered from minor copying errors and other textual corruptions. (C) Works known to have been written by the same modern writer are as different from each other in the respects mentioned as are the Iliad and the Odyssey. (D) Neither the Iliad nor the Odyssey taken by itself is completely consistent in all of the respects mentioned. (E) Both the Iliad and the Odyssey were the result of an extended process of oral composition in which many poets were involved.

Answer: (C)

The average length of stay for patients at Edgewater Hospital is four days, compared to six days at University Hospital. Since studies show that recovery rates at the two hospitals are similar for patients with similar illnesses, University Hospital could decrease its average length of stay without affecting quality of care. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) equates the quality of care at a hospital with patients' average length of stay (B) treats a condition that will ensure the preservation of quality of care as a condition that is required to preserve quality of care (C) fails to take into account the possibility that patients at Edgewater Hospital tend to be treated for different illnesses than patients at University Hospital (D) presumes, without providing justification, that the length of time patients stay in the hospital is never relevant to the recovery rates of these patients (E) fails to take into account the possibility that patients at University Hospital generally prefer longer hospital stays

Answer: (C)

The company president says that significant procedural changes were made before either she or Yeung was told about them. But, according to Grimes, the contract requires that either the company president or any lawyer in the company's legal department be told about proposed procedural changes before they are made. Thus, unless what Grimes or the company president said is incorrect, the contract was violated. The argument's conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Yeung is a lawyer in the company's legal department. (B) Neither Grimes nor Yeung was told about the procedural changes until after they were made. (C) No lawyer in the company's legal department was told about the procedural changes until after they were made. (D) If the company's president was told about the procedural changes before they were made, then the contract was not violated. (E) If no lawyer in the company's legal department was told about the procedural changes before they were made, then the contract was violated.

Answer: (C)

The obesity invariably associated with some high-fat diets is caused by an absence in these diets of certain nutrients that are necessary for an active metabolism, not by excessive caloric intake. Hence, people on these high-fat diets do not consume too many calories. The questionable pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? A) Electrical storms are strongly correlated with precipitous drops in barometric pressure. So, electrical storms are caused by such drops in pressure, rather than by air turbulence. B) The impression that most viewers of sports programming are beer drinkers is due not to mere stereotyping but to the vast number of beer commercials broadcast during televised sports. Hence, most beer drinkers are avid fans of sports programs. C) The disorientation observed in airline pilots after transoceanic flights is caused not by sleep deprivation but by disruption in their exposure to daylight. Hence, transoceanic pilots do not suffer from sleep deprivation D) Stock market crashes are due, not to panic in the face of predicted economic downturns, but to mere rumormongering without any basis in fact. Hence, economic downturns cannot be accurately predicted. E) The preponderance of mathematics graduates among professional computer programmers is due not to the intelligence of mathematicians but to the appropriateness of mathematical training for computer programming. Hence, most computer programmers have mathematical training.

Answer: (C)

The obesity invariably associated with some high-fat diets is caused by an absence in these diets of certain nutrients that are necessary for an active metabolism, not by excessive caloric intake. Hence, people on these high-fat diets do not consume too many calories. The questionable pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? (A) Electrical storms are strongly correlated with precipitous drops in barometric pressure. So, electrical storms are caused by such drops in pressure, rather than by air turbulence. (B) The impression that most viewers of sports programming are beer drinkers is due not to mere stereotyping but to the vast number of beer commercials broadcast during televised sports. Hence, most beer drinkers are avid fans of sports programs. (C) The disorientation observed in airline pilots after transoceanic flights is caused not by sleep deprivation but by disruption in their exposure to daylight. Hence, transoceanic pilots do not suffer from sleep deprivation. (D) Stock market crashes are due, not to panic in the face of predicted economic downturns, but to mere rumormongering without any basis in fact. Hence, economic downturns cannot be accurately predicted. (E) The preponderance of mathematics graduates among professional computer programmers is due not to the intelligence of mathematicians but to the appropriateness of mathematical training for computer programming. Hence, most computer programmers have mathematical training

Answer: (C)

The tiny hummingbird weighs little, but its egg is 15 percent of the adult hummingbird's weight. The volume and weight of an adult goose are much greater than those of a hummingbird, but a goose's egg is only about 4 percent of its own weight. An adult ostrich, much larger and heavier than a goose, lays an egg that is only 1.6 percent of its own weight. Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the statements above? (A) The eggs of different bird species vary widely in their ratio of volume to weight. (B) The smaller and lighter the average adult members of a bird species are, the larger and heavier the eggs of that species are. (C) The ratio of egg weight of a species to body weight of an adult member of that species is smaller for larger birds than for smaller ones. (D) The size of birds' eggs varies greatly from species to species but has little effect on the volume and weight of the adult bird. (E) Bird species vary more in egg size than they do in average body size and weight.

Answer: (C)

There are only two plausible views about where the aesthetic value of a painting lies: either in its purely formal qualities or in what the painting means. But there exists no compelling general account of how a painting could derive its value from its purely formal characteristics. Therefore, the aesthetic value of a painting lies in what it means. The pattern of questionable reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? A) This cardiac patient could be treated with surgery or angioplasty, among other methods. But his weak condition would make recovery from surgery a very long process. Therefore, the doctors ought to perform angioplasty. B) Should the company be outbid on the new project, it will either have or lay off workers or find new business. But it does not expect to find new business in the foreseeable future. Therefore, it must be expecting win the bid on the new project C) History is driven primarily by economic forces or primarily by political forces. Therefore, it is driven primarily by political forces D) Some analysts are forecasting that if the economy expands, the inflation rate will rise or the unemployment rate will fall. But the unemployment rate promises to remain stable. Therefore, the inflation rate will not change either E) If the party does not change its policies, it will lose heavily in the next election. But if it changes its policies, some people who support those policies, some people who support those policies will be upset and will sit out the next election. Therefore, it is impossible for the next party to win in the next election

Answer: (C)

Toning shoes—walking shoes with a specially rounded sole—are popular with fitness enthusiasts. Research shows that the major leg muscles of people walking in toning shoes receive no more exercise than those of people walking in ordinary walking shoes. Nevertheless, many people experience a strengthening of their major leg muscles after switching to toning shoes. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? A) Toning shoes strengthen small underused muscles in the feet and ankles. B) Muscles in the leg adapt to the rounded shape of toning shoes almost immediately. C) Many people find toning shoes especially comfortable and walk more as a result. D) There is little evidence that toning shoes cause injuries to their wearers. E) Shoes that strengthen the major leg muscles are more marketable than ordinary shoes.

Answer: (C)

University administrator: Graduate students incorrectly claim that teaching assistants should be considered university employees and thus entitled to the usual employee benefits. Granted, teaching assistants teach classes, for which they receive financial compensation. However, the sole purpose of having teaching assistants perform services for the university is to enable them to fund their education. If they were not pursuing degrees here or if they could otherwise fund their education, they would not hold their teaching posts at all. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the administrator's argument? (A) The administrator is cognizant of the extra costs involved in granting employee benefits to teaching assistants. (B) The university employs adjunct instructors who receive compensation similar to that of its teaching assistants. (C) The university has proposed that in the interest of economy, 10 percent of the faculty be replaced with teaching assistants. (D) Most teaching assistants earn stipends that exceed their cost of tuition. (E) Teaching assistants work as much and as hard as do other university employees.

Answer: (C)

We learn to use most of the machines in our lives through written instructions, without knowledge of the machines' inner workings, because most machines are specifically designed for use by nonexperts. So, in general, attaining technological expertise would prepare students for tomorrow's job market no better than would a more traditional education stressing verbal and quantitative skills. The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? (A) Fewer people receive a traditional education stressing verbal and quantitative skills now than did 20 years ago. (B) Facility in operating machines designed for use by nonexperts is almost never enhanced by expert knowledge of the machines' inner workings. (C) Most jobs in tomorrow's job market will not demand the ability to operate many machines that are designed for use only by experts. (D) Students cannot attain technological expertise and also receive an education that does not neglect verbal and quantitative skills. (E) When learning to use a machine, technological expertise is never more important than verbal and quantitative skills.

Answer: (C)

A 24-year study of 1,500 adults showed that those subjects with a high intake of foods rich in betacarotene were much less likely to die from cancer or heart disease than were those with a low intake of such foods. On the other hand, taking beta-carotene supplements for 12 years had no positive or negative effect on the health of subjects in a separate study of 20,000 adults. Each of the following, if true, would help to resolve the apparent discrepancy between the results of the two studies EXCEPT: (A) The human body processes the beta-carotene present in foods much more efficiently than it does beta-carotene supplements. (B) Beta-carotene must be taken for longer than 12 years to have any cancer-preventive effects. (C) Foods rich in beta-carotene also tend to contain other nutrients that assist in the human body's absorption of beta-carotene. (D) In the 12-year study, half of the subjects were given beta-carotene supplements and half were given a placebo. (E) In the 24-year study, the percentage of the subjects who had a high intake of betacarotene-rich foods who smoked cigarettes was much smaller than the percentage of the subjects with a low intake of beta-carotene-rich foods who smoked.

Answer: (D)

A recent national study of the trash discarded in several representative areas confirmed that plastics constitute a smaller proportion of all trash than paper products do, whether the trash is measured by weight or by volume. The damage that a given weight or volume of trash does to the environment is roughly the same whether the trash consists of plastics or paper products. Contrary to popular opinion, therefore, the current use of plastics actually does less harm to the environment nationwide than that of paper products. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) A given weight of paper product may increase in volume after manufacture and before being discarded as trash. (B) According to popular opinion, volume is a more important consideration than weight in predicting the impact of a given quantity of trash on the environment. (C) The sum of damage caused to the environment by paper trash and by plastic trash is greater than that caused by any other sort of trash that was studied. (D) The production of any paper product is more harmful to the environment than is the production of an equal weight or volume of any plastic. (E) The proportion of plastic trash to paper trash varies from one part of the country to another.

Answer: (D)

A survey of a city's concertgoers found that almost all of them were dissatisfied with the local concert hall. A large majority of them expressed a strong preference for wider seats and better acoustics. And, even though the survey respondents were told that the existing concert hall cannot feasibly be modified to provide these features, most of them opposed the idea of tearing down the existing structure and replacing it with a concert hall with wider seats and better acoustics. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the apparent conflict in the concertgoers' views, as revealed by the survey? A) Before any of the survey questions were asked, the responded were informed that the survey was sponsored by a group that advocates replacing the existing concert hall B) Most of the people who live in the vicinity of the existing concert hall do not want it to be torn down C) The city's construction industry will receive more economic benefit from the construction of a new concert hall than from renovations to the existing concert hall D) A well-publicized plan is being considered by the city government that would convert the existing concert hall into a public auditorium and build a new concert hall nearby E) Many popular singers and musicians who currently do not hold concerts in the city would begin to hold concerts there if a new concert hall were built

Answer: (D)

Advertisement: Researchers studied a group of people trying to lose weight and discovered that those in the group who lost the most weight got more calories from protein than from carbohydrates and ate their biggest meal early in the day. So anyone who follows our diet, which provides more calories from protein than from anything else and which requires that breakfast be the biggest meal of the day, is sure to lose weight. The reasoning in the advertisement is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the advertisement overlooks the possibility that (A) eating foods that derive a majority of their calories from carbohydrates tends to make one feel fuller than does eating foods that derive a majority of their calories from protein (B) a few of the people in the group studied who lost significant amounts of weight got nearly all of their calories from carbohydrates and ate their biggest meal at night (C) the people in the group studied who increased their activity levels lost more weight, on average, than those who did not, regardless of whether they got more calories from protein or from carbohydrates (D) some people in the group studied lost no weight yet got more calories from protein than from carbohydrates and ate their biggest meal early in the day (E) people who eat their biggest meal at night tend to snack more during the day and so tend to take in more total calories than do people who eat their biggest meal earlier in the day

Answer: (D)

Albert: The government has proposed new automobile emissions regulations designed to decrease the amount of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released into the atmosphere by automobile exhaust. I don't see the need for such regulations; although PAHs are suspected of causing cancer, a causal link has never been proven. Erin: Scientists also blame PAHs for 10,000 premature deaths in this country each year from lung and heart disease. So the proposed regulations would save thousands of lives. Which one of the following, if true, is the logically strongest counter that Albert can make to Erin's argument? (A) Most automobile manufacturers are strongly opposed to additional automobile emissions regulations. (B) It is not known whether PAHs are a causal factor in any diseases other than heart and lung disease and cancer. (C) Even if no new automobile emissions regulations are enacted, the amount of PAHs released into the atmosphere will decrease if automobile usage declines. (D) Most of the PAHs released into the atmosphere are the result of wear and tear on automobile tires. (E) PAHs are one of several components of automobile exhaust that scientists suspect of causing cancer.

Answer: (D)

Although the charter of Westside School states that the student body must include some students with special educational needs, no students with learning disabilities have yet enrolled in the school. Therefore, the school is currently in violation of its charter. The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) All students with learning disabilities have special educational needs B) The school currently has no student with learning disabilities C) The school should enroll students with special educational needs D) The only students with special educational needs are students with learning disabilities E) The schools charter cannot be modified in order to avoid its being violated

Answer: (D)

Among small- to medium-sized marine mammals such as seals and dolphins, the longer an animal can stay submerged during a dive, the greater the depth the animal can reach. Dolphins can dive to greater depths than northern fur seals can, and elephant seals can stay submerged longer than Weddell seals can. If the information above is accurate, then each of the following statements could be true EXCEPT: (A) Dolphins can dive to greater depths than Weddell seals can, but not to depths as great as elephant seals can. (B) Weddell seals can stay submerged longer than northern fur seals can, but dolphins can dive to greater depths than Weddell seals can. (C) Weddell seals can dive to greater depths than dolphins can and can stay submerged longer than northern fur seals can. (D) Northern fur seals can stay submerged longer than elephant seals can, but Weddell seals can dive to greater depths than dolphins can. (E) Northern fur seals can stay submerged longer than Weddell seals can, but elephant seals can dive to greater depths than northern fur seals can.

Answer: (D)

Anthropologist: All music is based on a few main systems of scale building. Clearly, if the popularity of a musical scale were a result of social conditioning, we would expect, given the diversity of social systems, a diverse mixture of diatonic and nondiatonic scales in the world's music. Yet diatonic scales have always dominated the music of most of the world. Therefore, the popularity of diatonic music can be attributed only to innate dispositions of the human mind. The anthropologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it fails to (A) consider the possibility that some people appreciate nondiatonic music more than they do diatonic music (B) explain how innate dispositions increase appreciation of nondiatonic music (C) explain the existence of diatonic scales as well as the existence of nondiatonic scales (D) consider that innate dispositions and social conditioning could jointly affect the popularity of a type of music (E) consider whether any appreciation of nondiatonic music is demonstrated by some nonhuman species of animals

Answer: (D)

Bardis: Extensive research shows that television advertisements affect the buying habits of consumers. Some people conclude from this that violent television imagery sometimes causes violent behavior. But the effectiveness of television advertisements could be a result of those televised images being specifically designed to alter buying habits, whereas television violence is not designed to cause violent behavior. Hence we can safely conclude that violent television imagery does not cause violence. The reasoning in Bardis's argument is flawed because that argument (A) relies on an illegitimate inference from the fact that advertisements can change behavior to the claim that advertisements can cause violent behavior (B) fails to distinguish a type of behavior from a type of stimulus that may or may not affect behavior (C) undermines its own position by questioning the persuasive power of television advertising (D) concludes that a claim is false on the basis of one purported fault in an argument in favor of that claim (E) fails to consider the possibility that the argument it disputes is intended to address a separate issue

Answer: (D)

Buying elaborate screensavers can cost a company far more in employee than it saves in electricity and monitor protection. Employees cannot resist spending time playing with screensavers that flash interesting graphics across their screens. Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated above? A) A school that chooses textbooks based on student preference may not get the most economical package B) An energy-efficient insulation system may cost more up front but will ultimately save money over the life of the house C) The time that it takes to have a pizza delivered may be longer than it takes to cook a complete dinner D) A complicated hotel security system may cost more in customer goodwill than it saves losses by theft E) An electronic keyboard may be cheaper to buy than a piano but more expensive to repair

Answer: (D)

City leader: If our city adopts the new tourism plan, the amount of money that tourists pend here annually will increase by at least $2 billion, creating as many jobs as a new automobile manufacturing plant would. It would be reasonable for the city to spend the amount of money necessary to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant here, but adopting the tourism plan would cost less. The city leader's statements, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following? A) The city should implement the least expensive job creation measures available B) In general, it is reasonable for the city to spend money to try to convince manufacturing companies to build plants in the city C) The city cannot afford to spend money to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant in the city and to adopt the new tourism plan D) It would be reasonable for the city to adopt the new tourism plan E) The only way the city can create jobs is by increasing tourism

Answer: (D)

Columnist: Although much has been learned, we are still largely ignorant of the intricate interrelationships among species of living organisms. We should, therefore, try to preserve the maximum number of species if we have an interest in preserving any, since allowing species toward which we are indifferent to perish might undermine the viability of other species. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the columnist's argument? (A) It is strongly in our interest to preserve certain plant and animal species. (B) We should not take any action until all relevant scientific facts have been established and taken into account. (C) We should not allow the number of species to diminish any further than is necessary for the flourishing of present and future human populations. (D) We should not allow a change to occur unless we are assured that that change will not jeopardize anything that is important to us. (E) We should always undertake the course of action that is likely to have the best consequences in the immediate future.

Answer: (D)

Columnist: The dangers of mountain climbing have been greatly exaggerated by the popular media. In the 80 years from 1922 to 2002, there were fewer than 200 climbing fatalities on Mount Everest, one of the most dangerous mountains in the world. Contrast that with the more than 7,000 traffic fatalities in France alone in 2002. The reasoning in the columnist's argument is flawed because it fails to consider A) whether the number of traffic fatalities in France was higher in 2002 than in other years B) whether the number of traffic fatalities in France is usually higher than that in other countries C) whether the number of fatalities among climbers on Mount Everest could be reduced by implementing stricter safety measures D) how many climbers were on Mount Everest during those 80 years and how many people traveled on French roads in 2002 E) how many climbing fatalities there were during those 80 years on mountains other than Mount Everest

Answer: (D)

Consumer: If you buy a watch at a department store and use it only in the way it was intended to be used, but the watch stops working the next day, then the department store will refund your money. So by this very reasonable standard, Bingham's Jewelry Store should give me a refund even though they themselves are not a department store, since the watch I bought from them stopped working the very next day. The consumer's argument relies on the assumption that (A) one should not sell something unless one expects that it will function in the way it was originally designed to function (B) a watch bought at a department store and a watch bought at Bingham's Jewelry Store can both be expected to keep working for about the same length of time if each is used only as it was intended to be used (C) a seller should refund the money that was paid for a product if the product does not perform as the purchaser expected it to perform (D) the consumer did not use the watch in a way contrary to the way it was intended to be used (E) the watch that was purchased from Bingham's Jewelry Store was not a new watch

Answer: (D)

Daniel: There are certain actions that moral duty obliges us to perform regardless of their consequences. However, an action is not morally good simply because it fulfills a moral obligation. No action can be morally good unless it is performed with the right motivations. Carrie: Our motivations for our actions are not subject to our conscious control. Therefore, the only thing that can required for an action to be morally good is that it fulfill a moral obligation. The dialogue most supports the claim that Daniel and Carrie are committed to disagreeing with each other about the truth of which one of the following statements? A) No one can be morally required to do something that is impossible to do B) Some actions that are performed with the right motivations are not morally good C) All actions that fulfill moral obligations are performed in order to fulfill moral obligations D) An action performed with the wrong motivations cannot be morally good E) If a person's motivations for acting are based on a sense of duty, then that person's action is morally good

Answer: (D)

Drug company manager: Our newest product is just not selling. One way to save it would be a new marketing campaign. This would not guarantee success, but it is one chance to save the product, so we should try it. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the manager's argument? A) The drug company has invested heavily in its newest product, and losses due to this product would be harmful to the company's profits B) Many new products fail whether or not they are supported by marketing campaigns C) The drug company should not undertake a new marketing campaign for its newest product if the campaign has no chance to succeed D) Undertaking a new marketing campaign would endanger the drug company's overall position by necessitating cutbacks in existing marketing campaigns E) Consumer demand for the drug company's other products as been strong in the time since the company's newest product was introduced

Answer: (D)

Economist: Government intervention in the free market in pursuit of socially desirable goals can affect supply and demand, thereby distorting prices. The ethics of such intervention is comparable to that of administering medicines. Most medicines have harmful as well as beneficial effects, so the use of a type of medicine is ethically justified only when its nonuse would be significantly more harmful than its use. Similarly, government intervention in the free market is justified only when it _______. Which one of the following most logically completes the final sentence above? (A) would likely be approved of by the majority of the affected participants (B) has been shown to have few if any significantly harmful effects (C) is believed unlikely to significantly exacerbate any existing problems (D) would do less damage than would result from the government's not intervening (E) provides a solution to some otherwise insoluble problem

Answer: (D)

Editorial: This political party has repeatedly expressed the view that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal. On other occasions, however, the same party has claimed that the government should not increase spending on education. So this party's policy is clearly inconsistent. The argument in the editorial depends on assuming which one of the following? (A) It is inconsistent for a legislator both to claim that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal and to vote against increasing spending on education. (B) A consistent course of action in educational policy is usually the course of action that will reduce spending on education in the long run. (C) Even if a goal is a morally good one, one should not necessarily try to achieve it. (D) A consistent political policy does not hold that an action that comprises a worthy goal should not be performed. (E) Members of one political party never have inconsistent views on how to best approach a political issue.

Answer: (D)

Ethicist: Marital vows often contain the promise to love "until death do us part." If "love" here refers to a feeling, then this promise makes no sense, for feelings are not within one's control, and a promise to do something not within one's control makes no sense. Thus, no one—including those making marital vows—should take "love" in this context to be referring to feelings. The ethicist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) None of our feelings are within our control. (B) People should not make promises to do something that is not within their control. (C) "Love" can legitimately be taken to refer to something other than feelings. (D) Promises should not be interpreted in such a way that they make no sense. (E) Promises that cannot be kept do not make any sense.

Answer: (D)

Ethicist: The penalties for drunk driving are far more severe when the drunk driver accidentally injures people than when no one is injured. Moral responsibility for an action depends solely on the intentions underlying the action and not on the action's results. Therefore, legal responsibility, depending as it does in at least some cases on factors other than the agent's intentions, is different than moral responsibility. The claim that the penalties for drunk driving are far more severe when the drunk driver accidentally injures people than when no one is injured plays which one of the following roles in the ethicist's argument? (A) It is a premise offered in support of the claim that legal responsibility for an action is based solely upon features of the action that are generally unintended by the agent. (B) It is offered as an illustration of the claim that the criteria of legal responsibility for an action include but are not the same as those for moral responsibility. (C) It is offered as an illustration of the claim that people may be held morally responsible for an action for which they are not legally responsible. (D) It is a premise offered in support of the claim that legal responsibility depends in at least some cases on factors other than the agent's intentions. (E) It is a premise offered in support of the claim that moral responsibility depends solely on the intentions underlying the action and not on the action's result.

Answer: (D)

Film director: Although the production costs of my latest film are very high, there is little risk that the film studio will not recover these costs. Even if the film is unpopular, much of the money is being spent to develop innovative special-effects technology that could be used in future films. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) Because the film studio owns the new technology, the studio will be able to control its use in any future films. (B) Films that introduce innovative special-effects technologies generally draw large audiences of people who are curious about the new effects. (C) The production costs of this film are so high that, even if the film is popular, it is unlikely that the film's ticket sales will offset those costs. (D) In the past, many innovative special-effects technologies were abandoned after the films for which they were developed proved to be unpopular. (E) The use of the new special-effects technology p would lower the production costs of other films that use it.

Answer: (D)

Film preservation requires transferring old movies from their original material-unstable, deteriorating nitrate film-to stable acetate film. But this is a time-consuming, expensive process, and there is no way to transfer all currently deteriorating nitrate films to acetate before they disintegrate. So some films from the earliest years of Hollywood will not be preserved. Which one of the following is an assumption of which the argument depends? A) No new technology for transferring old movies from nitrate film to acetate film will ever be developed B) Transferring films from nitrate to acetate is not the least expensive way of preserving them C) Not many films from the earliest years of Hollywood have already been transferred to acetate D) Some films from the earliest years of Hollywood currently exist solely in their original material E) The least popular films from the earliest years of Hollywood are the ones most likely to be lost

Answer: (D)

For the last 3 years, entomologists have been searching for a parasite to help control a whitefly that has recently become a serious crop pest. Believing this new pest to be a variety of sweet-potato whitefly, the entomologists confined their search to parasites of the sweet-potato whitefly. Genetic research now shows the new pest to be a distinct species, the silverleaf whitefly. Therefore, the search for a parasite has so far been wasted effort. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies? A) All varieties of the sweet-potato whitefly are serious crop pests B) If a crop pest has a parasite, that parasite can always be used to control that pest C) The chances of successfully identifying a useful parasite of the new pest have increased since the proper identification of the pest D) No parasite of the sweet-potato whitefly also a parasite of the silverleaf whitefly E) In the last 3 years, the entomologists found no parasites of the sweet-potato whitefly

Answer: (D)

Fossil-fuel producers say that it would be prohibitively expensive to reduce levels of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels enough to halt global warming. This claim is probably false. Several years ago, the chemical industry said that finding an economical alternative to the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroying the ozone layer would be impossible. Yet once the industry was forced, by international agreements, to find substitutes for CFCs, it managed to phase them out completely well before the mandated deadline, in many cases at a profit. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) In the time since the chemical industry phased out CFCs, the destruction of the ozone layer by CFCs has virtually halted, but the levels of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels have continued to increase. (B) In some countries, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels has already been reduced without prohibitive expense, but at some cost in convenience to the users of such fuels. (C) The use of CFCs never contributed as greatly to the destruction of the ozone layer as the carbon dioxide emitted by the use of fossil fuels currently contributes to global warming. (D) There are ways of reducing carbon dioxide emissions that could halt global warming without hurting profits of fossil-fuel producers significantly more than phasing out CFCs hurt those of the chemical industry. (E) If international agreements forced fossil-fuel producers to find ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions enough to halt global warming, the fossil-fuel producers could find substitutes for fossil fuels.

Answer: (D)

Gardener: Researchers encourage us to allow certain kinds of weeds to grow among garden vegetables because they can repel caterpillars from the garden. While it is wise to avoid unnecessary use of insecticides, the researchers' advice is premature. For all we know, those kinds of weeds can deplete the soil of nutrients and moisture that garden crops depend on, and might even attract other kinds of damaging pests. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the gardener's argument? (A) To the extent that it is possible to do so, we should eliminate the use of insecticides in gardening. (B) Allowing certain kinds of weeds to grow in vegetable gardens may contribute to a net increase in unwanted garden pests. (C) Allowing the right kinds of weeds to grow in vegetable gardens can help toward controlling caterpillars without the use of insecticides. (D) We should be cautious about the practice of allowing certain kinds of weeds to grow among garden vegetables. (E) We should be skeptical about the extent to which certain kinds of weeds can reduce the presence of caterpillars in gardens.

Answer: (D)

Herpetologist: Some psychologists attribute complex reasoning to reptiles, claiming that simple stimulus-response explanations of some reptiles' behaviors, such as food gathering, cannot account for the complexity of such behavior. But since experiments show that reptiles are incapable of making major alterations in their behavior, for example, when faced with significant changes in their environment, these animals must be incapable of complex reasoning. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the herpetologist's argument? (A) Animals could make major changes in their behavior only if they were capable of complex reasoning. (B) Simple stimulus-response explanations can in principle account for all reptile behaviors. (C) Reptile behavior appears more complex in the field than laboratory experiments reveal it to be. (D) If reptiles were capable of complex reasoning, they would sometimes be able to make major changes in their behavior. (E) Complex reasoning and responses to stimuli cannot both contribute to the same behavior.

Answer: (D)

Historian: In rebuttal of my claim that West influenced Stuart, some people point out that West's work is mentioned only once in Stuart's diaries. But Stuart's diaries mention several meetings with West, and Stuart's close friend, Abella, studied under West. Furthermore, Stuart's work often uses West's terminology which, though now commonplace, none of Stuart's contemporaries used. Which one of the following propositions is most supported by the historian's statements, if those statements are true? (A) Stuart's discussions with Abella were one of the means by which West influenced Stuart. (B) It is more likely that Stuart influenced West than that West influenced Stuart. (C) Stuart's contemporaries were not influenced by West. (D) Stuart's work was not entirely free from West's influence (E) Because of Stuart's influence on other people, West's terminology is now commonplace.

Answer: (D)

Humanitarian considerations aside, sheer economics dictates that country X should institute, as country Y has done, a nationwide system of air and ground transportation for conveying seriously injured persons to specialized trauma centers. Timely access to the kind of medical care that only specialized centers can provide could save the lives of many people. The earnings of these people would result in a substantial increase in country X's gross national product, and the taxes paid on those earnings would substantially augment government revenues. The argument depends on the assumption that (A) lifetime per-capita income is roughly the same in country X as it is in country Y (B) there are no specialized trauma centers in country X at present (C) the treatment of seriously injured persons in trauma centers is not more costly than treatment elsewhere (D) there would be a net increase in employment in country X if more persons survived serious injury (E) most people seriously injured in automobile accidents in country X do not now receive treatment in specialized trauma centers

Answer: (D)

If there are sentient beings on planets outside our solar system, we will not be able to determine this anytime in the near future unless some of these beings are at least as intelligent as humans. We will not be able to send spacecraft to planets outside our solar system anytime in the near future, and any sentient being on another planet capable of communicating with us anytime in the near future would have to be at least as intelligent as we are. The argument's conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? (A) There are no sentient beings on planets in our solar system other than those on Earth. (B) Any beings that are at least as intelligent as humans would want to communicate with sentient beings outside their own solar systems. (C) If there is a sentient being on another planet that is as intelligent as humans are, we will not be able to send spacecraft to the being's planet anytime in the near future. (D) If a sentient being on another planet cannot communicate with us, then the only way to detect its existence is by sending a spacecraft to its planet. (E) Any sentient beings on planets outside our solar system that are at least as intelligent as humans would be capable of communicating with us.

Answer: (D)

In a car accident, air bags greatly reduce the risk of serious injury. However, statistics show that cars without air bags are less likely to be involved in accidents than are cars with air bags. Thus, cars with air bags are no safer than cars without air bags. The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it (A) assumes, without providing justification, that any car with air bags will probably become involved in an accident (B) denies the possibility that cars without air bags have other safety features that reduce the risk of serious injury at least as much as do air bags (C) overlooks the possibility that some accidents involve both cars with air bags and cars without air bags (D) assumes, without providing justification, that the likelihood of an accident's occurring should weigh at least as heavily as the seriousness of any resulting injury in estimates of relative safety (E) takes for granted that all accidents would cause air bags to be deployed

Answer: (D)

In a recent study, one group of participants watched video recordings of themselves running on treadmills, and a second group watched recordings of other people running on treadmills. When contacted later, participants in the first group reported exercising, on average, 1 hour longer each day than did the other participants. This shows that watching a recording of yourself exercising can motivate you to exercise more. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? A) In another study, people who watched recordings of themselves lifting weights exercised for more time each day than did people who watched recordings of themselves running. B) Another study's members exhibited an increased willingness to give to charity after hearing stories in which people with whom they identified did so. C) Participants who were already highly motivated to exercise did not report exercising for any longer each day than they had before the study. D) In studies of identical twins, participants who observed their twin reading overreported by a significant amount how much time they themselves spent reading in the days that followed. E) A third group of participants who watched recordings of themselves sitting on couches afterwards reported being sedentary for more time each day than did the other participants.

Answer: (D)

In an experiment, ten people were asked to taste samples of coffee and rank them. Five of the people were given chocolate with the coffee, and this group subsequently reported that all the coffee samples were tasted pretty much the same as one another. Five others tasted coffee only, and they were able to detect differences. Clearly, then, chocolate interferes with one's ability to taste coffee. Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the conclusion drawn above? A) The ten people were randomly assigned to either the group that taste only coffee or the group that was also given chocolate, although some people had asked to be in the group that received chocolate. B) Similar results were achieved when the experiment was repeated with a different, larger group of people C) Chocolate is normally consumed as a solid, whereas coffee is normally consumed as a liquid. D) The five people who were originally given chocolate were asked a week later to taste coffee samples without chocolate, and they still detected no differences between the coffee samples E) Some subjects who tasted just coffee reported only subtle differences between the coffee samples, while others thought the differences were considerable

Answer: (D)

In humans, ingested protein is broken down into amino acids, all of which must compete to enter the brain. Subsequent ingestion of sugars leads to the production of insulin, a hormone that breaks down the sugars and also rids the bloodstream of residual amino acids, except for tryptophan. Tryptophan then slips into the brain uncontested and is transformed into the chemical serotonin, increasing the brain's serotonin level. Thus, sugars can play a role in mood elevation, helping one to feel relaxed and anxiety-free. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A) Elevation of mood and freedom from anxiety require increasing the level of serotonin in the brain B) Failure to consume foods rich in sugars results in anxiety and a lowering of mood C) Serotonin can be produced naturally only tryptophan is present in the bloodstream D) Increasing the level of serotonin in the brain promotes relaxation and freedom from anxiety E) The consumption of protein-rich foods results in anxiety and a lowering of mood

Answer: (D)

In its coverage of a controversy regarding a proposal to build a new freeway, a television news program showed interviews with several people who would be affected by the proposed freeway. Of the interviews shown, those conducted with people against the new freeway outnumbered those conducted with people for it two to one. The television program is therefore biased against the proposed freeway. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) Most of the people who watched the program were aware of the freeway controversy beforehand. (B) Most viewers of television news programs do not expect those programs to be completely free of bias. (C) In the interviews, the people against the new freeway expressed their opinions with more emotion than the people for the freeway did. (D) Before the program aired, over twice as many people were against building the freeway than were in favor of it. (E) The business interests of the television station that produced the program would be harmed by the construction of a new freeway.

Answer: (D)

In several countries, to slow global warming, many farmers are planting trees on their land because of government incentives. These incentives arose from research indicating that vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide that might otherwise trap heat in the atmosphere. A recent study, however, indicates that trees absorb and store carbon dioxide less effectively than native grasses. Therefore, these incentives are helping to hasten global warming. The argument requires the assumption that A) trees not only absorb carbon dioxide but also emit it B) most farmers do not plant any trees on their land unless there is an incentive to do so C) land that has been deforested seldom later sustains native grasses D) some of the trees planted in response to the incentives are planted where native grasses would otherwise be growing E) few if any governments have been interested in promoting the growth of native grasses

Answer: (D)

Interior decorator: All coffeehouses and restaurants are public places. Most well-designed public places feature artwork. But if a public place is uncomfortable is not well designed, and all comfortable public places have spacious interiors. If all of the interior decorator's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true? A) Any restaurant that has a spacious interior is comfortable B) Most public places that feature artwork are well designed C) Most coffeehouses that are well designed feature artwork D) Any well-designed coffeehouse or restaurant has a spacious interior E) Any coffeehouse that has a spacious interior is a well-designed public place

Answer: (D)

It has been suggested that a television set should be thought of as nothing more than "a toaster with pictures" and that since we let market forces determine the design of kitchen appliances we can let them determine what is seen on television. But that approach is too simple. Some governmental control is needed, since television is so important politically and culturally. It is a major source of commercial entertainment. It plays an important political role because it is the primary medium through which many voters obtain information about current affairs. It is a significant cultural force in that in the average home it is on for more than five hours a day. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the role played in the argument by the claim that television is so important politically and culturally? (A) It states a view that the argument as a whole is designed to discredit. (B) It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered in support of the claim that a television set should be thought of as nothing more than "a toaster with pictures" and for which the claim that we can let market forces determine what is seen on television is offered as support. (C) It is a premise that is offered in support of the claim that we let market forces determine the design of kitchen appliances. (D) It is an intermediate conclusion that is offered in support of the claim that some governmental control of television is needed and for which the claim that the television is on for more than five hours a day in the average home is offered as partial support. (E) It is a premise that is offered in support of the claim that television is the primary medium through which many voters obtain information about current affairs.

Answer: (D)

It is a mistake to conclude, as some have, that ancient people did not know what moral rights were simply because no known ancient language has an expression correctly translatable as "a moral right." This would be like saying that a person who discovers a wild fruit tree and returns repeatedly to harvest from it and study it has no idea what the fruit is until naming it or learning its name. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) To know the name of something is to know what that thing is. (B) People who first discover what something is know it better than do people who merely know the name of the thing. (C) The name or expression that is used to identify something cannot provide any information about the nature of the thing that is identified. (D) A person who repeatedly harvests from a wild fruit tree and studies it has some idea of what the fruit is even before knowing a name for the fruit. (E) One need not know what something is before one can name it.

Answer: (D)

It was once thought that pesticide TSX-400 was extremely harmful to the environment but that pesticides Envirochem and Zanar were environmentally harmless. TSX-400 was banned; Envirochem and Zanar were not. However, according to recent studies, Envirochem and Zanar each cause greater environmental harm than does TSX-400. If these studies are accurate, then either Envirochem and Zanar should be banned or TSX-400 should be legalized. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the argumentation? (A) Two pesticides should not both be legal if one is measurably more harmful to the environment than the other is. (B) Two pesticides should both be legal only if neither is harmful to the environment. (C) Two pesticides should both be illegal only if both are harmful to the environment. (D) One pesticide should be legal and another illegal only if the former is less harmful to the environment than is the latter. (E) One pesticide should be legal and another illegal if the former is harmless to the environment and the latter is harmful to it.

Answer: (D)

Politician: Suppose censorship is wrong in itself, as modern liberals tend to believe. Then an actor's refusing a part in a film because the film glamorizes a point of view abhorrent to the actor would be morally wrong. But this conclusion is absurd. It follows that censorship is not, after all, wrong in itself. The reasoning in the politician's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument (A) presumes, without providing justification, that actors would subscribe to any tenet of modern liberalism (B) uses the term "liberal" in order to discredit opponents' point of view (C) takes for granted that there is a moral obligation to practice one's profession (D) draws a conclusion that is inconsistent with a premise it accepts (E) presumes, without providing justification, that declining a film role constitutes censorship in the relevant sense

Answer: (E)

Jack's aunt gave him her will, asking him to make it public when she died; he promised to do so. After her death, Jack looked at the will; it stipulated that all her money go to her friend George. Jack knew that if he made the will public, George would squander the money, benefiting neither George nor anyone else. Jack also knew that if he did not make the will public, the money would go to his own mother, who would use it to benefit herself and others, harming no one. After reflection, he decided not to make the will public. Which one of the following principles, if valid, would require Jack to act as he did in the situation described? (A) Duties to family members take priority over duties to people who are not family members. (B) Violating a promise is impermissible whenever doing so would become known by others. (C) One must choose an alternative that benefits some and harms no one over an alternative that harms some and benefits no one. (D) When faced with alternatives it is obligatory to choose whichever one will benefit the greatest number of people. (E) A promise becomes nonbinding when the person to whom the promise was made is no longer living.

Answer: (D)

Journalist: Newspapers generally report on only those scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic. Furthermore, newspaper stories about small observational studies, which are somewhat unreliable, are more frequent than newspaper stories about large randomized trials, which generate stronger scientific evidence. Therefore, a small observational study must be more likely to have dramatic findings than a large randomized trial. Which one of the following most accurately expresses a flaw in the journalist's reasoning? (A) It casts doubt on the reliability of a study by questioning the motives of those reporting it. (B) It fails to consider that even if a study's findings sound dramatic, the scientific evidence for those findings may be strong. (C) It confuses a claim about scientific studies whose findings sound dramatic with a similar claim about small observational studies. (D) It overlooks the possibility that small observational studies are far more common than large randomized trials. (E) It fails to rule out the possibility that a study's having findings that sound dramatic is an effect rather than a cause of the study's being reported on

Answer: (D)

Journalist: The trade union members at AutoFaber Inc. are planning to go on strike. Independent arbitration would avert a strike, but only if both sides agree to accept the arbitrator's recommendations as binding. However, based on past experience, the union is quite unlikely to agree to this, so a strike is likely. Which one of the following arguments exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the journalist's argument? (A) The company will downsize unless more stock is issued. Furthermore, if the company downsizes, the shareholders will demand a change. Since no more stock is being issued, we can be sure that the shareholders will demand a change. (B) Rodriguez will donate her paintings to the museum only if the new wing is named after her. The only other person the new wing could be named after is the museum's founder, Wu. But it was decided yesterday that the gardens, not the new wing, would be named after Wu. So Rodriguez will donate her paintings to the museum. (C) Reynolds and Khripkova would not make suitable business partners, since they are constantly squabbling, whereas good business partners know how to get along with each other most of the time and, if they quarrel, know how to resolve their differences. (D) Lopez will run in tomorrow's marathon. Lopez will win the marathon only if his sponsors do a good job of keeping him hydrated. But his sponsors are known to be poor at keeping their athletes hydrated. So it is probable that Lopez will not win the marathon. (E) The new course in microeconomics is offered either in the fall or in the spring. The new course will be offered in the spring if there is a qualified instructor available. Since the economics department currently lacks a qualified instructor for such courses, however, the course will not be offered in the spring.

Answer: (D)

Kendrick: Governments that try to prevent cigarettes from being advertised are justified in doing so, since such advertisements encourage people to engage in an unhealthy practice. But cigarette advertisements should remain legal since advertisements for fatty foods are legal, even though those advertisements also encourage people to engage in unhealthy practices. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent conflict between Kendrick's statements? (A) Any advertisement that encourages people to engage in an unhealthy practice should be made illegal, even though the legality of some such advertisements is currently uncontroversial. (B) The advertisement of fattening foods, unlike that of cigarettes, should not be prevented, because fattening foods, unlike cigarettes, are not addictive. (C) Most advertisements should be legal, although advertisers are always morally responsible for ensuring that their advertisements do not encourage people to engage in unhealthy practices. (D) Governments should try to prevent the advertisement of cigarettes by means of financial disincentives rather than by legal prohibition. (E) Governments should place restrictions on cigarette advertisements so as to keep them from encouraging people to engage in unhealthy practices, but should not try to prevent such advertisements.

Answer: (D)

Many popular novels have stylistic elements commonly associated with journalistic writing. Moreover, many authors of popular novels began their careers as journalists. So using a journalistic writing style increases the chances that a novel will be popular. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it A) takes something that is required for a novel to be popular to be something that is certain to make a novel popular B) takes for granted that most journalists could become novelists if they wanted to C) fails to specify exactly what is required for a novel to be considered popular D) fails to consider how many unsuccessful novels have been written in a journalistic style E) takes the fact that a novel is popular to indicate that it is well written

Answer: (D)

Media consultant: Electronic media are bound to bring an end to the institution of the traditional school in our culture. This is because the emergence of the traditional school, characterized by a group of students gathered with a teacher in a classroom, was facilitated by the availability of relatively inexpensive printed books. Currently, however, the function of books in communicating information is gradually being taken over by electronic media. So, it is inevitable that the traditional school will not survive in our culture. The reasoning in the consultant's argument is flawed because it (A) presupposes as a premise what it is trying to establish (B) relies inappropriately on expert testimony (C) presupposes that just because something can happen it will happen (D) mistakes something that enables an institution to arise for something necessary to the institution (E) confuses the value of an institution with the medium by which it operates

Answer: (D)

Medical researcher: Scientists compared a large group of joggers who habitually stretch before jogging to an equal number of joggers who do not stretch before jogging. Both groups of joggers incurred roughly the same number of injuries. This indicates that stretching before jogging does not help to prevent injuries. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the medical researcher's argument? A) For both groups of joggers compared by the scientists, the rate of jogging injuries during the study was lower than the overall rate of jogging injuries B) Among the joggers in the groups compared by the scientists, many of those previously injured by jogging experienced difficulty in their efforts to perform stretches C) Most jogging injuries result from falls, collisions, and other mishaps on which the flexibility resulting from stretching from stretching would have little if any effect D) The more prone a jogger is to jogging injuries, the more likely he or she is develop the habit of performing stretches before jogging E) Studies have found that, for certain forms of exercise, stretching beforehand can reduce the severity of injuries resulting from that exercise

Answer: (D)

Moderate exercise lowers the risk of blockage of the arteries due to blood clots, since anything that lowers blood cholesterol levels also lowers the risk of hardening of the arteries, which in turn lowers the risk of arterial blockage due to blood clots; and, if the data reported in a recent study are correct, moderate exercise lowers blood cholesterol levels. The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) The recent study investigated the relationship between exercise and blood cholesterol levels. (B) Blockage of the arteries due to blood clots can be prevented. (C) Lowering blood cholesterol levels lowers the risk of blockage of the arteries. (D) The data reported in the recent study are correct. (E) Hardening of the arteries increases the risk of blockage of the arteries due to blood clots.

Answer: (D)

Newspaper article: People who take vitamin C supplements tend to be healthier than average. This was shown by a study investigating the relationship between high doses of vitamin C and heart disease, which showed that people who regularly consume high doses of vitamin C supplements have a significantly lower than average risk of heart disease. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the newspaper article? (A) Vitamin C taken in the form of supplements has a different effect on the body than does vitamin C taken in food. (B) The reduction in risk of heart disease due to the consumption of vitamin C is no greater than the reduction due to certain other dietary changes. (C) Taking both vitamin C supplements and vitamin E supplements lowers one's risk of heart disease far more than does taking either one alone. (D) High doses of vitamin C supplements tend to reduce slightly one's resistance to certain common infectious diseases. (E) Taking vitamin C supplements has been found to lower one's risk of developing cancer.

Answer: (D)

Nutritionist: Many people claim that simple carbohydrates are a reasonable caloric replacement for the fatty foods forbidden to those on law-fat diets. This is now in doubt. New studies show that, for many people, a high intake of simple carbohydrates stimulates an overproduction of insulin, a hormone that is involved in processing sugars and starches to create energy when the body requires energy, or, when energy is not required, to store the resulting by-products as fat. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the nutritionist's statements? (A) People on low-fat diets should avoid consumption of simple carbohydrates if they wish to maintain the energy that their bodies require. (B) People who produce enough insulin to process their intake of simple carbohydrates should not feel compelled to adopt low-fat diets. (C) People who consume simple carbohydrates should limit their intake of foods high in fat. (D) People who wish to avoid gaining body fat should limit their intake of foods high in simple carbohydrates. (E) People who do not produce an excessive amount of insulin when they consume foods high in simple carbohydrates will not lose weight if they restrict only their intake of these foods.

Answer: (D)

Ornithologist: This bird species is widely thought to subsist primarily on vegetation, but my research shows that this belief is erroneous. While concealed in a well-camouflaged blind, I have observed hundreds of these birds every morning over a period of months, and I estimate that over half of what they ate consisted of insects and other animal food sources. The reasoning in the ornithologist's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) assumes, without providing justification, that the feeding behavior of the birds observed was not affected by the ornithologist's act of observation (B) fails to specify the nature of the animal food sources, other than insects, that were consumed by the birds (C) adopts a widespread belief about the birds' feeding habits without considering the evidence that led to the belief (D) neglects the possibility that the birds have different patterns of food consumption during different parts of the day and night (E) fails to consider the possibility that the birds' diet has changed since the earlier belief about their diet was formed

Answer: (D)

People perceive color by means of certain photopigments in the retina that are sensitive to certain wavelengths of light. People who are colorblind are unable to distinguish between red and green, for example, due to an absence of certain photopigments. What is difficult to explain, however, is that in a study of people who easily distinguish red from green, 10 to 20 percent failed to report distinctions between many shades of red that the majority of the subjects were able to distinguish. Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the result of the study cited above EXCEPT: (A) People with abnormally low concentrations of the photopigments for perceiving red can perceive fewer shades of red than people with normal concentrations. (B) Questions that ask subjects to distinguish between different shades of the same color are difficult to phrase with complete clarity. (C) Some people are uninterested in fine gradations of color and fail to notice or report differences they do not care about. (D) Some people are unable to distinguish red from green due to an absence in the retina of the photopigment sensitive to green. (E) Some people fail to report distinctions between certain shades of red because they lack the names for those shades.

Answer: (D)

The number of tornadoes recorded annually in North American has more than tripled since 1953. Yet meteorologist insist that the climatic factors affecting the creation of tornadoes are unchanged. Which one of following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? A) The factors affecting the creation of tornadoes were not well known to meteorologists before 1953 B) The intensity of the average tornado is greater now than it was in 1953 C) The number of tornadoes recorded annually was increased only slightly in the last five years D) The amount of property damage done by tornadoes has grown substantially since 1953 E) Many more citizens are helping authorities detect tornadoes now than in 1953

Answer: (E)

People perceive color by means of certain photopigments in the retina that are sensitive to certain wavelengths of light. People who are colorblind are unable to distinguish between red and green, for example, due to an absence of certain photopigments. What is difficult to explain, however, is that in a study of people who easily distinguish red from green, 10 to 20 percent failed to report distinctions between many shades of red that the majority of the subjects were able to distinguish. Each of the following, if true, helps to explain the result of the study cited above EXCEPT: (A) People with abnormally low concentrations of the photopigments for perceiving red can perceive fewer shades of red than people with normal concentrations. (B) Questions that ask subjects to distinguish between different shades of the same color are difficult to phrase with complete clarity. (C) Some people are uninterested in fine gradations of color and fail to notice or report differences they do not care about. (D) Some people are unable to distinguish red from green due to an absence in the retina of the photopigment sensitive to green. (E) Some people fail to report distinctions between certain shades of red because they lack the names for those shades.

Answer: (D)

Physicist: Determinism is the view that every event has a preceding cause sufficient for its occurrence. That is, if determinism is true, then the events that are presently occurring could not have failed to occur given the state of the universe a moment ago. Determinism, however, is false because it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time since it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time. The physicist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds? (A) That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle does not imply that it is impossible to know either the position or velocity of all subatomic particles. (B) That the complete state of the universe at any given time is unknowable does not imply that the states at that time of the individual subatomic particles making it up are unknowable. (C) That it is impossible to measure accurately both the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle at a particular time does not imply that its position or velocity cannot be accurately measured separately. (D) That it is impossible to know the complete state of the universe at any given time does not imply that there is no complete state of the universe at that time. (E) That the position and velocity of any given subatomic particle cannot be jointly measured with accuracy does not imply that this is the case for the position and velocity of all subatomic particles.

Answer: (D)

Political analyst: Several years ago, McFarlane, the military dictator, had Brooks, the former prime minister, arrested on charges of corruption. After years of negotiation, McFarlane has pardoned Brooks, and she has agreed to join his government. Almost all of McFarlane's supporters believe that Brooks is guilty of corruption. Moreover, almost all of McFarlane's opponents will oppose anyone who agrees to join his government. So Brooks will have few supporters in this country. The political analyst's argument depends on the assumption that A) Brooks' joining McFarlane's government inappropriately gives that government a semblance of legitimacy B) there is less corruption in the country's government now than when Brooks was prime minister C) Brooks' political positions do not overlap with those of McFarlane's D) most people in the country are either supporters or opponents of McFarlane E) the charges on which Brooks was arrested were unfounded

Answer: (D)

Public health experts have waged a long-standing educational campaign to get people to eat more vegetables, which are known to help prevent cancer. Unfortunately, the campaign has had little impact on people's diets. The reason is probably that many people simply dislike the taste of most vegetables. Thus, the campaign would probably be more effective if it included information on ways to make vegetables more appetizing. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? (A) The campaign to get people to eat more vegetables has had little impact on the diets of most people who love the taste of vegetables. (B) Some ways of making vegetables more appetizing diminish vegetables' ability to help prevent cancer. (C) People who find a few vegetables appetizing typically do not eat substantially more vegetables than do people who dislike the taste of most vegetables. (D) People who dislike the taste of most vegetables would eat many more vegetables if they knew how to make them more appetizing. (E) The only way to make the campaign to get people to eat more vegetables more effective would be to ensure that anyone who at present dislikes the taste of certain vegetables learns to find those vegetables appetizing

Answer: (D)

Robust crops not only withstand insect attacks more successfully than other crops, they are also less likely to be attacked in the first place, since insects tend to feed on weaker plants. Killing insects with pesticides does not address the underlying problem of inherent vulnerability to damage caused by insect attacks. Thus, a better way to reduce the vulnerability of agricultural crops to insect pest damage is to grow those crops in good soil—soil with adequate nutrients, organic matter, and microbial activity. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) The application of nutrients and organic matter to farmland improves the soil's microbial activity. (B) Insects never attack crops grown in soil containing adequate nutrients, organic matter, and microbial activity. (C) The application of pesticides to weak crops fails to reduce the extent to which they are damaged by insect pests. (D) Crops that are grown in good soil tend to be more robust than other crops. (E) Growing crops without the use of pesticides generally produces less robust plants than when pesticides are used.

Answer: (D)

The government will purchase and install new severe weather sirens for this area next year if replacement parts for the old sirens are difficult to obtain. The newspaper claims that public safety in the event of severe weather would be enhanced if new sirens were to be installed. The local company from which replacement parts were purchased last year has since gone out of business. So, if the newspaper is correct, the public will be safer during severe weather in the future. The argument's conclusion follows logically from its premises if which one of the following is assumed? (A) If public safety in the event of severe weather is enhanced next year, it will be because new sirens have been purchased. (B) The newspaper was correct in claiming that public safety in the event of severe weather would be enhanced if new sirens were purchased. (C) The local company from which replacement parts for the old sirens were purchased last year was the only company in the area that sold them. (D) Replacement parts for the old sirens will be difficult to obtain if the government cannot obtain them from the company it purchased them from last year. (E) Because the local company from which replacement parts had been purchased went out of business, the only available parts are of such inferior quality that use of them would make the sirens less reliable.

Answer: (D)

Rossi: It is undemocratic for people to live under a government in which their interests are not represented. So children should have the right to vote, since sometimes the interests of children are different from those of their parents. Smith: Granted, children's interests are not always the same as their parents'; governmental deficits incurred by their parents' generation will later affect their own generation's standard of living. But even if children are told about the issues affecting them, which is not generally the case, their conceptions of what can or should be done are too simple, and their time horizons are radically different from those of adults, so we cannot give them the responsibility of voting. Smith's statements can most directly be used as part of an argument for which one of the following views? (A) A democratic government does not infringe on the rights of any of its citizens. (B) Children have rights that must be respected by any political authority that rules over them. (C) News programs for children would give them enough information to enable them to vote in an informed way. (D) If there are any limitations on full democracy that result from denying the vote to children, such limitations must be accepted. (E) If parents do not adequately represent their children's interests in the political sphere, those interests will be adequately represented by someone else.

Answer: (D)

Scientists have long thought that omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil tend to lower blood cholesterol and strongly suspected that a diet that includes a modest amount of fish would provide substantial health benefits. Now these views have acquired strong support from a recent study showing that middleaged people who eat fish twice a week are nearly 30 percent less likely to develop heart disease than are those who do not eat fish. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were not vegetarians. (B) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week did not have a diet that was otherwise conducive to the development of heart disease. (C) The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were significantly more likely to eat red meat several times per week than were those who did eat fish. (D) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were not significantly more likely than those who did not to engage regularly in activities known to augment cardiorespiratory health. (E) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were no more likely than those who did not to have sedentary occupations.

Answer: (D)

Several major earthquakes have occurred in a certain region over the last ten years. But a new earthquake prediction method promises to aid local civil defense officials in deciding exactly when to evacuate various towns. Detected before each of these major quakes were certain changes in the electric current in the earth's crust. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? (A) Scientists do not fully understand what brought about the changes in the electric current in the earth's crust that preceded each of the major quakes in the region over the last ten years. (B) Most other earthquake prediction methods have been based on a weaker correlation than that found between the changes in the electric current in the earth's crust and the subsequent earthquakes. (C) The frequency of major earthquakes in the region has increased over the last ten years. (D) There is considerable variation in the length of time between the changes in the electric current and the subsequent earthquakes. (E) There is presently only one station in the region that is capable of detecting the electric current in the earth's crust.

Answer: (D)

Sonya: Anyone who lives without constant awareness of the fragility and precariousness of human life has a mind clouded by illusion. Yet those people who are perpetually cognizant of the fragility and precariousness of human life surely taint their emotional outlook on existence. Sonya's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? (A) Anyone who places a higher priority on maintaining a positive emotional outlook than on dispelling illusion will be completely unaware of the fragility and precariousness of human life. (B) Either no one has a tainted emotional outlook on existence, or no one has a mind clouded by illusion. (C) It is impossible for anyone to live without some degree of self-deception. (D) Everyone whose emotional outlook on existence is untainted has a mind clouded by illusion. (E) It is better to be aware of the fragility and precariousness of human life than to have an untainted emotional outlook on existence.

Answer: (D)

Student: If a person has an immunity to infection by a microorganism does not cause them develop harmful symptoms. Since many people are exposed to staph without developing any harmful symptoms, it follows that they have an immunity to infection by this microorganism? The student's argument is most similar in its flawed pattern of reasoning to which one of the following? A) Everything morally right is just, but some actions that best serve the interests of everyone are not just. Thus, some morally right actions do not serve the interests of everyone. B) Advertisers try to persuade people that certain claims are true. Since writers of fiction are not advertisers, they probably never try to persuade people that certain claims are true C) Isabel said that she would take the medication. Obviously, though, she did not do so, because medication either cures disease or alleviates its symptoms, and Isabel is still quite still D) When business owners are subjected to excessive taxation, they become less willing to expand their businesses. The recent decline in business expansions thus shows that their taxes are too high. E) Studies show that doctors tend to wash their hands less often than any other health care professionals. This shows that the procedure cannot be of much value in preventing disease.

Answer: (D)

The asteroid that hit the Yucatán Peninsula 65 million years ago caused both long-term climatic change and a tremendous firestorm that swept across North America. We cannot show that it was this fire that caused the extinction of the triceratops, a North American dinosaur in existence at the time of the impact of the asteroid. Nor can we show that the triceratops became extinct due to the climatic changes resulting from the asteroid's impact. Hence, we cannot attribute the triceratops's extinction to the asteroid's impact. Which one of the following has flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? (A) I know that one cannot move this piano unless one can lift at least 150 kilograms. I doubt that either Leon or Pam can lift 150 kilograms alone. So I doubt that either Leon or Pam can move this piano alone. Thus, I doubt that Leon and Pam can move this piano together. (B) Since we are quite sure that Cheng and Lin are the only candidates in the mayoral election, we can be quite sure that either Cheng or Lin will win the election. Therefore, either we know that Cheng will win or we know that Lin will win. (C) It has not been conclusively proven that the accident was caused by John's driving at excessive speeds. Nor has it been conclusively proven that the accident was the result of John's weaving out of his lane. Hence, it has been conclusively proven that the cause of the accident was neither John's driving at excessive speeds nor John's weaving out of his lane. (D) The flooding in the basement caused damage to the furnace and also caused a short in the electrical system. Fire investigators could not show that the damage to the furnace caused the fire that resulted shortly after the flooding, nor could they show that the fire was caused by the short in the electrical system. Therefore, we cannot claim that the flooding in the basement caused the fire. (E) We have good reason to believe that the cause of the flooding along the coast was the unusually high tides. We also have good reason to believe that the cause of the unusually high tides was either the sun or the moon. So it is reasonable to maintain that the cause of the flooding was either the sun or the moon.

Answer: (D)

The number of airplanes equipped with a new anticollision device has increased steadily during the past two years. During the same period, it has become increasingly common for key information about an airplane's altitude and speed to disappear suddenly from air traffic controllers' screens. The new anticollision device, which operates at the same frequency as air traffic radar, is therefore responsible for the sudden disappearance of key information. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) The new anticollision device has already prevented a considerable number of mid-air collisions. (B) It was not until the new anticollision device was introduced that key information first began disappearing suddenly from controllers' screens. (C) The new anticollision device is scheduled to be moved to a different frequency within the next two to three months. (D) Key information began disappearing from controllers' screens three months before the new anticollision device was first tested. (E) The sudden disappearance of key information from controllers' screens has occurred only at relatively large airports.

Answer: (D)

The number of codfish in the North Atlantic has declined substantially as the population of harp seals has increased from two million to more than three million. Some blame the seal for the shrinking cod population, but cod plays a negligible role in the seal's diet. It is therefore unlikely that the increase in the seal population has contributed significantly to the decline in the cod population. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? (A) People who fish for cod commercially are inconvenienced by the presence of large numbers of seals near traditional fishing grounds. (B) Water pollution poses a more serious threat to cod than to the harp seal. (C) The harp seal thrives in water that is too cold to support a dense population of cod. (D) Cod feed almost exclusively on capelin, a fish that is a staple of the harp seal's diet. (E) The cod population in the North Atlantic began to decline before the harp-seal population began to increase

Answer: (D)

Vanwilligan: Some have argued that professional athletes receive unfairly high salaries. But in an unrestricted free market, such as the market these athletes compete in, salaries are determined by what someone else is willing to pay for their services. These athletes make enormous profits for their teams' owners, and that is why owners are willing to pay them extraordinary salaries. Thus the salaries they receive are fair. Vanwilligan's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) The fairest economic system for a society is one in which the values of most goods and services are determined by the unrestricted free market. (B) If professional athletes were paid less for their services, then the teams for which they play would not make as much money. (C) The high level of competition in the marketplace forces the teams' owners to pay professional athletes high salaries. (D) Any salary that a team owner is willing to pay for the services of a professional athlete is a fair salary. (E) If a professional athlete's salary is fair, then that salary is determined by what an individual is willing to pay for the athlete's services in an unrestricted free market.

Answer: (D)

When a community opens a large shopping mall, it often expects a boost to the local economy, and in fact a large amount of economic activity goes on in these malls. Yet the increase in the local economy is typically much smaller than the total amount of economic activity that goes on in the mall. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the discrepancy described above? (A) When large shopping malls are new they attract a lot of shoppers but once the novelty has worn off they usually attract fewer shoppers than does the traditional downtown shopping district. (B) Most of the money spent in a large shopping mall is spent by tourists who are drawn specifically by the mall and who would not have visited the community had that mall not been built. (C) Most of the jobs created by large shopping malls are filled by people who recently moved to the community and who would not have moved had there been no job offer in the community. (D) Most of the money spent in a large shopping mall is money that would have been spent elsewhere in the same community had that mall not been built. (E) Most of the jobs created by the construction of a large shopping mall are temporary, and most of the permanent jobs created are low paying

Answer: (D)

When teaching art students about the use of color, teachers should use colored paper rather than paint in their demonstrations. Colored paper is preferable because it readily permits a repeated use of exactly the same color in different compositions, which allows for a precise comparison of that color's impact in varying contexts. With paint, however, it is difficult to mix exactly the same color twice, and the varying textures of the applied paint can interfere with the pure effect of the color itself. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? (A) Two pieces of paper of exactly the same color will have the same effect in a given context, even if they are of different textures. (B) A slight difference in the color of two pieces of paper is more difficult to notice than a similar difference in the color of two samples of paint. (C) Changing light conditions have less of an effect on the apparent color of a piece of paper than on the apparent color of a sample of paint. (D) Observing the impacts of colors across varying contexts helps students to learn about the use of color. (E) It is important that art students understand how the effects of using colored paper in various compositions differ from those of using paint in those compositions.

Answer: (D)

Why are violins made by Stardivarius in the early 1700s far superior to most other violins? Some experts suggest secret varnishes, but there is no evidence for this. However, climatologists have found that in the 1600s and early 1700s weather patterns in the region of Italy where Stardivarius worked affected tree growth to produce wood with special acoustic properties. Therefore it is likely that ________. Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? A) some other Italian violin markers in the early 1700s produced violins that equaled the quality of Stradivarius violins B) Stradivarius was the only violin maker in the early 1700s to use the wood produced in that part of Italy C) no violin made from present-day materials could rival a Stradivarius violin for sound quality D) the special qualities of Stradivarius violins are due in part to the wood used to make them E) Stradivarius did not employ any secret techniques in making his violin

Answer: (D)

. Researchers have studied the cost-effectiveness of growing halophytes—salt-tolerant plant species—for animal forage. Halophytes require more water than conventional crops, but can be irrigated with seawater, and pumping seawater into farms near sea level is much cheaper than pumping freshwater from deep wells. Thus, seawater agriculture near sea level should be cost-effective in desert regions although its yields are smaller than traditional, freshwater agriculture. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above? (A) A given volume of halophytes is significantly different in nutritional value for animal forage from the same volume of conventional forage crops. (B) Some halophytes not only tolerate seawater but require salt in order to thrive. (C) Large research expenditures are needed to develop the strains of halophytes best suited for agricultural purposes. (D) Costs other than the costs of irrigation are different for halophytes grown by means of seawater irrigation than for conventional crops. (E) Pumping water for irrigation is proportionally one of the largest costs involved in growing, harvesting, and distributing any forage crop for animals.

Answer: (E)

A clothing manufacturer reports that unsalable garments, those found to be defective by inspectors plus those returned by retailers, total 7% of the garments produced. Further, it reports that all of its unsalable garments are recycled as scrap, but the percentage of garments reported as recycled scrap is 9%. Which one of the following, if true, could contribute most to explaining the discrepancy between the reported percentages? A) Garments with minor blemishes are sent to wholesale outlets for sale at discounted prices and are not returned for recycling B) The percentage of garments returned by retail outlets as unsalable includes, in addition to defective merchandise, garments in unacceptable styles or colors C) Some inspectors, in order to appear more efficient, tend to overreport defects D) The total number of garments produced by the manufacturer has increased slightly over the past year E) Unsalable garments are recorded by count, but recycled garments are recorded by weight

Answer: (E)

A good way to get over one's fear of an activity one finds terrifying is to do it repeatedly. For instance, over half of people who have parachuted only once report being extremely frightened by the experience, while less than 1 percent of those who have parachuted ten times or more report being frightened by it. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) takes for granted that the greater the number of dangerous activities one engages in the less one is frightened by any one of them (B) neglects to consider those people who have parachuted more than once but fewer than ten times (C) takes for granted that people do not know how frightening something is unless they have tried it (D) fails to take into account the possibility that people would be better off if they did not do things that terrify them (E) overlooks the possibility that most people who have parachuted many times did not find it frightening initially

Answer: (E)

A lichen is made up of a photosynthetic organism and afungus growing in symbiosis on a solid surface. Lichens absorb minerals from air and rainwater but also from the surfaces on which they grow; they cannot excrete the elements they absorb. Some varieties are very vulnerable to toxic compounds, including compounds found in polluted air. Such compounds can damage both of the symbiotic partners. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? A) Lichens would not be vulnerable to toxic compounds if they could excrete the elements that they absorb. B) The return of lichens to a region indicates that the air quality has improved there. C) The absence of lichens in a region indicates that the air is probably polluted in that area. D) The photosynthetic organism and the fungus that make up a lichen can also thrive independently of each other. E) Serious air pollution in a region can cause problems for lichens.

Answer: (E)

A recent national study of the trash discarded in several representative areas confirmed that plastics constitute a smaller proportion of all trash than paper products do, whether the trash is measured by weight or by volume. The damage that a given weight or volume of trash does to the environment is roughly the same whether the trash consists of plastics or paper products. Contrary to popular opinion, therefore, the current use of plastics actually does less harm to the environment nationwide than that of paper products. 5. The main conclusion of the argument is that (A) plastics constitute a smaller proportion of the nation's total trash than do paper products (B) the ratio of weight to volume is the same for plastic trash as it is for paper trash (C) popular opinion regards the use of paper products as less harmful to the environment than the use of products made from plastic (D) contrary to popular opinion, a shift away from the use of paper products to the use of plastics would benefit the environment nationwide (E) at this time more harm is being done to the environment nationwide by the use of paper than by the use of plastics

Answer: (E)

Acquiring complete detailed information about all the pros and cons of a product one might purchase would clearly be difficult and expensive. It is rational not to acquire such information unless one expects that the benefits of doing so will outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so. Therefore, consumers who do not bother to acquire such information are thereby behaving rationally. The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Rational consumers who do not expect that the benefits outweigh the cost and difficulty of acquiring detailed information about a product they might purchase usually do not bother to acquire such information. (B) Whenever it is rational not to acquire detailed information about a product, it would be irrational to bother to acquire such information. (C) The benefits of acquiring detailed information about a product one might purchase usually do not outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so. (D) Rational consumers usually expect that the benefits of acquiring detailed information about a product they might purchase would not outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so. (E) Consumers who do not bother to acquire complete detailed information about a product they might purchase do not expect that the benefits of acquiring such information will outweigh the cost and difficulty of doing so.

Answer: (E)

All the evidence so far gathered fits both Dr. Grippen's theory and Professor Heissmann's. However, the predictions that these theories make about the result of the planned experiment cannot both be true. Therefore, the result of this experiment will confirm one of these theories at the expense of the other. The argument above exhibits an erroneous pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? (A) David and Jane both think they know how to distinguish beech trees from elms, but when they look at trees together they often disagree. Therefore, at least one of them must have an erroneous method. (B) Although David thinks the tree they saw was a beech, Jane thinks it was an elm. Jane's description of the tree's features is consistent with her opinion, so this description must be inconsistent with David's view. (C) David and Jane have been equally good at identifying trees so far. But David says this one is an elm, whereas Jane is unsure. Therefore, if this tree turns out to be an elm, we'll know David is better. (D) David thinks that there are more beeches than elms in this forest. Jane thinks he is wrong. The section of forest we examined was small, but examination of the whole forest would either confirm David's view or disprove it. (E) David thinks this tree is a beech. Jane thinks it is an elm. Maria, unlike David or Jane, is expert at tree identification, so when Maria gives her opinion it will verify either David's or Jane's opinion.

Answer: (E)

Although most builders do not consider the experimental building material papercrete to be a promising material for large-scale construction, those who regularly work with it, primarily on small-scale projects, think otherwise. Since those who regularly use papercrete are familiar with the properties of the material, it is likely that papercrete is indeed promising for large-scale construction. The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it A) confuses what is promising for small-scale construction with what is promising for large-scale production B) presumes that what the majority of builders thinks is promising must in fact be promising C) equivocates between two different meanings of the term "promising" D) does not consider the views of the builders who have the most experience working the material E) fails to consider that most builders might not regularly use papercrete precisely because they are familiar with its properties

Answer: (E)

Carol Morris wants to own a majority of the shares of the city's largest newspaper, The Daily. The only obstacle to Morris' amassing a majority of these shares is that Azedcorp, which currently owns a majority, has steadfastly refused to sell. Industry analysts nevertheless predict that Morris will soon be the majority owner of The Daily. Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the industry analysts' prediction? A) Azedcorp does not own shares of any newspaper other than The Daily B) Morris has recently offered Azedcorp much more for its shares of The Daily than Azedcorp C) No one other than Morris has expressed any interest in purchasing a majority of The Daily's shares D) Morris already owns more shares of The Daily than anyone except Azedcorp E) Azedcorp is financially so weak that bankruptcy will probably soon force the sale of its newspaper holdings

Answer: (E)

Columnist: Several recent studies show, and insurance statistics confirm, that more pedestrians are killed every year in North American cities when crossing with the light than when crossing against it. Crossing against the light in North American cities is therefore less dangerous than crossing with the light. The columnist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it (A) relies on sources that are likely to be biased in their reporting (B) presumes, without providing justification, that because two things are correlated there must be a causal relationship between them (C) does not adequately consider the possibility that a correlation between two events may be explained by a common cause (D) ignores the possibility that the effects of the types of actions considered might be quite different in environments other than the ones studied (E) ignores possible differences in the frequency of the two actions whose risk is being assessed

Answer: (E)

Commentator: Many social critics claim that contemporary journalists' cynical tendency to look for selfish motives behind the seemingly altruistic actions of powerful people undermines our society's well-being by convincing people that success is invariably associated with greed and mendacity. But the critics' claim is absurd. The cynicism of contemporary journalists cannot be a contributing factor to the undermining of our society's well-being, for journalists have always been cynics. Today's journalists are, if anything, more restrained than their predecessors. The reasoning in the commentator's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that A) widespread cynicism is beneficial to the well-being of society B) cynicism about the motives of powerful people increases with the amount of information one has about them C) the work of contemporary journalists reflects a cynicism that is not really D) any accurate description of human behavior portrays it as selfish E) cynicism of this type on the part of journalists has always had a negative effect on the well-being of society

Answer: (E)

Doctor: Being overweight has long been linked with a variety of health problems, such as high blood pressure and heart disease. But recent research conclusively shows that people who are slightly overweight are healthier than those who are considerably underweight. Therefore, to be healthy, it suffices to be slightly overweight. The argument's reasoning is flawed because the argument (A) ignores medical opinions that tend to lead to a conclusion contrary to the one drawn (B) never adequately defines what is meant by "healthy" (C) does not take into account the fact that appropriate weight varies greatly from person to person (D) holds that if a person lacks a property that would suffice to make the person unhealthy, then that person must be healthy (E) mistakes a merely relative property for one that is absolute

Answer: (E)

Eighteenth-century moralist: You should never make an effort to acquire expensive new tastes, since they are a drain on your purse and in the course of acquiring them you may expose yourself to sensations that are obnoxious to you. Furthermore, the very effort that must be expended in their acquisition attests their superfluity. The moralist's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the moralist (A) draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion (B) takes for granted that the acquisition of expensive tastes will lead to financial irresponsibility (C) uses the inherently vague term "sensations" without providing a definition of that term (D) mistakes a cause of acquisition of expensive tastes for an effect of acquisition of such tastes (E) rejects trying to achieve a goal because of the cost of achieving it, without considering the benefits of achieving it

Answer: (E)

Economist: Machinery firms in this country argue that in order to grow big enough to compete successfully with foreign rivals, the protection that they have been receiving from foreign competition must be extended for several more years. Yet these firms have been receiving protection from foreign competition for the last ten years. If it were possible for protection from foreign competition to enable this country's machinery firms to grow big enough to compete successfully with foreign rivals, ten years would be a sufficient time frame for this to happen. The economist's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? A) Protection from foreign competition rarely if ever enables firms to grow big enough to compete with foreign rivals. B) Ten years is a sufficient time frame for assessing the success of any economic policy. C) None of the machinery firms in the economist's country has grown significantly over the last ten years. D) Most of the machinery firms in the economist's country will go out of business unless they are protected from foreign competition. E) Protection from foreign competition will not enable machinery firms in the economist's country to grow big enough to take on foreign rivals.

Answer: (E)

Editorial: It has been suggested that private, for-profit companies should be hired to supply clean drinking water to areas of the world where it is unavailable now. But water should not be supplied by private companies. After all, clean water is essential for human health, and the purpose of a private company is to produce profit, not to promote health. Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the editorial? A) A private company should not be allowed to supply a commodity that is essential to human health unless that commodity is also supplied by a government agency B) If something is essential for human health and private companies are unwilling or unable to supply it, then it should be supplied by a government agency C) Drinking water should never be supplied an organization that is not able to consistently supply clean, safe water D) The mere fact that something actually promotes human health is not sufficient to show that its purpose is to promote health E) If something is necessary for human health, then it should be provided by an organization whose primary purpose is the promotion of health

Answer: (E)

Editorial: Medical schools spend one hour teaching preventive medicine for every ten hours spent teaching curative medicine, even though doctors' use of the techniques of preventive medicine cuts down medical costs greatly. Therefore, if their goal is to make medicine more cost-effective, medical schools spend insufficient time teaching preventive medicine. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends? A) Preventive medicine makes use of technologies that are lower in initial cost than the technologies used within the practice of curative medicine B) Every hour devoted to the teaching of preventive medicine reduces medical costs by 10% or more C) Medical schools could increase their total number of teaching hours D) Improvements in doctors' use of the techniques of curative medicine would only increase overall medical costs E) The time required to teach preventive medicine thoroughly is greater than one hour for every 10 that are now spent teaching curative medicine

Answer: (E)

Editorialist: To ensure justice in the legal system, citizens must be capable of criticizing anyone involved in determining the punishment of criminals. But when the legal system's purpose is seen as deterrence, the system falls into the hands of experts whose specialty is to assess how potential lawbreakers are affected by the system's punishments. Because most citizens lack knowledge about such matters, justice is not then ensured in the legal system. The editorialist's argument requires assuming which one of the following? (A) Most citizens view justice as primarily concerned with the assignment of punishment to those who deserve it. (B) In order to be just, a legal system must consider the effect that punishment will have on individual criminals. (C) The primary concern in a legal system is to administer punishments that are just. (D) In a legal system, a concern for punishment is incompatible with an emphasis on deterrence. (E) Citizens without knowledge about how the legal system's punishments affect potential lawbreakers are incapable of criticizing experts in that area.

Answer: (E)

Educator: It has been argued that our professional organization should make decisions about important issues—such as raising dues and taking political stands—by a direct vote of all members rather than by having members vote for officers who in turn make the decisions. This would not, however, be the right way to decide these matters, for the vote of any given individual is much more likely to determine organizational policy by influencing the election of an officer than by influencing the result of a direct vote on a single issue. Which one of the following principles would, if valid, most help to justify the educator's reasoning? (A) No procedure for making organizational decisions should allow one individual's vote to weigh more than that of another. (B) Outcomes of organizational elections should be evaluated according to their benefit to the organization as a whole, not according to the fairness of the methods by which they are produced. (C) Important issues facing organizations should be decided by people who can devote their full time to mastering the information relevant to the issues. (D) An officer of an organization should not make a particular decision on an issue unless a majority of the organization's members would approve of that decision. (E) An organization's procedures for making organizational decisions should maximize the power of each member of the organization to influence the decisions made.

Answer: (E)

Educator: It has been argued that our professional organization should make decisions about important issues—such as raising dues and taking political stands—by a direct vote of all members rather than by having members vote for officers who in turn make the decisions. This would not, however, be the right way to decide these matters, for the vote of any given individual is much more likely to determine organizational policy by influencing the election of an officer than by influencing the result of a direct vote on a single issue. Which one of the following principles would, if valid, most help to justify the educator's reasoning? (A) No procedure for making organizational decisions should allow one individual's vote to weigh more than that of another. (B) Outcomes of organizational elections should be evaluated according to their benefit to the organization as a whole, not according to the fairness of the methods by which they are produced. (C) Important issues facing organizations should be decided by people who can devote their full time to mastering the information relevant to the issues. (D) An officer of an organization should not make a particular decision on an issue unless a majority of the organization's members would approve of that decision. (E) An organization's procedures for making organizational decisions should maximize the power of each member of the organization to influence the decisions made.

Answer: (E)

Environmentalist: Many people prefer to live in regions of natural beauty. Such regions often experience an influx of new residents, and a growing population encourages businesses to relocate to those regions. Thus, governmentally mandated environmental protection in regions of natural beauty can help those regions' economies overall, even if such protection harms some older local industries. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the environmentalist's argument depends? (A) Regions of natural beauty typically are beautiful enough to attract new residents only until governmentally mandated environmental protection that damages local industries is imposed. (B) The economies of most regions of natural beauty are not based primarily on local industries that would be harmed by governmentally mandated environmental protection. (C) If governmentally mandated environmental protection helps a region's economy, it does so primarily by encouraging people to move into that region. (D) Voluntary environmental protection usually does not help a region's economy to the degree that governmentally mandated protection does. (E) A factor harmful to some older local industries in a region need not discourage other businesses from relocating to that region

Answer: (E)

Essayist: The way science is conducted and regulated can be changed. But we need to determine whether the changes are warranted, taking into account their price. The use of animals in research could end immediately, but only at the cost of abandoning many kinds of research and making others very expensive. The use of recombinant DNA could be drastically curtailed. Many other restrictions could be imposed, complete with a system of fraud police. But such massive interventions would be costly and would change the character of science. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the essayist's argument? (A) We should not make changes that will alter the character of science. (B) If we regulate science more closely, we will change the character of science. (C) The regulation of science and the conducting of science can be changed. (D) The imposition of restrictions on the conduct of science would be very costly. (E) We need to be aware of the impact of change in science before changes are made.

Answer: (E)

Families with underage children make up much of the population, but because only adults can vote, lawmakers in democracies pay too little attention to the interests of these families. To remedy this, parents should be given additional votes to cast on behalf of their underage children. Families with underage children would thus receive fair representation. The argument requires assuming which one of the following principles? (A) The amount of attention that lawmakers give to a group's interests should be directly proportional to the number of voters in that group. (B) Parents should not be given responsibility for making a decision on their child's behalf unless their child is not mature enough to decide wisely. (C) The parents of underage children should always consider the best interests of their children when they vote. (D) It is not fair for lawmakers to favor the interests of people who have the vote over the interests of people who do not have the vote. (E)A group of people can be fairly represented in a democracy even if some members of that group can vote on behalf of others in that group

Answer: (E)

For a work to be rightly thought of as world literature, it must be received and interpreted within the writer's own national tradition and within external national traditions. A work counts as being interpreted within a national tradition if authors from that tradition use the work in at least one of three ways: as a positive model for the development of their own tradition, as a negative case of a decadent tendency that must be consciously avoided, or as an image of radical otherness that prompts refinement of the home tradition. The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? (A) A work of literature cannot be well received within an external national tradition if it is not well received within the writer's own national tradition. (B) A work of world literature offers more to readers within external national traditions than it offers to readers within the writer's national tradition. (C) A work should not be thought of as world literature if it is more meaningful to readers from the writer's national tradition than it is to readers from external national traditions. (D) A work of world literature is always influenced by works outside of the writer's national tradition. (E) A work is not part of world literature if it affects the development of only one national tradition.

Answer: (E)

Geographer: Because tropical storms require heat and moisture, they form especially over ocean surfaces of at least 26 degrees Celsius (79 degrees Fahrenheit), ocean temperatures that global warming would encourage. For this reason, many early discussions of global warming predicted that it would cause more frequent and intense tropical storms. But recent research shows that this prediction is unlikely to be borne out. Other factors, such as instabilities in wind flow, are likely to counteract global warming's effects on tropical storm development. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the geographer's argument? (A) Tropical storms are especially likely to form over warm ocean surfaces. (B) Contrary to early discussions, global warming is not the only factor affecting the frequency and intensity of tropical storms. (C) If global warming were reversed, tropical storms would be less frequent and less intense. (D) Instabilities in wind flow will negate the effect of global warming on the formation of tropical storms. (E) Global warming probably will not produce more frequent and intense tropical storms.

Answer: (E)

If one of the effects of a genetic mutation makes a substantial contribution to the survival of the species, then, and only then, will that mutation be favored in natural selection. This process is subject to one proviso, namely that the traits that were not favored, yet were carried along by a trait that was favored, must not be so negative as to annul the benefits of having the new, favored trait. If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: (A) A species possesses a trait whose effects are all neutral for the survival of that species. (B) All the effects of some genetic mutations contribute substantially to the survival of a species. (C) A species possesses a trait that reduces the species' survival potential. (D) A genetic mutation that carries along several negative traits is favored in natural selection. (E) A genetic mutation whose effects are all neutral to a species is favored in natural selection.

Answer: (E)

In comparing different methods by which a teacher's performance can be evaluated and educational outcomes improved, researchers found that a critique of teacher performance leads to enhanced educational outcomes if the critique is accompanied by the information that teacher performance is merely one of several factors that, in concert with other factors, determines the educational outcomes. Which one of the following best illustrates the principle illustrated by the finding of the researchers? (A) Children can usually be taught to master subject matter in which they have no interest if they believe that successfully mastering it will earn the respect of their peers. (B) People are generally more willing to accept a negative characterization of a small group of people if they do not see themselves as members of the group being so characterized. (C) An actor can more effectively evaluate the merits of her own performance if she can successfully convince herself that she is really evaluating the performance of another actor. (D) The opinions reached by a social scientist in the study of a society can be considered as more reliable and objective if that social scientist is not a member of that society. (E) It is easier to correct the mistakes of an athlete if it is made clear to him that the criticism is part of an overarching effort to rectify the shortcomings of the entire team on which he plays.

Answer: (E)

In considering the fact that many people believe that promotions are often given to undeserving employees because the employees successfully flatter their supervisors, a psychologist argued that although many people who flatter their supervisors are subsequently promoted, flattery generally is not the reason for their success, because almost all flattery is so blatant that it is obvious even to those toward whom it is directed. Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the psychologist's conclusion to be properly drawn? (A) People in positions of responsibility expect to be flattered. (B) Official guidelines for granting promotion tend to focus on merit. (C) Flattery that is not noticed by the person being flattered is ineffective. (D) Many people interpret insincere flattery as sincere admiration. (E) Supervisors are almost never influenced by flattery when they notice it.

Answer: (E)

In scientific journals, authors and reviewers have praised companies in which they have substantial investments. These scientists, with their potential conflict of interest, call into question the integrity of scientific inquiry, so there should be full public disclosure of scientific authors' commercial holdings. Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated by the argument above? (A) Managers within any corporation should not make investments in the companies for which they work. (B) Claims about the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals should be based on scientific studies. (C) People with access to otherwise private information regarding the value of stocks should not be allowed to sell or purchase those stocks. (D) Magazine publishers should not be allowed to invest in the companies that advertise in their magazines. (E) Financial advisers should inform their clients about any incentives the advisers receive for promoting investments in particular companies.

Answer: (E)

In the paintings by seventeenth-century Dutch artist Vermeer, we find several recurrent items: a satin jacket, a certain Turkish carpet, and wooden chairs with lion's head finials. These reappearing objects might seem to evince a dearth of props. Yet we know that many of the props Vermeer used were expensive. Thus, while we might speculate about exactly why Vermeer worked with a small number of familiar objects, it was clearly not for lack of props that the recurrent items were used. The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Vermeer often borrowed the expensive props he represented in his paintings. (B) The props that recur in Vermeer's paintings were always available to him. (C) The satin jacket and wooden chairs that recur in the paintings were owned by Vermeer's sister. (D) The several recurrent items that appeared in Vermeer's paintings had special sentimental importance for him. (E) If a dearth of props accounted for the recurrent objects in Vermeer's paintings, we would not see expensive props in any of them.

Answer: (E)

In university towns, police issue far more citations during the school year than they do during the times when the students are out of town. Therefore, we know that most parking citations in university towns are issued to students. Which one of the following is most similar in its flawed reasoning to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? A) We know that children buy most of the snacks at cinemas, because popcorn sales increase as the proportion of child moviegoers to adult moviegoers increases B) We know that this houseplant gets more of the sunlight from the window, because it is green than that houseplant C) We know that most people who go to a university are studious because most of those people study while they attend the university D) We know that consumers buy more fruit during the summer than they buy during the winter, because there are far more varieties of fruit available in the summer than in the winter E) We know that most of the snacks parents buy go to other people's children, because when other people's children come to visit, parents give out more snacks than usual

Answer: (E)

Inez: Space-exploration programs pay for themselves many times over, since such programs result in technological advances with everyday, practical applications. Space exploration is more than the search for knowledge for its own sake; investment in space exploration is such a productive investment in developing widely useful technology that we can't afford not invest in space exploration. Winona: It is absurd to try to justify funding for space exploration merely by pointing out that such programs will lead to technological advances. If technology with practical applications is all that is desired, then it should be funded directly. Winona responds to Inez by A) showing that there is no evidence that the outcome Inez anticipates will in fact be realized B) suggesting that Inez has overlooked evidence that directly argues against the programs Inez supports C) demonstrating that the pieces of evidence that Inez cites contradict each other D) providing evidence that the beneficial effects that Inez desires can be achieved only great expense E) claiming that a goal that Inez mentions could be pursued without the programs Inez endorses

Answer: (E)

Insects can see ultraviolet light and are known to identify important food sources and mating sites by sensing the characteristic patterns of ultraviolet light that these things reflect. Insects are also attracted to Glomosus spiderwebs, which reflect ultraviolet light. Thus, insects are probably attracted to these webs because of the specific patterns of ultraviolet light that these webs reflect. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument? (A) When webs of many different species of spider were illuminated with a uniform source of white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of these webs did not reflect the ultraviolet light. (B) When the silks of spiders that spin silk only for lining burrows and covering eggs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, the silks of these spiders reflected ultraviolet light. (C) When webs of the comparatively recently evolved common garden spider were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, only certain portions of these webs reflected ultraviolet light. (D) When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before a Glomosus web and a synthetic web of similar pattern that also reflected ultraviolet light and both webs were illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component, many of the fruit flies flew to the Glomosus web. (E) When Drosophila fruit flies were placed before two Glomosus webs, one illuminated with white light containing an ultraviolet component and one illuminated with white light without an ultraviolet component, the majority flew to the ultraviolet reflecting web.

Answer: (E)

Interviewer: A certain company released a model of computer whose microprocessor design was flawed, making that computer liable to process information incorrectly. How did this happen? Industry spokesperson: Given the huge number of circuits in the microprocessor of any modern computer, not every circuit can be manually checked before a computer model that contains the microprocessor is released. Interviewer: Then what guarantee do we have that new microprocessors will not be similarly flawed? Industry spokesperson: There is no chance of further microprocessor design flaws, since all microprocessors are now entirely computer designed. The industry spokesperson's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it (A) presumes, without providing justification, that the microprocessor quality-control procedures of the company mentioned are not representative of those followed throughout the industry (B) ignores the possibility that a microprocessor can have a flaw other than a design flaw (C) overlooks the possibility that a new computer model is liable to malfunction for reasons other than a microprocessor flaw (D) treats a single instance of a microprocessor design flaw as evidence that there will be many such flaws (E) takes for granted, despite evidence to the contrary, that some computers are not liable to error

Answer: (E)

It is clear that humans during the Upper Paleolithic period used lamps for light in caves. Though lamps can be dated to the entire Upper Paleolithic, the distribution of known lamps from the period is skewed, with the greatest number being associated with the late Upper Paleolithic period, when the Magdalenian culture was dominant. Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the skewed distribution of lamps EXCEPT: (A) Artifacts from early in the Upper Paleolithic period are harder to identify than those that originated later in the period. (B) More archaeological sites have been discovered from the Magdalenian culture than from earlier cultures. (C) More efficient lamp-making techniques were developed by the Magdalenian culture than by earlier cultures. (D) Fire pits were much more common in caves early in the Upper Paleolithic period than they were later in that period. (E) More kinds of lamps were produced by the Magdalenian culture than by earlier cultures.

Answer: (E)

Jurist: A nation's laws must be viewed as expressions of a moral code that transcends those laws and serves as a measure of their adequacy. Otherwise, a society can have no sound basis for preferring any given set of laws to all others. Thus, any moral prohibition against the violation of statutes must leave room for exceptions. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the jurist's statements? (A) Those who formulate statutes are not primarily concerned with morality when they do so. (B) Sometimes criteria other than the criteria derived from a moral code should be used in choosing one set of laws over another. (C) Unless it is legally forbidden ever to violate some moral rules, moral behavior and compliance with laws are indistinguishable. (D) There is no statute that a nation's citizens have a moral obligation to obey. (E) A nation's laws can sometimes come into conflict with the moral code they express.

Answer: (E)

Legal commentator: The goal of a recently enacted law that bans smoking in workplaces is to protect employees from secondhand smoke. But the law is written in such a way that it cannot be interpreted as ever prohibiting people from smoking in their own homes. of The statements above, if true, provide a basis for rejecting which one of the following claims? A) The law will be interpreted in a way that is inconsistent with the intentions of the legislators who supported it B) Supporters of the law believe that it will have a significant impact on the health of many workers C) The law offers no protection from secondhand smoke for people outside of their workplaces D) Most people believe that smokers have a fundamental right to smoke in their own homes E) The law will protect domestic workers such as housecleaners from secondhand smoke in their workplaces

Answer: (E)

Libel is defined as damaging the reputation of someone by making false statements. Ironically, strong laws against libel can make it impossible for anyone in the public eye to have a good reputation. For the result of strong libel laws is that, for fear of lawsuits, no one will say anything bad about public figures. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the argument? A) The absence of laws against libel makes it possible for everyone in the public eye to have a good reputation. B) Even if laws against libel are extremely strong and rigorously enforced, some public figures will acquire bad reputations. C) If one makes statements that one sincerely believes, then those statements should not be considered libelous even if they are in fact false and damaging to the reputation of a public figure. D) In countries with strong libel laws, people make negative statements about public figures only when such statements can be proved. E) Public figures can have good reputations only if there are other public figures who have bad reputations.

Answer: (E)

Manager: I recommend that our company reconsider the decision to completely abandon our allegedly difficult-to-use computer software and replace it companywide with a new software package advertised as more flexible and easier to use. Several other companies in our region officially replaced the software we currently use with the new package, and while their employees can all use the new software, unofficially many continue to use their former software as much as possible. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the manager's statements? (A) The current company software is as flexible as the proposed new software package. (B) The familiarity that employees have with a computer software package is a more important consideration in selecting software than flexibility or initial ease of use. (C) The employees of the manager's company would find that the new software package lacks some of the capabilities of the present software. (D) Adopting the new software package would create two classes of employees, those who can use it and those who cannot. (E) Many of the employees in the manager's company would not prefer the new software package to the software currently in use.

Answer: (E)

Many workers who handled substance T in factories became seriously ill years later. We now know T caused at least some of their illnesses. Earlier ignorance of this connection does not absolve T's manufacturer of all responsibility. For had it investigated the safety of T before allowing workers to be exposed to it, many of their illnesses would have been prevented. Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the conclusion above? A) Employees who are harmed by substances they handle on the job should be compensated for medical costs they incur as a result B) Manufacturers should be held responsible only for the preventable consequences of their actions C) Manufacturers have an obligation to inform workers of health risks of which they are aware D) Whether or not an action's consequences were preventable is irrelevant to whether a manufacturer should be held responsible for those consequences E) Manufacturers should be held responsible for the consequences of any of their actions that harm innocent people if those consequences were preventable

Answer: (E)

Mate is a beverage found in much of South America. While it is uncertain where mate was first made, there are more varieties of it found in Paraguay than anywhere else. Also, mate is used more widely there than anywhere else. Therefore, Paraguay is likely the place where mate originated. Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? (A) It is rare for there to be a great variety of types of a beverage in a place where the beverage has not been in use for a very long time. (B) Many Paraguayans believe that mate became popular at a time when people from other areas of South America were first migrating to Paraguay. (C) Many Paraguayans believe that the best mate is found in Paraguay. (D) There are few places outside of South America where mate is regularly consumed. (E) Typically, the longer a beverage has been in use in a particular place, the more widely that beverage is used there.

Answer: (E)

Megan: People pursue wealth beyond what their basic needs require only if they see it as a way of achieving high status or prestige. Channen: Not everybody thinks that way. After all, money is the universal medium of exchange. So, if you have enough of it, you can exchange it for whatever other material goods you may need or want even if you are indifferent to what others think of you. Megan and Channen disagree over whether (A) people ever pursue wealth beyond what is required for their basic needs (B) it is irrational to try to achieve high status or prestige in the eyes of one's society (C) the pursuit of monetary wealth is irrational only when it has no further purpose (D) it is rational to maximize one's ability to purchase whatever one wants only when the motive for doing so is something other than the desire for prestige (E) the motive for pursuing wealth beyond what one's basic needs require is ever anything other than the desire for prestige or high status

Answer: (E)

Modern navigation systems, which are found in most of today's commercial aircraft, are made with lowpower circuitry, which is more susceptible to interference than the vacuum-tube circuitry found in older planes. During landing, navigation systems receive radio signals from the airport to guide the plane to the runway. Recently, one plane with lowpower circuitry veered off course during landing, its dials dimming, when a passenger turned on a laptop computer. Clearly, modern aircraft navigation systems are being put at risk by the electronic devices that passengers carry on board, such as cassette players and laptop computers. Which one of the following, if true, LEAST strengthens the argument above? (A) After the laptop computer was turned off, the plane regained course and its navigation instruments and dials returned to normal. (B) When in use all electronic devices emit electromagnetic radiation, which is known to interfere with circuitry. (C) No problems with navigational equipment or instrument dials have been reported on flights with no passenger-owned electronic devices on board. (D) Significant electromagnetic radiation from portable electronic devices can travel up to eight meters, and some passenger seats on modern aircraft are located within four meters of the navigation systems. (E) Planes were first equipped with low-power circuitry at about the same time portable electronic devices became popular.

Answer: (E)

Most apartments on the upper floors of The Vista Arms apartment building have scenic views. So there is in the building at least one studio apartment with scenic views. The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? A) All of the apartments on the lower floors of the building have scenic views B) All of the apartments in the building have scenic views C) Most of the apartments in the building are studio apartments D) Most of the apartments with scenic views are on the upper floors of the building E) Most of the apartments on the upper floors of the building are studio apartments

Answer: (E)

Office worker: I have two equally important projects that remain undone. The first one is late already, and ifl devote time to finishing it, then I won't have time to finish the second one before its deadline. Admittedly, there's no guarantee that I can finish the second project on time even if I devote all of my time to it, but I should nonetheless devote all of my time to the second one. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the office worker's reasoning? (A) It is better to focus one's time on a single project than to split one's time between two projects. (B) It is better to finish one of two projects than to risk failing to finish both projects. (C) It is better to first finish those projects that must be done than to interrupt them with projects that are merely optional. (D) It is better not to worry about having failed to finish a project on time than to allow such worry to interfere with finishing a competing project on time. (E) It is better to attempt to finish a project on time than to attempt to finish a late project that does not have higher priority

Answer: (E)

Most auto mechanics have extensive experience. Furthermore, most mechanics with extensive experience understand electronic circuits. Thus, most auto mechanics understand electronic circuits. The pattern of flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to that in the argument above? (A) During times of the year when automobile traffic increases, gas prices also increase. Increases in gas prices lead to increases in consumer complaints. Thus, increased automobile traffic causes increased consumer complaints. (B) The most common species of birds in this region are migratory. Moreover, most migratory birds have left this region by the end of November. Hence, few birds remain in this region during the winter. (C) It is not surprising that most speeding tickets in this region are issued to drivers of sports cars. After all, most drivers who are not interested in driving fast do not buy sports cars. (D) Most nature photographers find portrait photography boring. Moreover, most portrait photographers especially enjoy photographing dignitaries. Thus, most nature photographers find photographing dignitaries especially boring. (E) Most snow-removal companies run lawn-care services during the summer. Also, most companies that run lawn-care services during the summer hire additional workers in the summer. Thus, most snow-removal companies hire additional workers in the summer.

Answer: (E)

Most economists believe that reducing the price of any product generally stimulates demand for it. However, most wine merchants have found that reducing the price of domestic wines to make them more competitive with imported wines with which they were previously comparably priced is frequently followed by an increase in sales of those imported wines. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the belief of most economists with the consequences observed by most wine merchants? (A) Economists' studies of the prices of grocery items and their rates of sales rarely cover alcoholic beverages. (B) Few merchants of any kind have detailed knowledge of economic theories about the relationship between item prices and sales rates. (C) Consumers are generally willing to forgo purchasing other items they desire in order to purchase a superior wine. (D) Imported wines in all price ranges are comparable in quality to domestic wines that cost less. (E) An increase in the demand for a consumer product is compatible with an increase in demand for a competing product.

Answer: (E)

Most plants have developed chemical defenses against parasites. The average plant contains about 40 natural pesticides—chemical compounds toxic to bacteria, fungi, and other parasites. Humans ingest these natural pesticides without harm every day. Therefore, the additional threat posed by synthetic pesticides sprayed on crop plants by humans is minimal. Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: (A) Humans have been consuming natural plant pesticides for millennia and have had time to adapt to them. (B) The concentrations of natural pesticides in plants are typically much lower than the concentrations of synthetic pesticides in sprayed crop plants. (C) Natural plant pesticides are typically less potent than synthetic pesticides, whose toxicity is highly concentrated. (D) Natural plant pesticides generally serve only as defenses against specific parasites, whereas synthetic pesticides are often harmful to a wide variety of organisms. (E) The synthetic pesticides sprayed on crop plants by humans usually have chemical structures similar to those of the natural pesticides produced by the plants.

Answer: (E)

Motor oil serves to lubricate engines and thus retard engine wear. A study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of various brands of motor oil by using them in taxicabs over a 6,000-mile test period. All the oils did equally well in retarding wear on pistons and cylinders, the relevant parts of the engine. Hence, cheaper brands of oil are the best buys. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? (A) Cheaper brands of motor oil are often used by knowledgeable automobile mechanics for their own cars. (B) Tests other than of the ability to reduce engine wear also can reliably gauge the quality of motor oil. (C) The lubricating properties of all motor oils deteriorate over time, and the rate of deterioration is accelerated by heat. (D) The engines of some individual cars that have had their oil changed every 3,000 miles, using only a certain brand of oil, have lasted an extraordinarily long time. (E) Ability to retard engine wear is not the only property of motor oil important to the running of an engine.

Answer: (E)

Neural connections carrying signals from the cortex (the brain region responsible for thought) down to the amygdala (a brain region crucial for emotions) are less well developed than connections carrying signals from the amygdala up to the cortex. Thus, the amygdala exerts a greater influence on the cortex than vice versa. The argument's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) The influence that the amygdala exerts on the rest of the brain is dependent on the influence that the cortex exerts on the rest of the brain. (B) No other brain region exerts more influence on the cortex than does the amygdala. (C) The region of the brain that has the most influence on the cortex is the one that has the most highly developed neural connections to the cortex. (D) The amygdala is not itself controlled by one or more other regions of the brain. (E) The degree of development of a set of neural connections is directly proportional to the influence transmitted across those connections.

Answer: (E)

New Age philosopher: Nature evolves organically and nonlinearly. Furthermore, it can best be understood as a whole; its parts are so interconnected that none could exist without support from many others. Therefore, attaining the best possible understanding of nature requires an organic, holistic, nonlinear way of reasoning rather than the traditional linear reasoning of science, which proceeds through experiments on deliberately isolated parts of nature. The reasoning in the New Age philosopher's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument (A) takes for granted that if a statement must be true for the argument's conclusion to be true, then that statement's truth is sufficient for the truth of the conclusion (B) overlooks the possibility that the overall structure of a phenomenon is not always identical to the overall structure of the reasoning that people do about that phenomenon (C) fails to distinguish adequately between the characteristics of a phenomenon as a whole and those of the deliberately isolated parts of that phenomenon (D) takes for granted that what is interconnected cannot, through abstraction, be thought of as separate (E) takes for granted that a phenomenon that can best be understood as having certain properties can best be understood only through reasoning that shares those properties

Answer: (E)

On the basis of the available evidence, Antarctica has generally been thought to have been covered by ice for at least the past 14 million years. Recently, however, threemillion-year-old fossils of a kind previously found only in ocean-floor sediments were discovered under the ice sheet covering central Antarctica. About three million years ago, therefore, the Antarctic ice sheet must temporarily have melted. After all, either severe climatic warming or volcanic activity in Antarctica's mountains could have melted the ice sheet, thus raising sea levels and submerging the continent. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following criticisms? (A) That a given position is widely believed to be true is taken to show that the position in question must, in fact, be true. (B) That either of two things could independently have produced a given effect is taken to show that those two things could not have operated in conjunction to produce that effect. (C) Establishing that a certain event occurred is confused with having established the cause of that event. (D) A claim that has a very general application is based entirely on evidence from a narrowly restricted range of cases. (E) An inconsistency that, as presented, has more than one possible resolution is treated as though only one resolution is possible.

Answer: (E)

Paleontologist: Plesiosaurmorphs were gigantic, long-necked marine reptiles that ruled the oceans during the age of the dinosaurs. Most experts believe that plesiosaurmorphs lurked and quickly ambushed their prey. However, plesiosaurmorphs probably hunted by chasing their prey over long distances. Plesiosaurmorph fins were quite long and thin, like the wings of birds specialized for long-distance flight. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the paleontologist's argument depends? A) Birds and reptiles share many physical features because they descend from common evolutionary ancestors B) During the age of dinosaurs, plesiosaurmorphs were the only marine reptiles that had long, thin fins C) A gigantic marine animal would not be able to find enough food to meet the caloric requirements dictated by its body size if it did not hunt by chasing prey over long distances D) Most marine animals that chase prey over long distances are specialized for long-distance swimming E) The shape of a marine animal's fin affects the way the animals swims in the same way as the shape of a bird's wing affects the way the bird flies

Answer: (E)

People are not happy unless they feel that they are needed by others. Most people in modern society, however, can achieve a feeling of indispensability only within the sphere of family and friendship, because almost everyone knows that his or her job could be done by any one of thousands of others. The statements above most strongly support which one of the following? (A) People who realize that others could fill their occupational roles as ably as they do themselves cannot achieve any happiness in their lives. (B) The nature of modern society actually undermines the importance of family life to an individual's happiness. (C) Most people in modern society are happy in their private lives even if they are not happy in their jobs. (D) A majority of people in modern society do not appreciate having the jobs that they do have. (E) Fewer than a majority of people in modern society can find happiness outside the sphere of private interpersonal relationships.

Answer: (E)

People want to be instantly and intuitively liked. Those persons who are perceived as forming opinions of others only after cautiously gathering and weighing the evidence are generally resented. Thus, it is imprudent to appear prudent. Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly drawn? (A) People who act spontaneously are well liked. (B) Imprudent people act instantly and intuitively. (C) People resent those less prudent than themselves. (D) People who are intuitive know instantly when they like someone. (E) It is imprudent to cause people to resent you.

Answer: (E)

Peter: Because the leaves of mildly drought-stressed plants are tougher in texture than the leaves of abundantly watered plants, insects prefer to feed on the leaves of abundantly watered plants. Therefore, to minimize crop damage, farmers should water crops only just enough to ensure that there is no substantial threat, from a lack of water, to either the growth or the yield of the crops. Jennifer: Indeed. In fact, a mildly drought-stressed plant will divert a small amount of its resources from normal growth to the development of pesticidal toxins, but abundantly watered plants will not. 10. Jennifer's comment is related to Peter's argument in which one of the following ways? (A) It offers information that supports each of the claims that Peter makes in his argument. (B) It supports Peter's argument by supplying a premise without which Peter's conclusion cannot properly be drawn. (C) It supports Peter's argument by offering an explanation of all of Peter's premises. (D) It supports one of Peter's premises although it undermines Peter's conclusion. (E) It supports the conclusion of Peter's argument by offering independent grounds for that conclusion.

Answer: (E)

Physics professor: Some scientists claim that superheated plasma in which electrical resistance fails is a factor in causing so-called "ball lightning." If this were so, then such lightning would emit intense light and, since plasma has gaslike properties, would rise in the air. However, the instances of ball lightning that I observed were of low intensity and floated horizontally before vanishing. Thus, superheated plasma with failed electrical resistance is never a factor in causing ball lightning. The physics professor's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? (A) Superheated plasma in which electrical resistance fails does not cause types of lightning other than ball lightning. (B) The phenomena observed by the physics professor were each observed by at least one other person. (C) Ball lightning can occur as the result of several different factors. (D) Superheating of gaslike substances causes bright light to be emitted. (E) All types of ball lightning have the same cause

Answer: (E)

Political scientist: The dissemination of political theories is in principle able to cause change in existing social structures. However, all political theories are formulated in the educationally privileged setting of the university, leading to convoluted language that is alienating to many individuals outside academia who would be important agents of change. It follows that, with respect to political theory, there is a special role for those outside the university context to render it into accessible, clear language. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? (A) Persons outside academic settings are the most important agents of change to the social structure. (B) Persons within academic settings who formulate political theories attempt to change existing social structures. (C) Persons outside academic settings are better left out of the initial formulation of political theories. (D) Persons outside academic settings stand to gain more from the dissemination of political theories than persons inside. (E) Persons within academic settings are less willing or less able than persons outside to write in a straightforward way.

Answer: (E)

President of Central Supply Company: Profits are at an all-time low this fiscal year because of decreased demand for our products. If this situation continues, the company may have to declare bankruptcy. So it is important to prevent any further decrease in profits. Consequently, the only options are to reduce planned expansion or to eliminate some less profitable existing operations. Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw, in the company president's reasoning? (A) It presumes without giving justification that survival of the company has been a good thing. (B) It does not take into account that there are alternatives to declaring bankruptcy. (C) It presumes without giving justification that only decreased demand can ever be the cause of decreased profits. (D) It does not allow for the possibility that profits will decrease only slightly during the next fiscal year. (E) It does not take into account that there may be other ways to stop the decrease in profits.

Answer: (E)

Principle: If a food product contains ingredients who presence most consumers of that product would be upset to discover in it, then the food should be labeled as containing those ingredients Application: Crackly Crisps need not be labeled as containing genetically engineered ingredients, since most consumers of Crackly Crisps would not care if they discovered that fact. The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it A) fails to address the possibility that consumers of a specific food may not be representative of consumers of food in general B) fails to address the possibility that the genetically engineered ingredients in Crackly Crisps may have been proven safe for human consumption C) implicitly makes use of a value judgement that is incompatible with the principle being applied D) takes for granted that if most consumers of a product would buy it even if they knew several of the ingredients in it, then they would buy the product even if they knew all the ingredients in it E) confuses a claim that under certain conditions a certain action should be taken with a claim that the action need not be taken in the absence of those conditions

Answer: (E)

Principle: If a food product contains ingredients whose presence most consumers of that product would be upset to discover in it, then the food should be labeled as containing those ingredients. Application: Crackly Crisps need not be labeled as containing genetically engineered ingredients, since most consumers of Crackly Crisps would not care if they discovered that fact. The application of the principle is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it (A) fails to address the possibility that consumers of a specific food may not be representative of consumers of food in general (B) fails to address the possibility that the genetically engineered ingredients in Crackly Crisps may have been proven safe for human consumption (C) implicitly makes use of a value judgment that is incompatible with the principle being applied (D) takes for granted that if most consumers of a product would buy it even if they knew several of the ingredients in it, then they would buy the product even if they knew all the ingredients in it (E) confuses a claim that under certain conditions a certain action should be taken with a claim that the action need not be taken in the absence of those conditions

Answer: (E)

Professor: It has been argued that all judges should be elected rather than appointed to their positions. But this is a bad idea. If judges ran for election, they would have to raise campaign funds. Thus, they would be likely to accept campaign contributions from special interests. It is well-known that such contributions lead to conflicts of interest for politicians, so it is to be expected that they would produce similar conflicts of interest for judges. Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the professor's reasoning? A) If politicians should avoid conflicts of interest, then judges should avoid conflicts of interest as well. B) Special interests should not make offers of campaign contributions to those running for elective office. C) Judges should be appointed to their positions only if doing so ensures that they will usually be able to avoid conflicts of interest. D) If judges should be appointed, then it is likely that there are other public offices that should be changed from elected to appointed offices. E) No public office for which election campaigning would be likely to produce conflicts of interest should be changed from an appointed to an elected office.

Answer: (E)

Professor: The number of new university students who enter as chemistry majors has not changed in the last 10 years, and job prospects for graduates with chemistry degrees are better than ever. Despite this, there has been a significant decline over the past decade in the number of people earning chemistry degrees. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the decline? A) Many students enter universities without the academic background that is necessary for majoring in chemistry B) There has been a significant decline in the number of undergraduate degrees earned in the natural sciences as a whole C) Many students are very unsure of their choice when they pick a major upon entering universities D) Job prospects for graduates with chemistry degrees are no better than prospects for graduates with certain other science degrees E) Over the years, first-year chemistry has come to be taught in a more routinely methodical fashion, which dampens its intellectual appeal

Answer: (E)

Prosecutor: Dr. Yuge has testified that, had the robbery occurred after 1:50 A.M., then, the moon having set at 1:45 A.M., it would have been too dark for Klein to recognize the perpetrator. But Yuge acknowledged that the moon was full enough to provide considerable light before it set. And we have conclusively shown that the robbery occurred between 1:15 and 1:30 A.M. So there was enough light for Klein to make a reliable identification. The prosecutor's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it overlooks which one of the following possibilities? (A) Klein may be mistaken about the time of the robbery and so it may have taken place after the moon had set. (B) The perpetrator may closely resemble someone who was not involved in the robbery. (C) Klein may have been too upset to make a reliable identification even in good light. (D) Without having been there, Dr. Yuge has no way of knowing whether the light was sufficient. (E) During the robbery the moon's light may have been interfered with by conditions such as cloud cover.

Answer: (E)

Psychologist: Some psychologists mistakenly argue that because dreams result from electrical discharges in the brain, they must be understood purely in terms of their physiological function. They conclude, against Freud, that dreams reveal nothing about the character of the dreamer. But since dream content varies enormously, then even if electrical discharges provide the terms of the physiological explanation of dreams, they cannot completely explain the phenomenon of dreaming. The claim that dream content varies enormously plays which one of the following roles in the argument? (A) It is used to support the anti-Freudian conclusion that some psychologists draw concerning dreams. (B) It is used to support the explicitly stated conclusion that a fully satisfactory account of dreams must allow for the possibility of their revealing significant information about the dreamer. (C) It is used to suggest that neither Freud's theory nor the theory of anti-Freudian psychologists can completely explain the phenomenon of dreaming. (D) It is used to illustrate the difficulty of providing a complete explanation of the phenomenon of dreaming. (E) It is used to undermine a claim that some psychologists use to argue against a view of Freud's.

Answer: (E)

Psychologist: Specialists naturally tend to view their own specialties as fundamentally important. We are therefore amply justified in being skeptical when geneticists claim that personality traits not traditionally thought to be genetically determined are, in fact, genetically determined. The geneticists are probably just amplifying their sense of their own importance. The reasoning in the psychologist's argument is flawed in that this argument A) generalizes about all specialists on the basis of an unrepresentative sample B) presumes that the traditional view must be the right view simply because it is what has been traditionally believed C) draws a conclusion that is merely a restatement of one of its main premises D) appeals to the authority of those unlikely to be well informed about the topic at issue E) disputes a claim on the basis of a supposed motive for making the claim rather than by assessing the evidence relevant to the claim

Answer: (E)

Researcher: People who participate in opinion surveys often give answers they believe the opinion surveyor expects to hear, and it is for this reason that some opinion surveys do not reflect the actual views of those being surveyed. However, in well-constructed surveys, the questions are worded so as to provide respondents with no indication of which answers the surveyor might expect. So if a survey is well constructed, survey respondents' desire to meet surveyors' expectations has no effect on the survey's results. The reasoning in the researcher's argument is questionable in that the argument overlooks the possibility that A) an opinion survey that disguises the surveyor's expectations may be flawed in a number of ways, some of which have nothing to do with the surveyor's expectations B) when people who respond to opinion surveys hold strong opinions, their answers are unlikely to be influenced by other people's expectations C) many opinion surveyors have no expectations whatsoever regarding the answers of people who respond to surveys D) some people who know what answers an opinion surveyor expects to hear will purposefully try to thwart the surveyor's expectations E) the answers of opinion-survey respondents can be influenced by beliefs about the surveyor's expectations even if those beliefs are unfounded

Answer: (E)

Researcher: The rate of psychological problems is higher among children of divorced parents than among other children. But it would be a mistake to conclude that these problems are caused by the difficulty the children have adjusting to divorce. It is just as reasonable to infer that certain behaviors that increase the likelihood of divorce—hostility, distrust, lack of empathy— are learned by children from their parents, and that it is these learned behaviors, rather than the difficulty of adjusting to divorce, that cause the children's psychological problems. The assertion that children of divorced parents have a higher rate of psychological problems than other children figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? (A) It is the conclusion of the argument. (B) It is the claim that the argument tries to refute. (C) It is offered as evidence for the claim that divorce is harmful to the children of the divorcing parents. (D) It is offered as evidence for the claim that certain behaviors are often responsible for divorce. (E) It is cited as an established finding for which the argument proposes an explanation.

Answer: (E)

Researchers have discovered that caffeine can be as physically addictive as other psychoactive substances. Some people find that they become unusually depressed, drowsy, or even irritable if they do not have their customary dose of caffeine. This is significant because as many people consume caffeine as consume any one of the other addictive psychoactive substances. Which one of the following can be logically concluded from the information above? (A) There is no psychoactive substance to which more people are physically addicted than are addicted to caffeine. (B) A physical addiction to a particular psychoactive substance will typically give rise to diverse psychological symptoms. (C) Not all substances to which people can become physically addicted are psychoactive. (D) If one is physically addicted to a psychoactive substance, one will become unusually depressed when one is no longer ingesting that substance. (E) If alcohol is a physically addictive psychoactive substance, there are not more people who consume alcohol than consume caffeine.

Answer: (E)

Researchers have found that children in large families— particularly the younger siblings—generally have fewer allergies than children in small families do. They hypothesize that exposure to germs during infancy makes people less likely to develop allergies. Which one of the following, if true, most supports the researchers' hypothesis? (A) In countries where the average number of children per family has decreased over the last century, the incidence of allergies has increased. (B) Children in small families generally eat more kinds of very allergenic foods than children in large families do. (C) Some allergies are life threatening, while many diseases caused by germs produce only temporary discomfort. (D) Children whose parents have allergies have an above-average likelihood of developing allergies themselves. (E) Children from small families who entered day care before age one were less likely to develop allergies than children from small families who entered day care later.

Answer: (E)

Roxanne: To protect declining elephant herds from poachers seeking to obtain ivory, people concerned about such endangered species should buy no new ivory. The new ivory and old ivory markets are entirely independent, however, so purchasing antique ivory provides no incentive to poachers to obtain more new ivory. Therefore, only antique ivory—that which is at least 75 years old—can be bought in good conscience. Salvador: Since current demand for antique ivory exceeds the supply, many people who are unconcerned about endangered species but would prefer to buy antique ivory are buying new ivory instead. People sharing your concern about endangered species, therefore, should refrain from buying any ivory at all—thereby ensuring that demand for new ivory will drop. 23. Which one of the following principles, if established, would most help to justify Salvador's position? (A) People concerned about endangered species should disseminate knowledge concerning potential threats to those species in order to convince others to protect the species. (B) People concerned about endangered species should refrain from buying any products whose purchase could result in harm to those species, but only if acceptable substitutes for those products are available. (C) People concerned about endangered species should refrain from the purchase of all manufactured objects produced from those species, except for those objects already in existence at the time the species became endangered. (D) People concerned about endangered species should refrain from participating in trade in products produced from those species, but only if workers engaged in that trade also agree to such restraint. (E) People concerned about endangered species should act in ways that there is reason to believe will help reduce the undesirable results of the actions performed by people who do not share that concern.

Answer: (E)

Samuel: Because communication via computer is usually conducted privately and anonymously between people who would otherwise interact in person, it contributes to the dissolution, not the creation, of lasting communal bonds. Tova: You assume that communication via computer replaces more intimate forms of communication and interaction, when more often it replaces asocial or even antisocial behavior. On the basis of their statements, Samuel and Tova are committed to disagreeing about which one of the following? (A) A general trend of modern life is to dissolve the social bonds that formerly connected people. (B) All purely private behavior contributes to the dissolution of social bonds. (C) Face-to-face communication is more likely to contribute to the creation of social bonds than is anonymous communication. (D) It is desirable that new social bonds be created to replace the ones that have dissolved. (E) If people were not communicating via computer, they would most likely be engaged in activities that create stronger social bonds.

Answer: (E)

Science teacher: An abstract knowledge of science is very seldom useful for the decisions that adults typically make in their daily lives. But the skills taught in secondary school should be useful for making such decisions. Therefore, secondary school science courses should teach students to evaluate science-based arguments regarding practical issues, such as health and public policy, instead of or perhaps in addition to teaching more abstract aspects of science. Which one of the following is an assumption the science teacher's argument requires? (A) Secondary schools should teach only those skills that are the most useful for the decisions that adults typically make in their daily lives. (B) Teaching secondary school students the more abstract aspects of science is at least as important as teaching them to evaluate science-based arguments regarding practical issues. (C) Adults who have an abstract knowledge of science are no better at evaluating science-based arguments regarding practical issues than are adults who have no knowledge of science at all. (D) No secondary school science courses currently teach students how to evaluate science-based arguments regarding practical issues. (E) The ability to evaluate science-based arguments regarding practical issues is sometimes useful in making the decisions that adults typically make in their daily lives.

Answer: (E)

Sigerson argues that the city should adopt ethical guidelines that preclude its politicians from accepting campaign contributions from companies that do business with the city. Sigerson's proposal is dishonest, however, because he has taken contributions from such companies throughout his career in city politics. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument A) confuses a sufficient condition for adopting ethical guidelines for politicians with a necessary condition for adopting such guidelines B) rejects a proposal on the grounds that an inadequate argument has been given for it C) fails to adequately address the possibility that other city politicians would resist Sigerson's proposal D) rejects a proposal on the grounds that the person offering it is unfamiliar with the issues it raises E) overlooks the fact that Sigerson's proposal would apply only to the future conduct of city politicians

Answer: (E)

Social observer: Advertising agencies are willfully neglecting the most profitable segment of the market: older adults. Older adults control more of this nation's personal disposable income than does the rest of the population combined. Therefore, advertising agencies can maximize their clients' profits if they gear their advertisements mainly to older adults. Which one of the following, if assumed, would enable the conclusion of the social observer's argument to be properly inferred? A) Older people generally have larger incomes and have had longer to accumulate resources than younger people. B) No company can maximize its profits unless it markets its products primarily to a population segment that controls most of this nation's personal disposable income. C) Advertising that is directed toward the wealthiest people is the most effective means for a business to improve the reputation of its products. D) No advertising agency that tailors its advertisements mainly to an audience that does not control much of this nation's personal disposable income will maximize its clients' profits. E) Any advertising agency that gears its advertisements mainly to a population segment that controls 50 percent or more of this nation's personal disposable income will maximize its clients' profits.

Answer: (E)

The production of leather and fur for clothing is labor intensive, which means that these materials have tended to be expensive. But as fashion has moved away from these materials, their prices have dropped, while prices of some materials that require less labor in their production and are more fashionable have risen. The situation described above conforms most closely to which one of the following generalizations? (A) The price of any manufactured good depends more on how fashionable that good is than on the materials it is made from. (B) It is more important for the materials used in the manufacture of clothing to be fashionable than it is for them to be practical. (C) Materials that require relatively little labor in their production tend to be fashionable. (D) The appearance of a manufactured good is the only thing that determines whether it is fashionable. (E) Cultural trends tend to be an important determinant of the prices of materials used in manufacturing.

Answer: (E)

Sociologist: Widespread acceptance of the idea that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare is injurious to a democracy. So legislators who value democracy should not propose any law prohibiting behavior that is not harmful to anyone besides the person engaging in it. After all, the assumptions that appear to guide legislators will often become widely accepted. The sociologist's argument requires the assumption that (A) democratically elected legislators invariably have favorable attitudes toward the preservation of democracy (B) people tend to believe what is believed by those who are prominent and powerful (C) legislators often seem to be guided by the assumption that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare, even though these legislators also seem to value democracy (D) in most cases, behavior that is harmful to the person who engages in it is harmful to no one else (E) a legislator proposing a law prohibiting an act that can harm only the person performing the act will seem to be assuming that individuals are incapable of looking after their own welfare

Answer: (E)

Solicitor: Loux named Zembaty executor of her will. Her only beneficiary was her grandson, of whom she was very fond. Prior to distributing the remainder to the beneficiary, Zembaty was legally required to choose which properties in the estate should be sold to clear the estate's heavy debts. Loux never expressed any particular desire about the Stoke Farm, which includes the only farmland in her estate. Thus, it is unlikely that Loux would have had any objection to Zembaty's having sold it rather than having transferred it to her grandson. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the solicitor's argument? (A) The estate's debts could not have been cleared without selling the Stoke Farm. (B) Loux repeatedly told her grandson that she would take care of him in her will. (C) Loux was well aware of the legal requirements the executor of her will would have to satisfy. (D) The Stoke Farm was the main cause of the estate's debts. (E) Loux's grandson had repeatedly expressed his desire to own a farm.

Answer: (E)

Some paleontologists believe that certain species of dinosaurs guarded their young in protective nests long after the young hatched. As evidence, they cite the discovery of fossilized hadrosaur babies and adolescents in carefully designed nests. But similar nests for hatchlings and adolescents are constructed by modern crocodiles, even though crocodiles guard their young only for a very brief time after they hatch. Hence, ________. Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? (A) paleontologists who believe that hadrosaurs guarded their young long after the young hatched have no evidence to support this belief (B) we will never be able to know the extent to which hadrosaurs guarded their young (C) hadrosaurs guarded their young for at most very brief periods after hatching (D) it is unclear whether what we learn about hadrosaurs from their fossilized remains tells us anything about other dinosaurs (E) the construction of nests for hatchlings and adolescents is not strong evidence for the paleontologists' belief

Answer: (E)

Some planning committee members—those representing the construction industry—have significant financial interests in the committee's decisions. No one who is on the planning committee lives in the suburbs, although many of them work there. If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? (A) No persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions are not in the construction industry. (B) No person who has significant financial interest in the planning committee's decisions lives in the suburbs. (C) Some persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions work in the suburbs. (D) Some planning committee members who represent the construction industry do not work in the suburbs. (E) Some persons with significant financial interests in the planning committee's decisions do not live in the suburbs.

Answer: (E)

TV executives recently announced that advertising time on TV will cost 10% to 15% more next fall than it will cost last fall. The executives argued that in spite of this increase, advertisers will continue to profit from TV advertising, an so advertising time will be no harder to sell next fall than it was last fall. Which one of the following, if true, would support the TV executives' argument? A) Most costs of production and distribution of products typically advertised on TV are expected to rise 3 to 7% in the next year B) The system for rating the size of the audience watching any given TV advertisement will change next fall C) Next fall advertising time on TV will no longer be available in blocks smaller than 30 seconds D) The amount of TV advertising time purchased by providers of services is increasing, while the amount of such time purchased by providers of products is decreasing E) A recent study has shown that the average number of hours people spend watching TV is increasing at the rate of 2% every two months

Answer: (E)

The advent of chemical fertilizers led the farmers in a certain region to abandon the practice of periodically growing a "green-manure" crop, such as alfalfa, in a field to rejuvenate its soil. As a result, the soil structure in a typical farm filed in the region is poor. So to significantly improve the soil structure, farmers will need to abandon the use of chemical fertilizers. The argument relies on the assumption that A) most, if not all, farmers in the region who abandon the use of chemical fertilizers will periodically grow alfalfa B) applying chemical fertilizers to green-manure crops, such as alfalfa, has no positive effect on their growth C) the most important factor influencing the soil quality of a farm field is soil structure D) chemical fertilizers themselves have a destructive effect on the soil structure of farm fields E) many, if not all, farmers in the region will not grow green-manure crops unless they abandon the use of chemical fertilizers

Answer: (E)

The current sharp decline in commercial honeybee populations has been attributed to the same viral and bacterial infections, pesticide poisonings, and mite infestations that devastated bees in the past. Whichever of these adverse conditions is the immediate cause, it is highly likely that there is also a long-ignored underlying condition, and that is inbreeding. Decades of breeding practices meant to maximize pollinating efficiency have limited honeybees' genetic diversity. Which one of the following is an assumption that is required by the argument? (A) Commercial honeybees are more vulnerable to problems with inbreeding than wild honeybees are. (B) The results of decades of breeding practices cannot be quickly undone. (C) The genetic diversity of the honeybee population continues to decline. (D) In the past, viral infections and mites have devastated genetically diverse honeybee populations. (E) Lack of genetic diversity can make honeybees more vulnerable to adverse conditions.

Answer: (E)

The use of phrases like "as so-and-so said" or "as the saying goes" suggests that the quote that follows has just been illustrated. Such phrases are inappropriately used when an apparent counterexample has just been given. Which one of the following contains an inappropriate usage of a phrase, according to the principle stated above? (A) Fatima was a mathematician who often thought about unsolved problems of mathematics, although it was unpleasant to be reminded that most would probably remain unsolved in her lifetime. As the saying goes, "Strange how much you've got to know before you know how little you know." (B) Harold's friends were surprised when he revealed that he had left his wallet at home and asked that someone lend him money. But he had done the same thing many times before. As Halliard said, "The force of selfishness is as inevitable and as calculable as the force of gravitation." (C) The best model of vacuum cleaner was the most expensive on the market, but it would have made Roger unhappy to purchase it. For although he never wanted anything but the best, he was also quite frugal, and would never have forgiven himself for spending the money. As the saying goes, "A penny saved is a penny earned." (D) Sharon loved cats, but her husband was allergic to them. Still, he was occasionally willing to accompany her to cat shows. As the saying goes, "Shared lives mean shared loves." (E) Raoul spent a year planning and preparing for a fantastic ski trip. He enjoyed his ski trip greatly until he broke his leg and had to spend two weeks in the hospital. As the saying goes, "All's well that ends well."

Answer: (E)

There are two ways to manage an existing transportation infrastructure: continuous maintenance at adequate levels, and periodic radical reconstruction. Continuous maintenance dispenses with the need for radical reconstruction, and radical reconstruction is necessitated by failing to perform continuous maintenance. Over the long run, continuous maintenance is far less expensive; nevertheless, it almost never happens. Which one of the following, if true, most contributes to an explanation of why the first alternative mentioned is almost never adopted? (A) Since different parts of the transportation infrastructure are the responsibility of different levels of government, radical reconstruction projects are very difficult to coordinate efficiently. (B) When funds for transportation infrastructure maintenance are scarce, they are typically distributed in proportion to the amount of traffic that is borne by different elements of the infrastructure. (C) If continuous maintenance is performed at less-than-adequate levels, the need for radical reconstruction will often arise later than if maintenance had been restricted to responding to emergencies. (D) Radical reconstruction projects are, in general, too costly to be paid for from current revenue. (E) For long periods, the task of regular maintenance lacks urgency, since the consequences of neglecting it are very slow to manifest themselves.

Answer: (E)

There is no genuinely altruistic behavior. Everyone needs to have sufficient amount of self-esteem, which crucially depends on believing oneself to be useful and needed. Behavior that appears to be altruistic can be understood as being motivated by the desire to reinforce that belief, a clearly self-interested motivation. A flaw in the argument is that it (A) presupposes that anyone who is acting out of self-interest is being altruistic (B) illicitly infers that behavior is altruistic merely because it seems altruistic (C) fails to consider that self-esteem also depends on maintaining an awareness of one's own value (D) presumes, without providing justification, that if one does not hold oneself in sufficient self-esteem one cannot be useful or needed (E) takes for granted that any behavior that can be interpreted as self-interested is in fact self-interested

Answer: (E)

Tissue biopsies taken on patients who have undergone throat surgery show that those who snored frequently were significantly more likely to have serious abnormalities in their throat muscles than those who snored rarely or not at all. This shows that snoring can damage the throat of the snorer. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) The study relied on the subjects' self-reporting to determine whether or not they snored frequently B) The patients' throat surgery was not undertaken to treat abnormalities in their throat muscles C) All of the test subjects were of similar age and weight in similar states of health D) People who have undergone throat surgery are no more likely to snore than people who have not undergone throat surgery E) The abnormalities in the throat muscles discovered in the study do not cause snoring

Answer: (E)

Trade official: Country X deserves economic retribution for its protectionism. However, it is crucial that we recognize that there are overriding considerations in this case. We should still sell to X the agricultural equipment it ordered; there is high demand in our country for agricultural imports from X. The argument depends on assuming which one of the following principles? (A) Agricultural components of international trade are more important than nonagricultural commodities. (B) The ability to keep popular products available domestically is less important than our being able to enter international markets. (C) We should never jeopardize the interests of our people to punish a projectionist country. (D) In most cases, punishing a projectionist country should have priority over the interests of our people. (E) We should balance the justice of an action with the consequences for our interests of undertaking that action.

Answer: (E)

We know that if life ever existed on the Moon, there would be signs of life there. But numerous excursions to the Moon have failed to provide us with any sign of life. So there has never been life on the Moon. IO. The pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? (A) We know that the spy is a traitor. We do not know that the general is a traitor. So the general is not a spy. (B) If we have any mayonnaise, it would be in the refrigerator. But the refrigerator is almost empty. So it is unlikely that we have mayonnaise. (C) Hendricks will win the election only if voters are concerned primarily with fighting crime. Hendricks is in favor of tougher criminal penalties. So voters will probably go with Hendricks. (D) If rodents are responsible for the lost grain from last year's harvest, we would find signs of rodents in the warehouses. And we have found signs of rodents there. So rodents are responsible for the lost grain. (E) If their army is planning an attack, there would either be troop movements along the border or a transfer of weapons. But intelligence reports show no indication of either. So their army is not planning an attack.

Answer: (E)

Well-intentioned people sometimes attempt to resolve the marital problems of their friends. But these attempts are usually ineffectual and thereby foster resentment among all parties. Thus, even well-intentioned attempts to respolve the marital problems of friends are usually unjustified. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most strongly supports the reasoning above? A) one should get involved in other people's problems only with the intention of producing the best overall consequences B) interpersonal relations should be conducted in accordance with doing whatever is right, regardless of the consequences C) good intentions are the only legitimate grounds on which to attempt to resolve the marital problems of friends D) the intentions of an action are irrelevant to whether or not that action is justified E) no actions based on good intentions are justified unless they also result in success

Answer: (E)

When a group is unable to reach a consensus, group members are often accused of being stubborn, bull-headed, or unyielding. Such epithets often seem abusive, are difficult to prove, and rarely help the group reach a resolution. Those who wish to make such an accusation stick, however, should choose "unyielding," because one can always appeal to the fact that the accused has not yielded; obviously if one acknowledges that a person has not yielded, then one cannot deny that the person is unyielding, at least on this issue. Which one of the following most accurately describes the argumentative technique employed above? A) rejecting a tactic on the grounds that it constitutes an attack on the character of a person and has no substance in fact B) rejecting a tactic on the grounds that the tactic makes it virtually impossible for the group to reach a consensus on the issue in question C) conditionally advocating a tactic on the grounds that it results in an accusation that is less offensive than the alternatives D) conditionally advocating a tactic on the grounds that it results in an argument that would help the group to reach a consensus on the issue in question E) conditionally advocating a tactic on the grounds that it results in an argument for which one could not consistently accept the premise but deny the conclusion

Answer: (E)

When uncontrollable factors such as lack of rain cause farmers' wheat crops to fail, fertilizer and seed dealers, as well as truckers and mechanics, lose business, and fuel suppliers are unable to sell enough diesel fuel to make a profit. Which one of the following claims follows logically from the information above? (A) If several of the businesses that sell to farmers do not prosper, it is because farming itself is not prospering. (B) If rainfall is below average, those businesses that profit from farmers' purchases tend to lose money. (C) Farmers are not responsible for the consequences of a wheat crop's failing if wheat growth has been affected by lack of rain. (D) A country's dependence on agriculture can lead to major economic crises. (E) The consequences of a drought are not restricted to the drought's impact on farm productivity

Answer: (E)