Module 2.1 Chapter 5. Social Roles.

gender stereotypes

sets of shared beliefs or generalizations about how men and women in a society ought to behave.

marital selection effect

statistical effect in which healthier people are more apt to marry and stay married, producing the appearance that marriage benefits health.

caregiver burden

symptoms of decline in mental and physical health common among caregivers.

What is adulthood largely structured by?

Despite many variations today in the timing and sequence of roles, adulthood is still largely structured by the patterns of roles adults take on and the role transitions they experience.

What is an important social transition in late life, and who is most likely to experience it?

Social role transitions in late life include learning to live alone, more common for women than for men, and becoming the receiver of care, which can be a difficult transition.

gender roles

actual behaviors and attitudes of men and women in a given culture during a given historical era.

evolutionary psychology

field of psychology that explains human behavior in terms of genetic patterns that were useful in our primitive ancestors for survival and reproduction success.

parental imperative

genetically programmed tendency for new parents to become more traditional in their gender roles.

crossover of gender roles

hypothesized change in gender roles at midlife causing women to become masculine and men to become feminine; research has shown that this is not really a "crossover", but more of an explanation of gender roles.

parental investment theory

in evolutionary psychology, the explanation that men and women evolved different behaviors and interests because the women have more invested in each child than the men.

cohabitation

living together in an intimate partnership without marriage.

surrogate parenting

role assumed by grandparents when the parents are not able to raise their children.

egalitarian roles

roles based on equality between genders.

biosocial perspective

viewpoint that gender-role bias is based on both biological differences and current social and cultural influences.

What is the likelihood of divorce? Will most remarry?

About one third of couples marrying today will divorce within 10 years. Most will remarry, causing a number of role transitions, such as ex-spouse, stepmother, and stepfather.

How has timing of parenthood change? How did trend of being married before having children change?

Adults are delaying the transition to parenthood in the United States and other developed countries. The percentage of children born to unmarried parents has increased, with over 40% of all births in the United States being to unmarried parents. However, almost half of these were born to parents who were cohabiting at the time of the birth.

What are marriage tendencies in the United States?

Adults in the United States are marrying at later ages, and a greater percentage are cohabiting before marriage. This is true in developed countries throughout the world. However, marriage remains the preferred form of committed relationship.

How is housework time investment divided between men and women?

Although gender roles are egalitarian early committed relationships, men and women divide household tasks along gender stereotypical lines, and women do more hours of housework even when both work full time.

Is on-time or off-time social role timing easier?

Although we have a lot of flexibility today in the timing of social roles, life is still easier when the roles are moved through on-time instead of off-time.

Explain role of the caregiver for aging parents in middle years.

Another role in the middle years is that of caregiver for aging parents. About a third of middle-aged men and women have at least one parent in poor health who requires care. Although women are often the first-line caregivers, many family members help out. Many people with multigenerational responsibilities report that their roles are important and satisfying. When the burden of caregiving is extreme and long lasting, it can lead to depression, marital problems, and physical illnesses.

What are gender roles for men and women? What are gender stereotypes? how do they differ between sexes.

Gender roles are fairly diverse and describe what people really do within their roles as men and women; gender stereotypes are shared beliefs about what men and women have in common. The stereotypes for women usually center around communal qualities (being nurturing and intuitive); the stereotypes for men usually center around instrumental qualities (being adventurous and competitive).

How does parental role changes in middle years? How do parents feel about it?

In the middle years of adulthood, the role of parent changes from a day-to-day role to a more distant one as children move out of the house and start their own families, but the role of parent does not end. Most parents find this transition to be positive and use the new freedom to restructure their own lives.

Name and explain 4 theories of gender roles.

Learning-schema theory states that gender roles are based on distorted views that exaggerate gender differences. Social role theory states that gender roles are based on observations of male and female behavior. Evolutionary psychology states that gender roles are based on inherited traits men and women have that were critical to survival and reproduction for our primitive ancestors. The biosocial perspective states that gender roles are an interaction of hereditary biases and current social and cultural influences.

Contrast mental and physical health of married and unmarried men and women.

Married men and women are mentally and physically healthier than those who are not currently married, giving rise to the "healthy marriage effect". However, when the unmarried are divided into never-married, divorced, separated, and widowed, those who never married are almost as healthy as those who married, giving rise to the "'marital crisis" effect, suggesting that the health difference is due to the crises associated with divorce, separation, and death of a spouse.

How does middle age relate to grandparenting, and what extra responsibilities come with it?

Middle age is the time of life when most people become grandparents. This role can take many forms. For a growing number of grandparents, it means stepping in as surrogate parents, which sometimes involves regaining former roles of day-to-day parenting and returning to work to support a new generation.

How do never married people adjust to life? How does that compare to married people? What about childless families?

Not everyone fits the preceding discussion. Some people never marry (about 4% of people over 65 in the U.S.). Those who have close relationships with friends and relatives report being as happy and fulfilled as their married peers with children, and they have better health than those who are divorced, separated, or widowed. A growing number of adults in the United States over 40 (about 20%) have no children. Among retired people, childless adults are as happy as those with children.

Explain the transition from emerging adult into adulthood.

The transition from emerging adult to adulthood is a change in roles from dependent child to independent adult. It can include moving out of the parental home, entering college or military service, entering into a marriage or cohabitation relationship, becoming financially independent, and becoming a parent. These roles are not taken on in a single typical sequence, and many young adults move in and out of them several times before viewing themselves as totally adult.

How do gender roles change when men and women become parents?

When men and women become parents, their gender roles become more traditional. The amount of childcare and housework that fathers do is increasing, but mothers still do more, even when they have full-time jobs.

expansion of gender roles

change in gender roles at midlife causing men and women to broaden their gender roles to include more attributes of the opposite gender.

role transitions

changes in roles due to changes in the individual or in his or her life circumstances.

proximal causes

factors present in the immediate environment.

distal causes

factors that were present in the distant past.

social roles

expected behaviors and attitudes that come with one's position in society.

social role theory

explanation of gender roles based on children viewing the gender divisions around them and then modeling their behavior on those divisions.

learning-schema theory

explanation of gender roles stating that children are taught to view the world and themselves through gender-polarized lenses that make artificial or exaggerated distinctions between what is masculine and what is feminine.

economic exchange theory

explanation of gender roles stating that men and women form intimate partnerships to exchange goods and services.

marital resources effect

explanation that married people have more financial and social resources, so have better mental and physical health.

marital crisis effect

explanation that married people have not been through crisis involved in divorce or widowhood, and as a result have better mental and physical health.

social timing

pattern of when we occupy certain roles, how long we occupy them, and the order in which we move from one to another.

biological clock

patterns of change over adulthood in health and physical functioning.

social clock

patterns of change over adulthood in social roles; time schedule of the normal sequence of adult life experiences.

transition to adulthood

period during which young people take on the social roles of early adulthood.

emerging adulthood

period of transition from adolescence to young adulthood (approximately 18-25 years of age)

instrumental qualities

personal characteristics that have an active impact, such as being competitive, adventurous, and physically strong; stereotypical male qualities.

communal qualities

personal characteristics that nurture and bring people together, such as being expressive and affectionate; stereotypical female qualities.