Motor Learning Final
•_______________ of feedback refers to the total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice. •_________________ of feedback refers to the percentage of trials receiving feedback.
Absolute frequency Relative frequency
_____________________ of feedback refers to the total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice. _____________________ of feedback refers to the percentage of trials receiving feedback.
Absolute frequency Relative frequency
•KR directs the learner to think about externally directed information. •The information content of KP directs the learner's attention to process movement-related information, an internally focused process. -Researchers have studied ways of scheduling the provision of feedback so the most useful information content can be delivered without detrimental effects.
Attentional Focusing Properties
_________________: Can provide a boost to motor learning, even if the feedback is not entirely true. ____________________: Providing some control over the learning environment is a factor thought to influence motivation and enhance learning.
Augmented feedback Self-regulation of practice
______________________: Can provide a boost to motor learning, even if the feedback is not entirely true. _______________________: Providing some control over the learning environment is a factor thought to influence motivation and enhance learning.
Augmented feedback Self-regulation of practice
•_________________ is a type of augmented feedback that presents a statistical average of two or more trials rather than results on any one of them. -Might block dependency-producing effects -Allows the instructor to formulate a more complete idea of the learner's error tendency -Gives the learner more reliable information about what to change and how to change it
Average feedback
_____________________ is a procedure for delivering feedback in which errors are signaled only if they fall outside some range of correctness. Produces faded-feedback frequency as a by-product Increased absence of error feedback can also be viewed as a form of rewarding feedback Withholding information on a set of trials that fall within the bandwidth fosters more consistent actions
Bandwidth feedback
•____________ is a procedure for delivering feedback in which errors are signaled only if they fall outside some range of correctness. -Produces faded-feedback frequency as a by-product -Increased absence of error feedback can also be viewed as a form of rewarding feedback -Withholding information on a set of trials that fall within the bandwidth fosters more consistent actions
Bandwidth feedback
_____________________ Improved capability to perform some skill on future demand •Improved perceptual skills •Improved attention through reduced capacity demands and reduced effector competition •Improved motor programs •Improved error detection
Benefits of Practice
The initial problem facing the learner is what to do with all of the possible degrees of freedom of movement that are available for the body. •Bernstein considered that the solution was to reduce the movement of nonessential or redundant body parts in the initial stage of learning by freezing degrees of freedom.
Bernstein's Stage 1: Reduce Degrees of Freedom
•The learner attempts to improve performance by releasing some of the degrees of freedom that had initially been frozen. •Particularly useful in tasks that require power or speed, because the degrees of freedom that have been released could allow for faster and greater accumulation of forces.
Bernstein's Stage 2: Release Degrees of Freedom
•The performer learns to exploit the passive dynamics of the body—essentially, the energy and motion that come for free with the help of physics. •The movement becomes maximally skilled in terms of effectiveness (achieving the result with maximum assuredness) and efficiency (minimum outlay of energy).
Bernstein's Stage 3: Exploit Passive Dynamics
_______________ is a schedule in which many trials on a single task are practiced consecutively; there is low contextual interference. _________________ is a schedule in which practice trials on several different tasks are mixed, or interleaved, across the practice period; there is high contextual interference
Blocked practice Random practice
___________________ is a schedule in which many trials on a single task are practiced consecutively; there is low contextual interference. ________________ is a schedule in which practice trials on several different tasks are mixed, or interleaved, across the practice period; there is high contextual interference.
Blocked practice Random practice
Especial skills, such as basketball jump shot Spacing of practice Variable practice scheduled in blocks of trials conferred small or no advantages when compared with constant-practice conditions. Studies in which variable practice was scheduled in a random order showed rather large advantages compared to constant practice.
Caveats to Variable Practice
Motivation for learning Instructions Demonstrations Mental practice and imagery
Considerations in Off-Task Practice
When feedback that contains information for error correction is given frequently, it tends to guide behavior toward the goal movement. Guidance is fine when present, but the learner can also become dependent on the guidance, resulting in poor performance when the guidance is removed (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984).
Dependency-Producing Properities
•When feedback that contains information for error correction is given frequently, it tends to guide behavior toward the goal movement. •Guidance is fine when present, but the learner can also become dependent on the guidance, resulting in poor performance when the guidance is removed (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984).
Dependency-Producing Properties
________________________: For most performers, instructing them to pay attention to the intended result of an action produces more skilled performance than an instruction to pay attention to aspects of the movement itself. __________________: The decision about how to maximize the effectiveness of a model seems to depend on several factors.
Directing attentional focus Demonstrations and modeling
________________________ is the idea that frequent switching among tasks (e.g., in random practice) renders the tasks more distinct from each other and more meaningful, resulting in stronger memory representations; it is one explanation of the contextual-interference effect.
Elaboration Hypothesis (Shea and Zimny, 1983)
______________________ is the idea that frequent switching among tasks (e.g., in random practice) renders the tasks more distinct from each other and more meaningful, resulting in stronger memory representations; it is one explanation of the contextual-interference effect.
Elaboration hypothesis
___________________ is a feedback schedule in which the relative frequency is high in early practice and reduced in later practice. The instructor can adjust feedback scheduling to the proficiency and improvement rate of each learner separately, thus tailoring feedback to individual differences in capabilities. The ultimate goal is to generate capability for the learner to produce the action on her own without a dependency on feedback.
Faded frequency
•_________________ is a feedback schedule in which the relative frequency is high in early practice and reduced in later practice. -The instructor can adjust feedback scheduling to the proficiency and improvement rate of each learner separately, thus tailoring feedback to individual differences in capabilities. -The ultimate goal is to generate capability for the learner to produce the action on her own without a dependency on feedback.
Faded frequency
•The information can be used to regulate ongoing actions by giving a basis for correcting errors and pushing the movement closer to the action goals. -Concurrent feedback is augmented feedback presented simultaneously with an ongoing action. -Physical guidance techniques represent a large class of methods in which the learner is forced to produce the correct movement patterning.
Feedback During the Movement
•When empty feedback delays have been examined, scientists have almost never found systematic effects on learning. -One exception to this generalization about feedback delay is instantaneous feedback. •Intervening activities of a different task generally degrade learning as measured on retention tests (Marteniuk, 1986; Swinnen, 1990).
Feedback after the moment
•Intervening subjective estimations •A study by Guadagnoli and Kohl (2001) revealed that the negative effects of 100% KR frequency were reversed if learners made subjective estimates of error before the delivery of the feedback on each trial
Feedback after the movement
•___________________ is a procedure in which the presentation of feedback for a movement is delayed; during the delay the learner practices one or more other trials of the same task. -Evidence says that this technique is not detrimental, and it may be more effective for learning than presenting feedback after each trial.
Feedback after the movement Trials-delay of feedback
•__________ is the degree to which the simulator mimics the criterion task. •___________________ is the degree to which the surface features of a simulation and the criterion task are identical. •____________________ is the degree to which the behaviors produced in a simulator are identical to the behaviors required by the criterion task.
Fidelity Physical Fidelity Psychological Fidelity
•The dominant questions concern goal identification, performance evaluation, what to do, when to do it. •Verbal and cognitive abilities dominate, and verbalizable information is useful. •Gains in proficiency in this stage are very rapid and large, indicating that more effective strategies for performance are being discovered.
Fitts' Stage 1: Cognitive Stage
Inconsistency gradually decreases—closed-skill movements begin to be more stereotypic and those open-skill movements become more adaptable. •Enhanced movement efficiency reduces energy costs, and self-talk becomes less important for performance. •Learners begin to monitor their own feedback and detect their errors.
Fitts' Stage 2: Fixation Stage
•The learner's focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns. •In skills requiring quick movements, such as a tennis stroke, the learner begins to build a motor program to accomplish the movement requirements. •In slower movements, such as balancing in gymnastics, the learner constructs ways to use movement-produced feedback.
Fitts' Stage 2: Fixation Stage
It is usually associated with the attainment of expert performance. •The decreased attention demanded by both perceptual and motor processes frees the individual to perform simultaneous higher-order cognitive activities. •Self-confidence increases and the capability to detect and correct one's own errors becomes more fine-tuned.
Fitts' Stage 3: Autonomous Stage
•Long-term retention depends largely on the nature of the task. -Discrete tasks (especially those with a relatively large cognitive component) are forgotten relatively quickly. -Continuous tasks are retained very well over long periods of no practice. -The amount of original practice will influence the relative amount of retention for these tasks.
Forgetting
_____________________ is the hypothesis that frequent task switching in random practice causes forgetting of the planning done on the previous trial, therefore leading to more next-trial planning and resulting in stronger memory representations; it is a hypothesis that explains the contextual interference effect.
Forgetting Hypothesis (Lee and Magill, 1983)
___________________ is the hypothesis that frequent task switching in random practice causes forgetting of the planning done on the previous trial, therefore leading to more next-trial planning and resulting in stronger memory representations; it is a hypothesis that explains the contextual interference effect.
Forgetting hypothesis
_____________________ depends largely on the nature of the task. ________________ (especially those with a relatively large cognitive component) are forgotten relatively quickly. ____________________ are retained very well over long periods of no practice. The amount of original practice will influence the relative amount of retention for these tasks.
Forgetting: Long-term retention Discrete tasks Continuous tasks
•Produces motivation, or energizes the learner to increase effort •Provides information about errors as a basis for corrections •Directs the learner's attention toward the movement or the movement goal •Creates a dependency, leading to problems at feedback withdrawal
Functions of Augmented Feedback
We want to estimate the performance level of the criterion task, with the relatively permanent effects of learning separated from any temporary performance effects. Transfer concerns how performance on the transfer task is influenced by practice on some other task.
How is transferred measured
•In general, too much information is not useful. •A good rule is to decide what error is most fundamental and focus the feedback on that.
How much feedback should be given?
_________________ Some researchers have found that moderate levels of random practice are beneficial for performance and learning. _____________________ This schedule is more sensitive to individual differences where the difficulty of the task and the decision to repeat the same task or switch to an easier or more difficult task depend on the performance success of the individual.
Hybrid schedules Practice contingencies
•Probably the most important component of feedback for motor learning is the information it provides about patterns of action. •This feedback about errors, giving direction for modifying future performance, is the focus that makes the instructor so important for motor learning.
Informational Properties
•_______________ is information provided as a natural consequence of making an action; it is sometimes called intrinsic feedback. •_______________ is information from the measured performance outcome that is fed back to the learner by some artificial means; it is sometimes called extrinsic feedback.
Inherent feedback Augmented feedback
_________________ for learning concerns the learner's internalized drive to learn a skill that can be influenced in these ways: Goal setting: Being encouraged to commit oneself to a specific, challenging goal is strongly motivating. Autonomy, competence, relatedness
Intrinsic motivation
_______________ for learning concerns the learner's internalized drive to learn a skill that can be influenced in these ways: ___________: Being encouraged to commit oneself to a specific, challenging goal is strongly motivating.
Intrinsic motivation Goal setting
______________________ is augmented information about the movement pattern the learner has just made; it is sometimes referred to as kinematic feedback. _______________________ is augmented verbal (or verbalizable) information fed back to the learner about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal.
Knowledge of performance (KP) Knowledge of results (KR)
•___________________________ is augmented information about the movement pattern the learner has just made; it is sometimes referred to as kinematic feedback. •______________________ is augmented verbal (or verbalizable) information fed back to the learner about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal.
Knowledge of performance (KP) Knowledge of results (KR)
•_________________ is a schedule in which the provision of feedback is determined by the learner. -Learners likely need (or at least request) feedback far less frequently than instructors tend to provide it. -There may be an important motivational component driving the request for feedback.
Learner-determined feedback
The learner who attempts to perform as well as possible in practice tends to be inhibited from modifying movements from attempt to attempt. •Providing both practice sessions and test sessions during practice can help overcome the detriment to learning.
Learning Versus Performance during practice
•Neither was meant to describe learning as a series of discrete, nonlinear, and unidirectional stages. •Fitts considered performance change to be regressive as well as progressive. •Task differences also play an important role in the stage views of both Fitts and Bernstein.
Limitations of Fitts' and Bernsteins Stages
_________________ is a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice trials is relatively short; in _____(same blank)__________, the amount of rest between trials is often less than the time for a trial. _________________ is a practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively long; the time in practice is often less than the time at rest.
Massed practice Distributed practice
The effects of feedback as a motivating tool are primarily indirect in their influence (e.g., KR encourages the learner to keep practicing, and the results of this additional practice are what influences learning). Motivational feedback can also have a direct effect on learning: Learning was facilitated by "good" feedback (Chiviacowsky and Wulf, 2007).
Motivational Properties
•The effects of feedback as a motivating tool are primarily indirect in their influence (e.g., KR encourages the learner to keep practicing, and the results of this additional practice are what influences learning). •Motivational feedback can also have a direct effect on learning: Learning was facilitated by "good" feedback (Chiviacowsky and Wulf, 2007).
Motivational Properties
Learning involves a set of processes in the central nervous system. Learning produces an acquired capability for skilled performance. Learning changes are relatively permanent, not transitory.
Motor Learning
To emphasize the features of the definition of learning, the following statements are important to keep in mind: -Learning results from practice or experience. -Learning is not directly observable. -Learning changes are inferred from certain performance changes.
Motor Learning
-Improved performance does not, by itself, define learning. -Improved performance is an indication that learning may have occurred. -__________________ is a set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance.
Motor Learning Defin
To emphasize the features of the definition of learning, the following statements are important to keep in mind: Learning results from practice or experience. Learning is not directly observable. Learning changes are inferred from certain performance changes.
Motor learning
________________ is transfer of learning from one task or setting to another that is very similar. _____________ is transfer of learning from one task to another very different task or setting. Both are types of generalized transfer.
Near transfer Far transfer
___________________ are plots of individual or average performance against practice trials. Such curves can either increase or decrease with practice, depending on the particular way the task is scored. The law of practice says that improvements are rapid at first and much slower later in practice.
Performance curves
________________ occurs when a treatment (e.g., practice on another skill) facilitates performance over and above no practice. ___________________ occurs when a treatment (e.g., practice on another skill) degrades performance in comparison to those that received no additional practice.
Positive transfer Negative transfer
_____________ can have numerous effects on the learner: -Relatively permanent effects that persist across many days, even years -Temporary effects that vanish with time or a change in conditions (positive or negative) -Simultaneous temporary and relatively permanent effects
Practice
•For very slow, serial tasks with no component interaction, ___________________ on the difficult elements is very efficient. •For very brief, programmed actions, practice on the parts in isolation is seldom useful and can be detrimental to learning. •The more the components of a task interact with each other, the less the effectiveness of part practice.
Principles of Part Practice
For very slow, serial tasks with no component interaction, part practice on the difficult elements is very efficient. For very brief, programmed actions, practice on the parts in isolation is seldom useful and can be detrimental to learning. The more the components of a task interact with each other, the less the effectiveness of part practice.
Principles of part practice
The beneficial effects of random practice are not universal. Guadagnoli and Lee (2004) reviewed the varieties of evidence and suggested that random practice is likely to be least effective when the task demands are sufficiently high that performers have a difficult time producing even a single trial of the behavior.
Random practice limitations
___________________: The learner acquires a set of rules, called the _________, that relate the surface features of an action (e.g., distances, speeds of throwing) to the parameter values necessary to produce those actions. Whenever a movement is made, the learner records the result as well as the parameter that was used for the GMP. Eventually these relationships are generalized into a ______(same blank)____
Schemas Theory (Schmidt, 1975) schemas schemas
Whenever learners practice, and especially when instructors intervene to enhance learning, it is important to have a way to separate the relatively permanent practice effects from the temporary effects. A _______________ can analyze whether a change that improves performance in practice also improves learning.
Separating Temporary and Relatively Permanent Effects of Practice transfer design
Whenever learners practice, and especially when instructors intervene to enhance learning, it is important to have a way to separate the relatively permanent practice effects from the temporary effects. A _________________ can analyze whether a change that improves performance in practice also improves learning.
Separating Temporary and Relatively Permanent Effects of Practice transfer design
•A simulator is a practice device designed to mimic features of a real-world task. -Are often very elaborate, sophisticated, and expensive but don't need to be -Can be an important part of an instructional program, especially when the skill is expensive or dangerous, where facilities are limited, or where real practice is not feasible
Simulation and Transfer
____________________ is a useful measure in cases in which the criterion for learning is performance on a specific task Measured by delayed retention tests on that task For _____________________, transfer to relatively different activities is the goal Measured by some transfer test performed in the future that may involve a different task
Specific transfer generalized transfer
In general, specificity of learning suggests that what you learn depends largely on what you practice. -Practicing in a particular environment or workspace often leads to better performance mainly in that workspace. -The sensory feedback resulting from performance during specific types of practice becomes part of the learned representation for skill.
Specificity of Practice
In general, __________________ suggests that what you learn depends largely on what you practice. Practicing in a particular environment or workspace often leads to better performance mainly in that workspace. The sensory feedback resulting from performance during specific types of practice becomes part of the learned representation for skill.
Specificity of Practice: specificity of learning
•Fitts' stages were specifically designed to consider perceptual-motor learning placing heavy emphasis on how the cognitive processes invested in motor performance change as a function of practice. •Bernstein identified stages of learning from a combined motor control and biomechanical perspective.
Stages of Learning
•Summary feedback might prevent the dependency-producing effects of frequent feedback. •Summary feedback might produce more stable movements. •Summary feedback appears to encourage learners to analyze their inherent movement-produced feedback to learn to detect their own errors.
Summary Feedback:How Does It Work?
__________________ is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed. There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning.
Summary feedback
•_____________________ is information about the effectiveness of performance on a series of trials that is presented only after the series has been completed. -There is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports, with either too few or too many trials decreasing learning.
Summary feedback
Practice can have numerous effects on the learner: Relatively permanent effects that persist across many days, even years Temporary effects that vanish with time or a change in conditions (positive or negative) Simultaneous temporary and relatively permanent effects
Temporary and Relatively Permanent Effects of Practice
Transfer between skills depends on the skills' movement or perceptual similarity. The concept of similarity among skills involves several classes of common features: Common movement patterning Common perceptual elements Common strategic or conceptual elements
Transfer and Similarity
•___________ between skills depends on the skills' movement or perceptual similarity. •The concept of _____________ among skills involves several classes of common features: -Common movement patterning -Common perceptual elements -Common strategic or conceptual elements
Transfer and Similarity
Evaluate learners again in a transfer or retention test, with all groups performing under identical conditions. Any differences observed in this transfer test are due to a difference in the relatively permanent capability for performance acquired during earlier practice.
Transfer design
Transfer, closely related to learning, is seen when practice on one task contributes to performance capability in some other task. Important in many instructional situations: Complex skills may be broken down into simpler elements for beginning learners. For safety or other reasons, the conditions under which practice is conducted are obviously quite different than the conditions in a real situation.
Transfer of Learning
Some skills are enormously complex; in such situations the instructor cannot present all aspects of the skill at once for practice. An approach is to divide the task into meaningful units that can be isolated for separate part practice with the goal of integrating the units into the whole skill for later performance.
Transfer of Part Practice to Whole Performance
•Some skills are enormously complex; in such situations the instructor cannot present all aspects of the skill at once for practice. •An approach is to divide the task into meaningful units that can be isolated for separate part practice with the goal of integrating the units into the whole skill for later performance.
Transfer of Part Practice to Whole Performance
________________ is a schedule of practice in which many variations of a class of actions are practiced. _______________________ is a sequence in which only a single variation of a given class of tasks is experienced. -Learners acquire schemas when they practice; variable practice enhances their development, allowing more effective novel task performance in the future.
Variable practice Constant practice
__________________ is a schedule of practice in which many variations of a class of actions are practiced. __________________ is a sequence in which only a single variation of a given class of tasks is experienced. Learners acquire schemas when they practice; variable practice enhances their development, allowing more effective novel task performance in the future.
Variable practice Constant practice
•___________________ refers to a specific type of retention deficit due to the loss of an activity set. •Set is a collection of psychological activities, states, or adjustment and processes that are appropriate and support performance while an activity is ongoing.
Warm-up decrement
_______________ refers to a specific type of retention deficit due to the loss of an activity set. _____ is a collection of psychological activities, states, or adjustment and processes that are appropriate and support performance while an activity is ongoing.
Warm-up decrement Set
_______________ is a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice trials is relatively short; in this, the amount of rest between trials is often less than the time for a trial. ________________ is a practice schedule in which the duration of rest between practice trials is relatively long; the time in practice is often less than the time at rest.
Work and Rest Periods During a Practice Session Massed practice Distributed practice
Learning involves a set of processes in the _______________________________ Learning produces an acquired capability for skilled performance. Learning changes are relatively permanent, not ____________.
central nervous system transitory
For ____________, there is no evidence that reducing the rest time through massed practice degrades learning. For __________________, distribution of practice has both a positive practice and a positive learning effect.
discrete tasks continuous tasks
For _______________, there is no evidence that reducing the rest time through massed practice degrades learning. For _______________, distribution of practice has both a positive practice and a positive learning effect.
discrete tasks continuous tasks
In ________________ the learner thinks about the skills being learned, rehearses each of the steps sequentially, and imagines doing the actions that would result in achieving the goal. _____(same blank)____ does contribute to learning, though the exact way it does this is still unclear.
mental practice
In_________________ the learner thinks about the skills being learned, rehearses each of the steps sequentially, and imagines doing the actions that would result in achieving the goal. ___(same blank)___ does contribute to learning, though the exact way it does this is still unclear.
mental practice
Essential features of ____________________: Allow sufficient time for the supposed temporary effects of practice to dissipate. The time needed will vary depending on the nature of the temporary effects.
transfer designs
