MrQ007 - EOC U.S. History Study Guide

economic causes The U.S. economy changed dramatically during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century's, as the country transformed from a rural agricultural nation to an urban industrial giant, the leading manufacturing country in the world. A number of important trends and developments characterized this tumultuous period.

1. The Creation of a National Market 2. Territorial Expansion 3. Technological Innovation 4. Mass Production 5. Consolidation and Centralization - the Rise of Trusts 6. Industrialization, Deskilling, and an Increasing Demand for Unskilled Labor 7. Labor Conflict 8. Urbanization 9. Immigration 1. The Creation of a National Market The early American economy was characterized by smaller, local markets, centered around big cities. The vast expansion of the railroads in the late 1800's changed this, tying the country together into one national market, in which goods could be shipped for sale across the country. The railroads also provided a tremendous impetus to economic growth because they themselves provided such a massive market for goods - steel and lumber, for example. In the late nineteenth century the railroads represented the first "big business." The railroad industry was the largest single employer of labor in the U.S., and helped standardize America economically, socially, and culturally. 2. Territorial Expansion The rapid expansion of the railroads made vast areas of land available for commercial agriculture, with 430 million acres coming under cultivation between 1860 and 1900 (more than doubling the available acreage). Twelve new western states were added to the union between 1867 and 1912. 1890 was a significant turning point, bringing both an end to Indian resistance (symbolized by massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota) and the "closing" of the American frontier - the West had become so populated by this point that there were no longer any unsettled frontier regions. 3. Technological Innovation An astounding rush of inventions and technological innovations transformed America and its economy in the late nineteenth century. In the entire period up to 1860, the government issued 36,000 patents. But 440,000 were issued in the 30 years between 1860 and 1890. Some of these inventions, such as the refrigerated railroad car and the cigarette-rolling machine, formed a basis for new industries and fortunes. Other inventions, such as the typewriter (1867) and adding machine (1888), mechanized office work and allowed record keeping to keep up with the flow of products and the vastly expanding volume of sales. The telephone (1876) revolutionized social and economic life. Even more important were the invention of the gasoline engine (1878), and the spread of electricity (the light bulb was invented in 1879). 4. Mass Production As the country expanded and industrialized, increasing emphasis was placed upon mass production and mass distribution. By speeding up production and increasing the output of goods, an industry could lower costs and maximize profits. In 1913 Henry Ford installed the world's first assembly line, with dramatic results. In 1910 it took 12 hours to build a Ford Model-T. In 1914 it took 1½ hours. Ford was able to cut the cost of his autos from $950 in 1909 to $295 in 1923. He sold 79,000 autos in 1912 -- in 1921 he sold 1,250,000. As a result of mass production, factory owners often found themselves able to produce more goods than the market would absorb. They therefore needed to increase consumer demand, and to do so they turned to the growing industry of advertising, which worked untiringly to convince consumers that they needed the new products that were pouring off factory assembly lines. Brand names, trademarks, guarantees, slogans, celebrity endorsements, and other gimmicks were used to entice potential customers. Estimated expenditures on advertising rose from $682 million in 1914 to almost $3 billion in 1929. 5. Consolidation and Centralization - the Rise of Trusts This period witnessed the growth of gigantic corporations - referred to as "Trusts" - that dominated key industries. Through strategies such as vertical integration, horizontal integration, and cutthroat competition, industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie in steel and J.D. Rockefeller in oil built enormous economic empires, with control centralized in their hands. Numerous industries were affected by this trend, as more and more economic power was wielded by fewer and fewer people. This concentration of power alarmed many Americans and sparked cries for reform, but Rockefeller defended the trend toward consolidation, stating that "The day of the combination is here to stay. Individualism is gone, never to return." 6. Industrialization, Deskilling, and an Increasing Demand for Unskilled Labor The nineteenth century witnessed a shift away from small workshops run by independent and highly skilled craftsmen (artisans) and toward large mechanized factories employing increasing numbers of semi-skilled or unskilled laborers -- a process known as "deskilling." The Ford Motor Company, for example, was founded in 1903 with a few hundred employees. By 1924, one of Henry Ford's plants employed 42,000 workers, and another - the River Rouge Plant - employed 68,000 (around three times the population of Carrollton), making it the largest factory in the world. As the need for skilled workers decreased, increasing numbers of women and children - who could be paid lower wages - entered the workforce; women's employment doubled between 1880 and 1900, and by 1900 1/5 of manufacturing workers were women. In addition, millions of rural Americans and immigrants poured into American cities to obtain work as unskilled laborers. Wages gradually climbed, but at the price of long work weeks (which averaged 59 hours, with 12-hour days in some industries), a high rate of on-the-job injuries and fatalities, and frequent periods of unemployment. As a result, during the 1890's only 45% of American workers earned yearly wages above the "poverty line" of $500. 7. Labor Conflict The severest labor conflict in U.S. history occurred during the last third of the nineteenth century. Between 1881 and 1905, 37,000 strikes occurred, involving nearly 7 million workers. Some workers joined the new union organizations that sprang up during the period, including the Knights of Labor (established 1869), the American Federation of Labor (1886), and the Industrial Workers of the World (1905). But as late as 1910 fewer than 10% of workers belonged to unions. The bloodiest and most famous strikes of the period were the Great Strike of 1877, the Homestead Strike (1892), and the Pullman Strike (1894). In each case either the federal government or state governments intervened on the side of employers and used force to help crush the strike. 8. Urbanization The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were periods of tremendous urban growth that radically changed the country. Between 1860 and 1910, the population of cities with 2,500 or more residents climbed from 6 million to 46 million. Some of this new urban population came from the American countryside - between 1880 and 1910, about 11 million Americans moved to cities from rural areas. Millions more were immigrants. But in any case, American society, culture, politics, economics - in short, everything -- was changed in the transformation from rural, agricultural country to urban, industrial nation. And this urbanizing trend has continued - by 1990, fewer than 1 in 4 Americans lived in a rural area. 9. Immigration Between 1880 and 1921, more than 23.5 million immigrants entered the United States. This was the period of what were known as the "New" Immigrants. Prior waves of immigrants had come primarily from northern and western Europe - England, Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia, etc. But after 1880, increasingly large numbers of immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe - Italy, Greece, the Balkan countries, Russia, Poland, etc. The majority of these immigrants settled in the cities of the Northeast and Midwest, where they took jobs as unskilled factory workers and at the same time dramatically changed the ethnic makeup of urban America. These new immigrants, many of whom were Catholic or Jewish, were viewed by many native-born Americans as being racially and culturally inferior, and Nativism became an increasingly potent force in American society and politics.. It is important to remember that all of these developments were interlinked - none stood in isolation from the others. Take the meatpacking industry, for example. A technological innovation - the invention of the refrigerated railroad car - made it possible - using the national network of railroads - to transport perishable meat products across great distances. This also allowed for the centralization and consolidation of the meatpacking industry in Chicago -- railroads shipped the cattle and hogs in and the processed meat back out to consumers all over the country. Giant slaughterhouses displaced local butchers, and required vast numbers of unskilled workers. As a result, successive waves of immigrants from different parts of Europe swelled the population of Chicago, where extremely harsh working conditions, crippling periods of unemployment, and low wages sparked recurrent labor conflict.

William Howard Taft

27th President (1908-1912), he was the only man to serve as both President of the U.S. and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Overweight, he was the only president to get stuck in the White House bathtub. Roosevelt supported him in 1908, but later ran against him.

Tuskegee Airmen

332 Fighter Group famous for shooting down over 200 enemy planes. African American pilots who trained at the Tuskegee flying school.

Andrew Carnegie

A Scottish-born American industrialist and philanthropist who founded this Steel Company in 1892? By 1901, his company dominated the American steel industry.

containment

A U.S. foreign policy adopted by President Harry Truman in the late 1940s, in which the United States tried to stop the spread of communism by creating alliances and helping weak countries to resist Soviet advances

Puerto Rico

A U.S. territory; the U.S. gained it from Spain as a result of the Spanish-American War. People here have U.S. citizenship, and many here would like it to be a U.S. state.

Rosa Parks

A black seamstress and the Montgomery NAACP's secretary who became famous for her refusal to stand on a bus when a white man wished to sit, and was subsequently arrested. This began a city-wide boycott of the bus system, which was highly detrimental to those companies and set a movement in place to remove transportation segregation as well.

Marcus Garvey

African American leader during the 1920's who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. Was deported to Jamaica in 1927.

return to isolationism

After World War I the US attempted to become less involved in world affairs. The US refused to join the League of Nations. Although President Wilson pushed hard for US membership, opposition in the US Senate was significant. Americans, after learning of the destruction and cost of World War I, did not want the United States to become entangled in another European conflict which could lead to another devastating war. Americans viewed the nations of Europe as conflict prone and likely to become involved in internal and external disputes which could draw in the United States into another war which really had little to do with American interests. The US closed the doors to immigration during the 1920's. Early on the US had excluded Chinese, Japanese, and other Asians, but later the US began to exclude even Europeans, particularly eastern and southern Europeans.

Philippines

After decades of nationalist resistance against the Spanish (and violent repression of activists) this Pacific Island nation proudly declared independence in 1898. But the Spanish had handed control over to the USA, who had no plans to recognize their independence.

Limited Test Ban Treaty

Agreement between the US, Soviet Union, and Great Britain to end the testing of nuclear bombs in the atmosphere or underwater

telephone

Alexander Graham Bell He invented this electronic equipment device that converts sound into electrical signals that can be transmitted over distances and then converts received signals back into sounds.

women's suffrage movement

Alice Paul A suffragist, feminist, and women's rights activist, and the main leader and strategist of the 1910's campaign for the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which prohibits sex discrimination in the right to vote. Carrie Chapman Catt She was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U.S. women the right to vote in 1920. She served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and was the founder of the League of Women Voters and the International Alliance of Women. She led an army of voteless women in 1919. They pressured Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 192. She was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women.

municipal reforms

A coalition of middle-class reform-oriented voters, academic experts and reformers hostile to the political machines started forming in the 1890's and introduced a series of reforms in urban America, designed to reduce waste and inefficiency and corruption, by introducing scientific methods, compulsory education and administrative innovations.

Patriot Act

A controversial law overwhelmingly passed by Congress in October 2001, after the terrorist attacks of September 11 on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. It greatly expanded the power of federal law enforcement authorities to move against suspected terrorists.

Ghost Dance

A cult that tried to call the spirits of past warriors to inspire the young braves to fight. It was crushed at the Battle of Wounded Knee after spreading to the Dakota Sioux. The dance led to the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. This act tried to reform Indian tribes and turn them into "white" citizens. It did little good.

banana republics

A disparaging term for the small nations of Central America, with particular reference to their political instability and poor, single-crop economies. "The United States . . . would not permit the European nations themselves to intervene in the bankrupt banana republics."

Berlin Wall

A fortified wall surrounding West Berlin, Germany, built in 1961 to prevent East German citizens from traveling to the West. Its demolition in 1989 symbolized the end of the Cold War. This wall was both a deterrent to individuals trying to escape and a symbol of repression to the free world.

Taliban

A fundamentalist Muslim movement whose militia took control of much of Afghanistan from early 1995, and in 1996 took Kabul and set up a radical Islamic state. The movement was forcibly removed from power by the US and its allies after the September 11, 2001, attacks

Black Panther Party

A group formed in 1966, inspired by the idea of Black Power, that provided aid to black neighborhoods; often thought of as radical or violent. Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights, they represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement, and signaled a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964 and 1965.

Hollywood Ten

A group of actors, writers, directors, musicians, and other entertainers, who were barred from working in the industry because of their affiliations or suspected affiliations with the Communist Party of America.

Woodrow Wilson

1913 - 1921 He was the 28th president of the United States. He is known for his World War I leadership. He created The Federal Reserve, Federal Trade Commission, Clayton Antitrust Act, progressive income tax, lower tariffs, women's suffrage (reluctantly), Treaty of Versailles, sought 14 points post-war plan, League of Nations (but failed to win U.S. ratification), won Nobel Peace Prize.

Scopes Trial

1925 Tennessee trial where teacher John Scopes was charged with teaching evolution; Darrow = defense; Bryan = prosecutor; demonstrated religious fundamentalism vs. modernism.

Atlantic Charter

1941-Pledge signed by US president FDR and British prime minister Winston Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of WWII amd to work for peace after the war

Korematsu v. United States

1944 Supreme Court case where the Supreme Court upheld the order providing for the relocation of Japanese Americans. It was not until 1988 that Congress formally apologized and agreed to pay $20,000 to each survivor.

GI Bill

1944- gave benifits to to WW2 veterans including financial assistance for veterans wanting to go to college, buy a home, prefered treatment to veterans who wanted to apply for government jobs

Malcolm X

1952; renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage; converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter; his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on seperationist and nationalist impulses to achieve true independence and equality.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

A group of railroad workers on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. This strike spread up and down the railroad line across the nation. Railroad roadhouse were torched. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in troops to stop the strike. 100 people died in the strike.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A landmark piece of national legislation in the United States that outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans in the U.S.

Tennessee Valley Authority

A law enacted in 1933 to raise crop prices by paying farmers to leave a certain amount of their land unplanted, thus lowering production.

"Letter from Birmingham Jail"

A letter written by Martin Luther King Jr. after he had been arrested when he took part in a nonviolent march against segregation. He was disappointed more Christians didn't speak out against racism.

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled.

Warsaw Pact

A military alliance of communist nations in eastern Europe. Organized in 1955 in answer to NATO, it included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.

counterculture

A mode of life opposed to the conventional or dominant, that rejects established social values and practices, esp. among the young.

Watergate scandal

A scandal involving an illegal break-in at the Democratic National Committee offices in 1972 by members of President Nixon's reelection campaign staff. Before Congress could vote to impeach Nixon for his participation in covering up the break-in, Nixon resigned from the presidency.

Nuremberg Trials

A series of court proceedings held in Nuremberg, Germany, after World War II, in which Nazi leaders were tried for aggression, violations of the rules of war, and crimes against humanity.

Arab Spring

A series of uprisings and riots that spread throughout the Arab world during the Spring of 2011. A major component for these swiftly changing events was the accessibility of Internet access and satellite television.

black power

A slogan used to reflect solidarity and racial consciousness, used by Malcolm X. It meant that equality could not be given, but had to be seized by a powerful, organized Black community.

"Iron Curtain" speech

A speech given by Winston Churchill where he said that an 'iron curtain' has been set across East and West Europe, separating Western democracies from Eastern Communist countries

Carnegie Steel

A steel producing company named and created by a single individual. He managed business at his steel mills in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area in the late 19th century. Significance: had a monopoly in the steel industry. vertical integration's.

German reunification

A strong drive for reunification developed in East and West Germany in 1990. In East Germany, conservative parties supporting reunification won the elections, and the new government and the force of events proceeded to dismantle the state. Economic union with the West occurred in July, and on Oct. 3, 1990, political reunification took place under what had been the West German constitution.

USS Cole bombing

A suicide attack against the United States Navy guided-missile destroyer USS Cole on October 12, 2000, while it was harbored and being refueled in the Yemen port of Aden. It was the deadliest attack from a U.S. Naval vessel since 1987. The terrorist organization al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack.

horizontal integration

A technique used by John D. Rockefeller. This is an act of joining or consolidating with ones competitors to create a monopoly. Rockefeller was excellent with using this technique to monopolize certain markets. It is responsible for the majority of his wealth.

digital divide

A term used to describe the discrepancy between people who have access to and the resources to use new information and communication tools, such as the internet, and people who do not have the resources and access to the technology.

domino theory

A theory that if one nation comes under Communist control, then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control.

liberty bonds

A war bond that was sold in the United States to support the allied cause in World War I. Subscribing to the bonds became a symbol of patriotic duty in the United States and introduced the idea of financial securities to many citizens for the first time.

assembly line

Arrangement of tools, machines, and workers in which a product is assembled by having each perform a specific, successive operation on an incomplete unit as it passes by in a series of stages organized in a direct line

Schenk v. United States

(1919), is a United States Supreme Court decision concerning enforcement of the Espionage Act of 1917 during World War I. A unanimous Supreme Court, in a famous opinion by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., concluded that defendants who distributed leaflets to draft-age men, urging resistance to induction, could be convicted of an attempt to obstruct the draft, a criminal offense.

Korean War

(1950-53) A conflict between UN forces (primarily US and S Korea) against North Korea, and later China; Gen. Douglas Macarthur led UN forces and was later replaced by Gen. Ridgeway; Resulted in Korea remaining divided at the 38th parallel.

Bay of Pigs invasion

(1961) the failed attempt of Cuban exiles backed by the U.S. to overthrow the Cuban socialist government of Fidel Castro

nationalism

Belief that a nation consists of a group of people who share similar traditions, history, and language. Nationalists argued that every nation should be sovereign and include all members of a community. A person's greatest loyalty should be to a nation-state.

Reynolds v. Sims

Court returned to reapportionment in this case. Ruled that state legislative districts must be roughly equivalent in population. As a result of the case, legislative districts across the country were redrawn following the principle of "one person, one vote." That means each legislator would represent the roughly same number of people, allowing each person's vote to count equally.

Axis of Evil

Created in 2002 by George W. Bush to show the "bad guys" which include: Iran, Iraq, and N. Korea

J. P. Morgan

Consolidated rival enterprises to ensure future harmony by placing officers of his own banking syndicate on their various boards of directors. These came to be known as "interlocking directorates." He financed the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks. He did not believe that "money power" was dangerous, except when in dangerous hands—and he did not regard his own hands as dangerous. He agreed to buy out Carnegie for over $400 million. He he controlled 2/3 of the rail roads and eventually merged into the steel industry.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

First federal action against monopolies, it was signed into law by Harrison and was extensively used by Theodore Roosevelt for trust-busting. Intended to prevent the creation of monopolies by making it illegal to establish trusts that interfered with free trade, However, it was initially misused against labor unions.

immigration quotas

Limitations on immigration that were passed by the U.S. government that established preferred immigration of those who were thought to be more "capable" and capable of success in the United States, while limited the immigration of those who were deemed "unnecessary."

Osama bin Laden

Founder of al Qaeda, the terrorist network responsible for the attacks of September 11, 2001, and other attacks.

Battle of the Atlantic

Germany's naval attempt to cut off British supply ships by using u-boats. Caused Britain and the US to officially join the war after their ships were sunk. After this battle, the Allies won control of the seas, allowing them to control supply transfer, which ultimately determined the war. 1939-1945

Axis power aggression

Germany, Italy, and Japan, which were allied before and during World War II, United states wanted to stay out.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Gideon was charged with breaking and entering in Florida and could not afford an attorney. When he asked to be appointed one, the state said they only had to appoint one to indigenous citizens for capital offenses. Result: SC rules that Gideon has a right to an attorney through the Bill of Rights.

dissolution of the Soviet Union

Gorbachev resigned and declared his office extinct, and handed its powers to Russian president Boris Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered and replaced with the Russian flag. This signaled not only the end of the Soviet Union, but also the Cold War. After the Soviet Union dissolved, independent states such as Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia, as well as others were formed.

radio

Grew popular during and after WWI and available to all (even illiterate) so able to mobilize the masses for political purposes. Also used for propaganda

Great Society programs (War on Poverty, Medicaid, Medicare, education, Dept. of Housing and Urban Development)

Johnson's hallmark legislation he managed to pass through strategic lobbying. It was a revenue program drastically increasing federal spending. However, due to economic struggles later in his term, it was largely discredited. Nonetheless, it did a lot to help people in the United States.

Berlin airlift

Joint effort by the US and Britian to fly food and supplies into W Berlin after the Soviet blocked off all ground routes into the city

yellow journalism

Journalism that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers. Example is what some historians claim as non of the possible causes of the Spanish-American War (1898). Newspaper publishers like Hearst and Pulitzer sensationalized news events (like the sinking of the Maine) to anger American public towards Spain.

Suez Crisis

July 26, 1956, Nasser (leader of Egypt) nationalized the Suez Canal, Oct. 29, British, French and Israeli forces attacked Egypt. UN forced British to withdraw; made it clear Britain was no longer a world power.

Iran

Known as Persia until 1935; central location in the Middle East; 18th largest country in the world in terms of landmass

Jim Crow laws

Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites. Limited rights of blacks. Literacy tests, grandfather clauses and poll taxes limited black voting rights.

Florence Kelley (1859 - 1932)

She was a social and political reformer. Her work against sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's rights is widely regarded today. From its founding in 1899, Kelley served as the first general secretary of the National Consumers League. In 1909 Kelley helped create the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). 1891 - She joined Jane Addams and the other reformers at Hull House and was soon hired by the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics to investigate the "sweating" system in the garment industry. In 1908 she helped prepare the "Brandeis Brief" in defense of 10-hour workdays legislation for women. Also concerned with working conditions for children, started the national Child Labor Committee

Mother Jones (1837 - 1930)

She was an Irish-American schoolteacher and dressmaker who became a prominent labor and community organizer. She helped coordinate major strikes and co-founded the Industrial Workers of the World. She worked as a teacher and dressmaker, but after her husband and four children all died of yellow fever in 1867, and her dress shop was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, she began working as an organizer for the Knights of Labor and the United Mine Workers union. From 1897, at around 60 years of age, she was known as? In 1902 she was called "the most dangerous woman in America" for her success in organizing mine workers and their families against the mine owners. In 1903, upset about the lax enforcement of the child labor laws in the Pennsylvania mines and silk mills. She organized a Children's March from Philadelphia to the home of then president Theodore in New York. A magazine, established in 1970, is named for her.

effects of the Homestead Act

Signed into law in May 1862, the Homestead Act opened up settlement in the western United States, allowing any American, including freed slaves, to put in a claim for up to 160 free acres of federal land. By the end of the Civil War, 15,000 homestead claims had been established, and more followed in the postwar years. Eventually, 1.6 million individual claims would be approved; nearly ten percent of all government held property for a total of 420,000 square miles of territory. Positive Effects There were many positives that were associated with the Homestead Act, specifically how well it helped to develop the Western Frontier. Since never before in history had the government given land in this way, nor in such large quantities, it was a great way to encourage people to move to the West. As a result of more and more people traveling out to the west, towns began to develop and make it much easier for more people to continue the new trend of traveling into the frontier. Families were able to establish farms in a vast majority of the land that created stable roots for future generations. Women and freed slaves were able to make claims to land, something that they were eager to lay claim to as soon as they were able. This allowed them to have something tangible that was their own. As a result of so much land being discovered and utilized, plenty of new resource pools came to light such as gold, silver, coal, timber, and oil. This allowed towns to firmly sink in and create thriving economies, a major struggle that those on the forefront of the frontier had been working very hard to overcome. Through the economies that were being developed, more and more jobs were now available and it became a lucrative idea to head out to some of the Western towns that had proven themselves. Not only did this effect the West in a positive way, but it helped to hasten the expansion of the railroad out into the West as well. The railroad quickly made a way for itself all the way to the coast of California, making traveling much easier and, more importantly, gave these flourishing Western towns the ability to transfer goods from coast to coast. The leather industry was thriving, minerals, timber, and the cattle industry were also skyrocketing towards success. Manufactured goods from both sides of the country were able to be shipped nationwide; the demand for new technology to support these goods even began to make itself known. With the implementation of The Homestead Act, the West was able to gain access to the human element that it needed in order for the West to survive from an American standpoint. The government knew the value of the land and the need for human interference was imperative to the success. After many people had moved out into the west and cultivated their land, establishing their families in a new place, the country now spanned from coast to coast. Negative Effects A risk that is always taken when expanding a frontier is the risk of facing the unknown. This was unavoidable in the expansion of the United States into the West. Not only were men and women moving out into a place they knew little about, they were facing elements that they had previously been warned about by those before them. With major fears of the Indians they would encounter, families were terrified about traveling into these new conditions—and this was only the aspect of traveling to their government promised land. Once there, a majority of families faced dire conditions that often ended in death. The weather was so severe with blizzards and intense winds, particularly tornadoes which were an element unknown to many east coast dwellers. These weather conditions mixed with the fact that many people were given land that was unable to be farmed and cultivated for crops proved to be a deadly combination. Without the food or any kind of nourishment to sustain them throughout the colder months many families did not have options left other than to try to make it or move back home. For some who did decide to stick it out, they were faced with a lack of trees to build homes from and an extremely limited water supply. This made taking care of themselves difficult, not to mention taking care of their crops or livestock. Since vegetation was so hard to come by their livestock rarely had anything to eat and the homesteaders were backed into a corner of not having any choice but to abandon their land. As we have learned throughout the course, a driving factor behind a majority of the settlements created in the West stemmed from a desire for human contact. Many of the different wives that had settled onto ranches and farms craved interaction with other women but it was extremely hard to come by. For those men who moved out into the frontier without families, their desires turned to prostitutes. Prostitution became one of the only careers that women were able to turn to when faced with frontier life and it was not an easy life to get out of. The impact that the Americans had on the Indians was completely devastating. After taking and redistributing the land that was once theirs, the American government opted to rally them like cattle and control everything that they did. Indians were forced to give up their lifestyles in an effort to make themselves more American or they faced death. This, in turn, influenced the flow of nature that was a major part of the West. Indians had learned to live with nature and grow with the land, where as Americans paved their way through and killed everything that was in their path, although it was not without reason. Americans were concerned with making money and saw the many financial opportunities that were available the farther that they traveled into the frontier. Not only did the Americans deplete the numbers of the buffalo at an alarming rate, they also put quite a dent into the natural resources they happened to discover.

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in the United Kingdom, North America, and Western Europe in the 1870's, which claim to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics. Economically, social Darwinists argue that the strong should see their wealth and power increase while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease. Different social Darwinists have differing views about which groups of people are considered to be the strong and which groups of people are considered to be the weak, and they also hold different opinions about the precise mechanism that should be used to reward strength and punish weakness. Many such views stress competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism, while others are claimed to have motivated ideas of eugenics, racism, imperialism, fascism, Nazism, and struggle between national or racial groups.

limitations of New Deal

Some of the problems with the New Deal were that it didn't wholly solve the unemployment problems, the public work jobs were a good moral booster but they weren't permanent, the WPA CWA and PWA spent a little more money than necessary, the NRA and AAA were eventually considered unconstitutional. Over all the New Deal was a temporary fix with some good lasting qualities, but it did add several billion dollars to the national debt at the time

Standard 4 - Becoming a World Power through World War II

Students examine the social, economic, and political struggles and achievements that led to the U.S. becoming a world power from the 1920's until the end of World War II.

Standard 3 - Isolationism through the Great War

Students trace the transition in U.S. foreign policy from isolationism to internationalism from the late nineteenth century until the end of World War I.

Standard 6 - The Modern Age

Students understand the shift in American government and society from a Cold War identity to a culture of global interdependence. Students understand the shift in American government and society from a Cold War identity to a culture of global interdependence.

Standard 2 - Western Expansion to Progressivism

Students understand the social, political, and economic changes that developed between the periods of the United States' westward expansion, industrial growth, and the Progressive Era.

September 11, 2001

Suicide attack by al-qaeda hijacked four passenger jets crashing 2 planes into Twin Towers WTC. Another into the pentagon. fourth jet crashed into the fields near shanks ville, Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 died in the attack

dollar diplomacy

The outgoing President Theodore Roosevelt laid the foundation for this approach in 1904 with his Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. United States Marines were frequently sent to Central America maintaining that if any nation in the Western Hemisphere appeared politically and financially unstable so as to be vulnerable to European control, the United States had the right and obligation to intervene. Taft continued and expanded the policy, starting in Central America, where he justified it as a means of protecting the Panama Canal. In March 1909, he attempted unsuccessfully to establish control over Honduras by buying up its debt to British bankers.

Open Door policy

The policy proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, keeping any one power from total control of the country.

vertical integration

The practice perfected by Andrew Carnegie of controlling every step of the industrial production process in order to increase efficiency and limit competition.

sinking of the Lusitania

The sinking of this Cunard ocean liner occurred on Friday, 7 May 1915 during the First World War, as Germany waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The ship was identified and torpedoed by the German U-boat U-20 and sank in 18 minutes. The vessel went down 11 miles off the Old Head of Kinsale,Ireland, killing 1,198 and leaving 761 survivors. The sinking turned public opinion in many countries against Germany, contributed to the American entry into World War I and became an iconic symbol in military recruiting campaigns of why the war was being fought.

moral diplomacy

This is a form of Diplomacy proposed by US President Woodrow Wilson in his 1912 election. In this system support is given only to countries whose moral beliefs are analogous to that of the nation. This promotes the growth of the nation's ideals and damages nations with different ideologies. It was used by Woodrow Wilson to support countries with democratic governments and to economically injure non-democratic countries (seen as possible threats to the U.S.). He also hoped to increase the number of democratic nations, particularly in Latin America.

ghettos

This is a part of a city in which members of a minority group live, especially because of social, legal, or economic pressure. The term was originally used in Venice to describe the part of the city to which Jews were restricted and segregated.

political machines (Boss William Tweed, Tammany Hall)

This is a political organization in which an authoritative boss or small group commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses (usually campaign workers), who receive rewards for their efforts. Tammany Hall was a New York City political organization that endured for nearly two centuries. Formed in 1789 in opposition to the Federalist Party, its leadership often mirrored that of the local Democratic Party's executive committee. Although its popularity stemmed from a willingness to help the city's poor and immigrant populations, Tammany Hall became known for charges of corruption levied against leaders such as William M. "Boss" Tweed. Its power waned during the tenure of New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia (1934-1945), and the organization was rendered extinct after John V. Lindsay took office in 1966.

AIDS research

This is medical ________________ to find a cure to a deadly condition which effects millions around the world--especially in developing continents like Africa and Southeast Asia.

Bessemer process

This man invented a process for making steel by using his converter (a blast furnace) to blast hot air through in molten iron, thus burning the excess carbon and other impurities away. This allowed steel to be made. Because of this mans process steel could be in large quantities for the first time. Steel was what made skyscrapers possible, advances in shipbuilding, construction, etc. This made possible the production of steel in great quantities and large dimensions, for use in manufacture of locomotives, steel rails, and girders for the construction of tall buildings.

Sussex Pledge

This pledge was a promise made in 1916 during World War I by Germany to the United States prior to the latter's entry into the war. Early in 1915, Germany had instituted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, allowing armed merchant ships, but not passenger ships, to be torpedoed without warning. Despite this avowed restriction, a French cross-channel passenger ferry was torpedoed without warning on March 24, 1916; the ship was severely damaged and about 50 lives were taken. Although no US citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue this practice, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into World War I, Germany attempted to appease the United States by issuing, on May 4, 1916, this pledge which promised a change in Germany's naval warfare policy. These were the primary elements of the undertaking: Passenger ships would not be targeted; Merchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been established, if necessary by a search of the ship; Merchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and crew. In 1917, Germany became convinced they could defeat the Allied Forces by instituting unrestricted submarine warfare before the United States could enter the war. The pledge was therefore rescinded in January 1917, thereby initiating the decisive stage of the so-called First Battle of the Atlantic. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram caused the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

motion pictures

This powerful medium was first developed by Thomas Edison in 1893. By the early part of the century it began to play an important role in the economic and social life of the United States, providing both escapism and revelation of the human experience.

Pure Food and Drug Act

This was a key piece of Progressive Era legislation, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt. It ensured that products were labeled accurately Forbade the manufacture or sale of mislabeled or adulterated food or drugs, it gave the government broad powers to ensure the safety and efficacy of drugs in order to abolish the "patent" drug trade. Still in existence as the FDA.

Roe v. Wade

The 1973 Supreme Court decision holding that a state ban on all abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect the mother's health in the second trimester, and permitted states to protect the fetus during the third trimester.

Harry S. Truman

The 33rd U.S. president, who succeeded Franklin D. Roosevelt upon Roosevelt's death in April 1945. He led the country through the last few months of World War II, is best known for making the controversial decision to use two atomic bombs against Japan in August 1945. After the war, he was crucial in the implementation of the Marshall Plan, which greatly accelerated Western Europe's economic recovery.

baby boomers

The 78 million people born during the years following World War II and lasting until 1964.

the First Red Scare

The fear that communism would take over America, especially after the rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia. Many Americans were afraid of any communistic ties, which led to Mitchell Palmer hunting down many suspected socialists and anarchists, the formation of the KKK, and anti-foreigner acts.

the Internet

The global network of interconnected computers that communicate freely and share and exchange information is called the:

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, occurred on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo when they were shot dead by Gavrilo Princip. Princip was one of a group of six assassins (five Serbs and one Bosniak) coordinated by Danilo Ilić, a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society. The political objective of the assassination was to break off Austria-Hungary's South Slav provinces so they could be combined into a Yugoslavia. The assassins' motives were consistent with the movement that later became known as Young Bosnia. The assassination led directly to the First World War when Austria-Hungary subsequently issued an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia, which was partially rejected. Austria-Hungary then declared war.

Angel Island

The immigration station on the west coast where Asian immigrants, mostly Chinese gained admission to the U.S. at San Francisco Bay. Between 1910 and 1940, Fifty-thousand Chinese immigrants entered through Angel Island. Questioning and conditions at Angel Island were much harsher than Ellis Island in New York.

U-2 incident

The incident when an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The U.S. denied the true purpose of the plane at first, but was forced to when the U.S.S.R. produced the living pilot and the largely intact plane to validate their claim of being spied on aerially. The incident worsened East-West relations during the Cold War and was a great embarrassment for the United States.

boom and bust nature of mining towns

The lure of silver and gold brought about many fortune seekers to these types of the towns. These towns would literally spring up from nothing and then fade away just as quickly when the mines would run out. These towns were nasty, dirty, expensive, and had filthy living quarters.

mass production

The manufacture of goods in large quantities by machinery and by use of techniques such as the assembly line and division of labor.

bootlegging

The manufacturing and transportation of illegal alcohol. Became major problem and center of organized crime during Prohibition.

Great Migration

The movement of African Americans from the South to the industrial centers of the Northeast and the Midwest. Causes for this included decreasing cotton prices, the lack of immigrant workers in the North, increased manufacturing as a result of the war, and the strengthening of the KKK. It led to higher wages, more educational opportunities, and better standards of life for some blacks.

Great Migration

The movement of African Americans from the South to the industrial centers of the Northeast and the Midwest. Causes for this included decreasing cotton prices, the lack of immigrant workers in the North, increased manufacturing as a result of the war, and the strengthening of the KKK. It led to higher wages, more educational opportunities, and better standards of life for some blacks.

annexation of Hawaii

When the McKinley Tariff of 1890 provoked a crisis by eliminating the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar, they faced competition in the American market. As a result, American planters in Hawaii called for the US to annex the islands so they wouldn't have to pay the duty. That same year, when Sanford B. Dole overthrew Queen Liliuokalani and refused to surrender power back to her, Cleveland formally recognized the Republic of Hawaii, but refused to consider annexation unless a majority of Hawaiians favored it. In 1897, McKinley, who favored annexation, succeeded Cleveland as president. On August 12, 1898, Congress proclaimed Hawaii an American territory, although Hawaiians never got the chance to vote.

alliances

When two or more nations agree to protect each other or attack a common enemy.

Bonus Army

a group of World War I veterans and their families who marched on Washington, D.C., in 1932 to demand the immediate payment of a bonus they had been promised for military service

Zoot-Suit Riots of 1943

a series of riots in 1943 during World War II that exploded in Los Angeles, California, between white sailors and Marines stationed throughout the city and Latino youths, who were recognizable by the zoot suits they favored; the effect of the infamous Sleepy Lagoon murder which involved the death of a young Latino man in a barrio near Los Angeles; triggered other similar attacks in other places

Equal Rights Amendment

a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights for women. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman. In 1923, it was introduced in the Congress for the first time. In 1972, it passed both houses of Congress and went to the state legislatures for ratification.

speculation

an involvement in risky business transactions in an effort to make a quick or large profit

lunch counter sit-ins

protests by black college students, 1960-1961, who took seats at "whites only" lunch counters and refused to leave until served; in 1960 over 50,000 participated in sit-ins across the South. Their success prompted the formation of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee.

Palestinian Liberation Organization

the PLO; terrorist group. political & military organization regarded as the sole representative of the Palestinian people; Political party and organization that fought for Palestinian rights

Engel v. Vitale

the Supreme Court decision in 1962, that said a public school could not require a school prayer; guaranteed separation of church and state

overproduction

the accumulation of unsalable inventories in the hands of businesses.

Nazism

the political philosophy—based on extreme nationalism, racism, and militaristic expansionism—that Adolf Hitler put into practice in Germany from 1933 to 1945.

Standard 5 - Cold War Era

Students examine the Cold War era and how it influenced U.S. foreign policy decisions, domestic programs, and major social movements.

battles with Plains Indians (1854-90)

(1854-90). The wars between the Indian tribes of the Great Plains and the U.S. Army grew out of the westward movement of Americans. The territorial accessions of the Mexican War of 1846-48, followed by the discovery of gold in California, set off a migration across the plains that ended only in the final decades of the nineteenth century as farmers and cattle ranchers began to occupy the plains. Plains warfare, however, centered mainly on securing the transcontinental travel routes and protecting travelers rather than actual residents from Indian aggression's. Indian hostility arose from resentment over the inroads of travelers on such Indian resources as game, timber, and grass. Typically, the major wars with the Plains tribes followed treaties negotiated by government commissioners that bound the Indians to settle on a designated reservation. The military was then called in to make them go, or to make them return once they had moved. They discovered the misery of reservation life. Reservation lands were expanses of property that no one else wanted to live on. The government made Indian reservations out of these properties - no game to hunt, often dry and without trees...ect. Native Americans would leave these miserable reservation lands and try to return to their native lands. The Army would then be called upon to go get them. This cycle continued repeating itself over and over again. Sometimes with violent outcomes sometimes without violent outcomes. The Plains tribes that fought the United States most intensively were the Sioux (Lakota), Cheyenne, and Arapaho on the northern plains and the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, and Comanche on the southern plains. All these tribes had traditions of constant warfare with other tribes—the Sioux and Cheyennes against the Crows and Shoshones, for example. Thus, military operations occurred against a backdrop of constant inter-tribal fighting, with Indians often serving as scouts or auxiliaries for the federal troops. Army and Indian warred in different styles. The army maintained a system of forts at strategic locations and fielded heavy offensive columns burdened by slow‐moving supply trains. The Indians fought with hit‐and‐run tactics that exploited environmental factors and avoided open engagement unless the risk was small. The individual warrior excelled over the typical regular in virtually every test of combat proficiency, but in open battle this was offset by military organization, discipline, command, and firepower. In general, the army prevailed when the Indians abandoned their orthodoxy and fought by white rules, or when commanders abandoned their orthodoxy and fought by Indian rules. After the Mexican War, Indian wars erupted along the Oregon‐California Trail, the Santa Fe Trail, and the various trails across Texas. Sioux and Cheyennes slipped into hostilities in 1854-55. Near Fort Laramie, the Grattan Massacre of 19 August 1854, caused by the imprudent actions of a young officer, led to Brig. Gen. William S. Harney's campaign of 1855. At the Battle of Bluewater, September 3, 1855 - Harney destroyed a Sioux village and killed Chief Little Thunder. To the south, Kiowas, Comanches, and Cheyennes threatened the commerce with Santa Fe and raided deep into Texas. The Civil War years intensified fighting, with federalized volunteer units replacing the regulars. The Minnesota uprising of 1862 spread west into Dakota Territory, where Sioux resented gold seekers crossing their homeland to newly opened mines in western Montana. In the summers of 1863, 1864, and 1865, Brig. Gen. Henry H. Sibley and Brig. Gen. Alfred Sully fought successful engagements with the Sioux. Most notable was Sully's victory over Sitting Bull and Inkpaduta at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain, July 28, 1864. On the central plains during the summer of 1864, Indian unrest threatened the trails from the east to Denver, Colorado, and led to the tragic and treacherous attack by Col. John M. Chivington on Black Kettle's Cheyenne village at Sand Creek, November 29, 1864. Sand Creek set off a general war that spread over the plains country in 1865. A three‐pronged offensive on the northern plains directed by Brig. Gen. Patrick E. Connor failed when columns encountered bad weather and ran out of supplies. With the end of the Civil War, regulars returned to the plains. Red Cloud's Sioux closed the Bozeman Trail to the Montana mines and besieged the three forts erected to protect travelers. On December 21, 1866 - Warriors wiped out an eighty‐man force under Capt. William J. Fetterman near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming. The following summer, however, in the Wagon Box and Hayfield fights, new breech‐loading rifles helped beat back massed Indian assaults. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 ended the Red Cloud War and provided for abandoning the three forts along the Bozeman Trail. On the southern plains, a war in 1868-69 forced Cheyennes, Kiowas, and Comanches to new reservations. The highlight of this conflict was the Battle of the Washita, November 27, 1868 - Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer, without bothering to identify the village or do any reconnaissance. leads an early morning attack on a band of peaceful Cheyenne living with Chief Black Kettle. Chef Black Kettle had survived Sand Creek but died during this battle. Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry surrounded the village the night before. At dawn Custer called for the regimental band to play "Garry Owen," which signaled for four columns of soldiers to charge into the sleeping village. Outnumbered and caught unaware, scores of Cheyenne were killed in the first 15 minutes of the "battle." A small number of the warriors managed to escape to the trees and return fire. Within a few hours the village was destroyed-the soldiers had killed 103 Cheyenne, including the peaceful Black Kettle and many women and children. Hailed as the first substantial American victory in the Indian wars, the Battle of the Washita helped to restore Custer's reputation. It also persuaded many Cheyenne to move to the reservation. However, Custer's habit of boldly charging Indian encampments of unknown strength would eventually lead him to his death at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. In 1874, these tribes, discontented with reservation life, fled to the west. The Red River War of 1874-75, featuring operations by Col. Nelson A. Miles and Col. Ranald S. Mackenzie, ended warfare on the southern plains and along the Texas frontier. On the northern plains, new tensions arose as railroads aimed for the Sioux country and gold was discovered in the Black Hills, part of the Sioux reservation. The Great Sioux War of 1876 resulted, as the army sought to force Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and other chiefs to go to the reservation. Three columns converged on the Sioux hunting grounds under Brig. Gen. George Crook, Brig. Gen. Alfred H. Terry, and Col. John Gibbon. Riding with Terry was Custer and his Seventh Cavalry Regiment. On 25 June 1876, Custer attacked a great village of Sioux and Cheyennes on Montana's Little Bighorn River. He and the force under his immediate command, 212 men, were wiped out. The Custer disaster so stunned Americans that large armies took the field, and by the spring of 1877, most of the Sioux and Cheyennes had surrendered. Sitting Bull sought refuge in Canada, but gave up in 1881. The Red River War and the Great Sioux War ended major warfare on the Great Plains, although fighting went on elsewhere in the West until the final surrender of the Apache Geronimo in 1886. One final bloodletting occurred at the Battle of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on 29 December 1890. This was hardly war, however, but rather a spiritual revival that blew up in unintended and unexpected violence. Wounded Knee was the last important encounter between U.S. soldiers and American Indians and coincided with the passing of the western frontier.

Mexican Revolution and Pancho Villa

(1910-1920) Fought over a period of almost 10 years from 1910; resulted in ouster of Porfirio Diaz from power; opposition forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata

Israel

A Jewish state on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, both in antiquity and again founded in 1948 after centuries of Jewish diaspora.

glasnost

"Openness; called for increased transparency in government institutions and activities within the USSR; Mikhail Gorbachev. Usually paired with "Perestroika"

fascism

a political philosophy that advocates a strong, centralized, nationalistic government headed by a powerful dictator.

Oklahoma City bombing

Bombing of Murrah Federal Building. The blast, set off by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, killed 168 people, including 19 children in the building's day-care center.

Camp David Accords

(1978) were negotiated at the presidential retreat of Camp David by Egypt's Anwar Sadat and Israel Menachem Begin; they were brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter. They led to a peace treaty the next year that returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, guaranteed Israeli access to the Red Sea and Suez Canal, and more-or-less normalized diplomatic and economic relations between the two countries. This isolated Egypt from the other Arab countries and led to Sadat's assassination in 1981.

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

(1979-1989) invaded in December 1979...... The Soviet Union sent thousands of troops into Afghanistan and immediately assumed complete military and political control of Kabul and large portions of the country. This event began a brutal, decade-long attempt to subdue the Afghan civil war and maintain a friendly and socialist government on its border.

Ronald Reagan

(1981-1985) and (1985-1989), first elected president in 1980 and elected again in 1984. He ran on a campaign based on the common man and "populist" ideas. He served as governor of California from 1966-1974, and he participated in the McCarthy Communist scare. Iran released hostages on his Inauguration Day in 1980. While president, he developed Reagannomics, the trickle down effect of government incentives. He cut out many welfare and public works programs. He used the Strategic Defense Initiative to avoid conflict. His meetings with Gorbachev were the first steps to ending the Cold War. He was also responsible for the Iran-contra Affair which bought hostages with guns.

Persian Gulf War

(1990 - 1991) Conflict between Iraq and a coalition of countries led by the United States to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait which they had invaded in hopes of controlling their oil supply. A very one sided war with the United States' coalition emerging victorious.

American Indian movement

(AIM) A Native American organization founded in 1968 to protest government policies and injustices suffered by Native Americans; in 1973, organized the armed occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota., led by Dennis Banks and Russell Means; purpose was to obtain equal rights for Native Americans.

Congress of Racial Equality

(CORE) Civil rights organization started in 1944 and best known for its "freedom rides," bus journeys challenging racial segregation in the South in 1961.

D-Day

(FDR) , June 6, 1944, 160,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazi Germany on the beaches of Normandy, France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the operation a crusade in which "we will accept nothing less than full victory." More than 5,000 Ships and 13,000 aircraft supported the D-Day invasion, and by day's end on June 6, the Allies gained a foot- hold in Normandy.

House Un-American Activities Committee

(HUAC) committee formed in the House of Representatives in the 1930s to investigate radical groups in the United States; it later came to focus on the threat of communism in the United States during World War II and the Cold War, Committee in the House of Representatives founded on a temporary basis in 1938 to monitor activities of foreign agents. Made a standing committee in 1945. During World War II it investigated pro-fascist groups, but after the war it turned to investigating alleged communists. From 1947-1949, it conducted a series of sensational investigations into supposed communist infiltration of the U.S. government and Hollywood film industry.

Muckraker

(Ida Tarbell, Upton Sinclair) A group of investigative reporters who pointed out the abuses of big business and the corruption of urban politics; included Frank Norris (The Octopus) Ida Tarbell (A history of the standard oil company) Lincoln Steffens (the shame of the cities) and Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) exposed the horrors of the meat packing industry which leading to, "Meat Inspection Act."

Cuban Missile Crisis

(JFK) , , an international crisis in October 1962, the closest approach to nuclear war at any time between the U.S. and the USSR. When the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, President John F. Kennedy demanded their removal and announced a naval blockade of the island; the Soviet leader Khrushchev acceded to the U.S. demands a week later, on condition that US doesn't invade Cuba

Pentagon Papers

(RN), , a classified study of the Vietnam War that was carried out by the Department of Defense. An official of the department, Daniel Ellsberg, gave copies of the study in 1971 to the New York Times and Washington Post. The Supreme Court upheld the right of the newspapers to publish the documents. In response, President Richard Nixon ordered some members of his staff, afterward called the "plumbers," to stop such "leaks" of information. The "plumbers," among other activities, broke into the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist, looking for damaging information on him. r Defense Secretary Robert McNamara , revealed among other things that the government had drawn up plans for entering rthe war even as President Johnson promised that he would not send American troops to Viet.

Gen. John Pershing

(September 13, 1860 - July 15, 1948) was the general in the United States Army who led the American Expeditionary Forces to victory over Germany in World War I, 1917-18. He rejected British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies, and insisted that the AEF would operate as a single unit under his command, although some American divisions fought under British command, and he also allowed all-black units to be integrated with the French army. US forces first saw serious battle at Cantigny, Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Soissons. To speed up the arrival of the doughboys, they embarked for France leaving the heavy equipment behind, and used British and French tanks, artillery, airplanes and other munitions. In September 1918 at St. Mihiel, the First Army was directly under Pershing's command; it overwhelmed the salient which the German Army had held for three years. Pershing shifted 600,000 American soldiers to the heavily defended forests of the Argonne, keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days, alongside the French. That victory was one of several factors causing the Germans to call for an armistice, although Pershing himself wanted to continue the war, occupy all of Germany, and permanently destroy German militarism. Pershing is the only American to be promoted in his own lifetime to General of the Armies, the highest possible rank in the army. His rank is unofficially equivalent to a six-star general although he preferred to wear four gold stars (after World War I) instead of a six-star insignia.

Panama Canal

(TR) , The United States built this to have a quicker passage to the Pacific from the Atlantic and vice versa. It cost $400,000,000 to build. Colombians would not let Americans build the canal, but then with the assistance of the United States a Panamanian Revolution occurred. The new ruling people allowed the United States to build this canal.

George H. W. Bush

(born June 12, 1924) is an American politician who served as the 41st President of the United States (1989-93), and the 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981-89). A Republican, he previously served as a congressman, an ambassador, and Director of Central Intelligence. He is the oldest living former President and Vice President. He is also the last living former President who is a veteran of World War II. Bush is often referred to as "George H. W. Bush", "Bush 41", "Bush the Elder", or "George Bush Sr." to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who was the 43rd President of the United States. Prior to his son's presidency, he was known simply as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed college, enlisted in the U.S. Navy on his 18th birthday, and became the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy at the time. He served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, becoming a millionaire by the age of 40. He became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen by party nominee Ronald Reagan to be his running mate, and the two were elected. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation and fighting the "War on Drugs".

voting reforms

(direct primary, initiative, referendum, recall) Direct Primary The establishment of this in America is credited to Robert LaFollette. It's an election where people directly elect their party's candidates for office. Candidates had previously been selected by party caucuses that were considered elitist and undemocratic. This made elected officials more accountable to the people. Initiative Some states allow citizens to come up with their own ideas for laws to put on an election ballot. If the proposition passes it becomes a law. It requires many voter signatures to get on the ballot. It's the most direct form of democracy (citizen law-making) Referendum A state level method of direct democracy that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislative action or a proposed amendment. Occurs when a state wants the voter's opinion on a controversial issue. Recall A petition procedure by which voters may remove an elected official from office before the completion of his or her regular term.

Democratic Party Convention of 1968

10,000 anti-Vietnam war demonstrators converged on Chicago to pressure the democrats to take up an anti-war platform; this protest turned violent when police started to run off the protesters.

amendments (Sixteenth, Seventeenth, Eighteenth, & Nineteenth Amendments)

16th amendment Amendment to the United States Constitution (1913) gave Congress the power to tax income. 17th amendment Passed in 1913, this amendment to the Constitution calls for the direct election of senators by the voters instead of their election by state legislatures. 18th amendment Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcoholic beverages 19th amendment Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1920) extended the right to vote to women in federal or state elections.

Henry Ford

1863-1947. American businessman, founder of Ford Motor Company, father of modern assembly lines, and inventor credited with 161 patents.

Knights of Labor

1869 - This was the first nationwide industrial union. One of the most important American labor organizations of the 19th century. They demanded an end to child and convict labor - equal pay for women - a progressive income tax - and the cooperative employer-employee ownership of mines and factories.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

1964; banned discrimination in public accommodations, prohibited discrimination in any federally assisted program, outlawed discrimination in most employment; enlarged federal powers to protect voting rights and to speed school desegregation; this and the voting rights act helped to give African-Americans equality on paper, and more federally-protected power so that social equality was a more realistic goal.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty

1987 banning IRBMS under the Reagan Administration. It showed that the Soviet was more willing to negotiate, but both sides agreed together that they would ban these.

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties

1991, 1993, 1997, 2010 - 1st expired in 2009 and pledged to cut nuclear arsenals on both sides by 80% of Cold War peaks, 2nd Russia withdrew in response to US withdrawal from ABM treaty, 3rd never signed, new reduced number of deployed warheads on each side to 1500ish

Palmer Raids

A 1920 operation coordinated by Attorney General Mitchel Palmer in which federal marshals raided the homes of suspected radicals and the headquarters of radical organization in 32 cities. Part of the Red Scare, these were measures to hunt out political radicals and immigrants who were potential threats to American security; led to the arrest of nearly 5,500 people and the deportation of nearly 400.

brinkmanship

A 1956 term used by Secretary of State John Dulles to describe a policy of risking war in order to protect national interests

Love Canal

A neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York, which became the subject of national and international attention, controversy, and eventual environmental notoriety following the discovery of 21,000 tons of toxic waste buried beneath the neighborhood.

al-Qaeda

A network of Islamic terrorist organizations led by Osama bin Laden, he carried out the attacks on the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000, and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001

Marshall Plan

A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe.

assimilation

A policy in which a nation forces or encourages a subject people to adopt its institutions and customs. Deciding to become like members of the new culture, to accept their surface and deep culture, and giving up their original culture. Example: Native Americans

imperialism

A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, economically, or socially. This led to the creation of a number of European empires which extended around the world. A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force.

nativism

A policy of favoring native-born individuals over foreign-born ones

affirmative action

A policy requiring federal agencies, universities, and most employers to take positive steps to remedy the effects of past discrimination.

unrestricted submarine warfare

A policy that the Germans announced on January 1917 which stated that their submarines would sink any ship in the British waters. The use of submarines to sink without warning any ship (including neutral ships and unarmed passenger liners) found in an "enemy's waters

airplane

A powered heavier-than-air aircraft with fixed wings from which the aircraft derives most of its lift.

Vietnam War

A prolonged war (1954-1975) between the communist armies of North Vietnam who were supported by the Chinese and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States.

Rosie the Riveter

A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part.

Department of Homeland Security

A proposal by President Bush in 2002 which would consolidate 22 federal agencies and nearly 170,000 federal employees, US federal agency created in 2002 to coordinate national efforts against terrorism

monopolies

Absolute control of supply, trade and production of a specific product or industry. (Standard Oil-Rockefeller, Railroads-Vanderbilt, Carnegie Steel-Carnegie, US steel- JP Morgan)

"new" immigrants of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century

America experienced a large wave of immigration to its shores in the years following the American Civil War and Reconstruction. In the years between 1881 and 1920 more than 23 million new immigrants arrived in the United States. This wave immigrants came from all parts of the world, but more came from Europe than any other region. For all of these immigrants, their reasons for coming to the United States can be divided into push factors and pull factors. Push Factors and Pull Factors By the late nineteenth century, transoceanic transportation had become significantly cheaper and less difficult, making it easier for poor Europeans to immigrate to the United States. The first decade of this period saw most of the immigrants coming from northern and western Europe; after 1890, the majority came from Southern and Eastern Europe. Major push factors for immigrants of this period were European population growth and subsequent overcrowding, scarcity of land, unemployment and food shortages. Religious persecution forced thousands of Jews from their homelands, especially in countries such as Russia and Poland Major pull factors for immigrants of this period were available jobs and land and the opportunity to pursue ones' dreams and to live in a free and democratic society. Profile of a Typical Immigrant The typical immigrant to the United States during this period would have been a poor, unskilled laborer from Europe. Most immigrants arrived by steamship, traveling in steerage. Beginning in 1892, most immigrants passed through the Ellis Island Immigration Station in New York City. Here, Bureau of Immigration officers gave immigrants medical inspections and legal interviews to determine whether they were "fit" to enter the country.

A. Philip Randolph

America's leading black labor leader who called for a march on Washington D.C. to protest factories' refusals to hire African Americans, which eventually led to President Roosevelt issuing an order to end all discrimination in the defense industries.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur

American general best known for his command of Allied forces in the Pacific Theater during World War II.

Iran-Contra Affair

Americans kidnapped in Beirut by Iranian govt, so deal, scandal including arms sales to the Middle East in order to send money to help the Contras in Nicaragua even though Congress had objected, Poindexter and North involved

Guam

Americans secured this remote Pacific island from Spain after the war over Cuba. Americans had captured it earlier, before the residents even knew that there was a war going on.

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

An amendment passed by the U.S. Congress in 1914 that provides further clarification and substance to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The Clayton Antitrust Act attempts to prohibit certain actions that lead to anti-competitiveness. The Clayton Antitrust Act provides barriers to a broad range of anti-competitiveness issues. For example, topics such as price discrimination, price fixing and unfair business practices are addressed in the Act. They are enforced by the Federal Trade Commission and the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.

Fair Deal

An economic extension of the New Deal proposed by Harry Truman that called for higher minimum wage, housing and full employment. It led only to the Housing Act of 1949 and the Social Security Act of 1950 due to opposition in congress.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

An economic organization consisting primarily of Arab nations that controls the price of oil and the amount of oil its members produce and sell to other nations.

underconsumption

An economic situation that occurs when ordinary farmers and workers do not have money to continue purchasing products.

Ellis Island

An immigrant receiving station that opened in 1892, where immigrants were given a medical examination and only allowed in if they were healthy.

"Cross of Gold" speech

An impassioned address by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic Convention, in which he attacked the "gold bugs" who insisted that U.S. currency be backed only with gold.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

An organization founded by MLK Jr., to direct the crusade against segregation. Its weapon was passive resistance that stressed nonviolence and love, and its tactic direct, though peaceful, confrontation.

victory gardens

As the war called for the need of men and arms it also called for the need of resources such as food. When America focused on sending food to the troops. Those at home had to learn to live with limits on what food they could buy. So instead almost all Americans made their own garden with vegetables and fruit in order to help them make their own food. In which it also called for communities to unite. The food made from the garden was used in order to help families who could no longer buy as much food as they were used to.

cell phone and smart phone

At first, its only function was to provide people with a means to call and be called anytime without being connected to any line. It eventually evolved and added more features like text messaging. Before the advent of the smartphone, people were often carrying two devices, a cellphone and a Personal Digital Assistant or PDA. The PDA is a digital organizer where users can get a calendar where they can input tasks and appointments and a contact list among other things. The smartphone combined these two devices into one.

North Africa Campaign

Attempt to get Germans out of North Africa; Patton vs. Rommell; pushed Germans out of Tunisia back up into Italy. Known as Operation Torch.

deterrence

Basic feature of American foreign policy to maintain massive military strength in order to prevent any attack upon this country or its allies.

Calvin Coolidge

Became president when Harding died of pneumonia. He was known for practicing a rigid economy in money and words, and acquired the name "Silent Cal" for being so soft-spoken. He was a true republican and industrialist. Believed in the government supporting big business.

women's changing roles

Because many men left for war women asked to take over jobs that were not available to them worked jobs that were considered beyond their capacity

Cuba

Because of the Spanish-American War that lasted less than 3 months this island gained their independence from Spain.

transcontinental trade from the railroad

Because of the railroad this type of trade began to happen? Within ten years of its completion, the railroad shipped $50 million worth of freight coast to coast every year. Just as it opened the markets of the west coast and Asia to the east, it brought products of eastern industry to the growing populace beyond the Mississippi. The railroad ensured a production boom, as industry mined the vast resources of the middle and western continent for use in production. The railroad was America's first technology corridor. Improved Public Discourse As it encouraged the growth of American business, so too did it promote evolution of the nation's public discourse and intellectual life. Americans could travel across the length of the continent in a matter of days, and gaze upon their country in its entirety from the windows of their train cars. Conversations begun in the east ended in the west. Books written in San Francisco found homes on New York shelves just one week after their publication. The rails carried more than goods; they provided a conduit for ideas, a pathway for discourse. With the completion of its great railroad, America gave birth to a transcontinental culture. And the route further engendered another profound change in the American mind. Here was manifest destiny wrought in iron; here were two coasts united; here was an interior open to settlement. Distances shrank, but identification to land and fellow American grew in inverse proportion.

Eugene Debs

Beloved by many contemporaries as a man "too good for this world" who would give the clothes off his back to anyone in need, he was a prominent leader of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen (BLF) in his youth. Later he helped found the American Railway Union (1894), the Socialist Party of America (1901) and the Industrial Workers of the World (1905). The best-known apostle of industrial unionism in the early years of the 20th century, he ran for president of the United States on the Socialist Party ticket five times between 1900 and 1920, winning millions of votes. Although none of his dreams were realized during his lifetime, he inspired millions to believe in "the emancipation of the working class and the brotherhood of all mankind," and he helped spur the rise of industrial unionism and the adoption of progressive social and economic reforms. He was born on Nov. 5, 1855, in Terre Haute, Ind., the son of Marguerite Bettrich and Jean Daniel Debs, Alsatian immigrants and retail grocers. At 16, he left school to work as a paint scraper in the Terre Haute railroad yards and quickly rose to a job as a locomotive fireman. Laid off during the depression of 1873, Debs eventually found another job as a clerk in the grocery business and never worked for the railroad again the rest of his life. But he did retain a close attachment to railroad work and railroad workers. When the BLF organized a local lodge in Terre Haute in 1875, he signed up as a charter member and was elected recording secretary. Following the great railroad strike of 1877—the first truly national strike in U.S. history—the 22-year-old gave a well-received speech at the Brotherhood's annual convention, defending the union from charges that it sought to encourage strikes or lawlessness. The only local BLF officer in the Terre Haute lodge re-elected after the strike, he was named associate editor of Locomotive Fireman's Magazine in 1878 and then the national BLF's grand secretary-treasurer and editor-in-chief of the magazine in 1880.

end of the open range

Big business came and the cattle frontier met its end. Overgrazing of the land, extended bad weather, and the invention of the barbed wire (Joseph Glidden) were all responsible.

Harlem Renaissance

Black artistic movement in New York City in the 1920's, when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially about the injustices of Jim Crow; leading figures of the movement included Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes.

Double V Campaign

Black-Americans' campaign to earn victory in the home front (fight discrimination at home) and victory overseas (fighting the enemy Axis powers)

foreign policies of Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, and Carter

Both presidents found themselves facing the tough challenges of the Cold War. Both presidents struggled to project a strong image of the U.S. to reassure the country's allies that they were on the right side and that the U.S. would protect them from the Communist threat.

Freedom Rides

Bus rides in which integrated groups of whites and blacks would ride interstate busses to test Supreme Court decisions requiring interstate busses to be desegregated.

presidential election of 2000

Bush narrowly won the election with 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266; Gore won popular votes (first in over 100 years for popular vote winner was defeated

child labor

CHEAP LABOR- These people were as young as six or seven years of age and had to work. The working conditions were horrible and unsafe. They were required to work long hours, day after day, without a break or any time to have fun and play. They were deprived of their childhoods. They were robbed of their potential and their dignity.

the Big Three

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin

Manhattan Project

Code name for the secret United States project set up in 1942 to develop atomic bombs for use in World War II

dispersal of the Plains Indians

Decades of mass immigration by settlers had destroyed large swaths of land that displaced, forcing tribes to disperse to find food.

unequal distribution of wealth

During the 1920s, the rich got richer, and the poor got poorer. Between 1920 and 1929, the income of the wealthiest 1 percent of the population rose by 75%, compared with a 9% increase for the rest of Americans as a whole. More than 70 percent of the nation's families earned less than $2500 per year, then considered the minimum amount needed for a decent standard of living. Even families earning twice that could not afford many of the household products that manufacturers produced. Economists estimate that the average man or woman bought a new outfit of clothes only once a year. Scarcely half the homes in many cities had electrical lights or a furnace for heat. Only one city home in ten had an electric refrigerator. This unequal distribution of income meant that most Americans could not participate fully in the economic advances of the 1920s. Many people did not have the money to purchase the flood of goods that factories produced. The prosperity of the era rested on a fragile foundation.

psychological effects

During the Depression, many unemployed Americans suffered from feelings of inadequacy and idleness. This increased incidences of domestic violence, divorce rate and suicide rate. Many children and teens took to "riding the rails" because they felt like burdens to their families. The work relief programs of the New Deal helped Americans to feel useful again, which may have had a greater psychological impact than economic impact in reversing the effects of the Great Depression.

expansion of railroads

During the era of Industrialization, these were being rapidly expanded across the country. One example of this was ? These led to more goods being transported, as well as quicker modes of transportation and communication throughout the country.

dropping of atomic bombs on Japan

During the final steps of World War II in 1945, the US under President Truman, conducted two atomic bombings against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japan .

laissez-faire

Economic policy supported by Adam Smith in which the people have control over the economy and the government doesn't interfere. Hands off. No government intervention in business.

environmental movement

Efforts by citizens at the grassroots level to demand that political leaders enact laws and develop policies to curtail pollution, clean up polluted environments, and protect pristine areas and species from environmental degradation.

military-industrial complex

Eisenhower first coined this phrase when he warned American against it in his last State of the Union Address. He feared that the combined lobbying efforts of the armed services and industries that contracted with the military would lead to excessive Congressional spending.

Escobedo v. Illinois

Escobedo was taken into custody by Chicago police in connection to the shooting of one of his relatives the night before. He was released after 18 hours of questioning without an attorney. The police then arrested his friend who ended up saying that Escobedo did it, and he was arrested again. When he asked for his attorney, the police said that he didn't want to see him, and they said the same thing to the attorney. After more questioning, he ended up confessing. Declared that criminals have the right to counsel during interrogation.

Populism

Farm-based movement of the late 1800's that arose mainly in the area from Texas to the Dakotas and grew into a joint effort between farmer and labor groups against big business and machine-based politics. The movement became a third party in the election of 1892.

response to Hurricane Katrina

FEMA's unwillingness to accept initial help from non-government organizations led to slow response after Hurricane Katrina hit. The federal government seemed to lack information about the entirely of destruction.

working conditions

Factory Working Conditions the average working day was: - 14 - 16 hours - 6 days a week - low wages ($1 per day) - cramped, 100's of workers and not much space - they breathed air that was polluted with coal dust, smoke and fumes that caused diseases. - they were rarely allowed breaks, so they just kept working and working and working - workers had to keep up with fast moving machinery that were very dangerous - many workers were injured and hurt because of these unsafe working conditions

Philippines Insurrection

Fighting erupted between United States and the Philippine Republic forces on February 4, 1899, and quickly escalated into the 1899 Second Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United States. The war officially ended on July 4, 1902. However, some groups led by veterans of the Katipunan continued to battle the American forces. Among those leaders was General Macario Sacay, a veteran Katipunan member who assumed the presidency of the proclaimed "Tagalog Republic", formed in 1902 after the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo. Other groups, including the Moro people and Pulahanes people, continued hostilities in remote areas and islands until their final defeat a decade later at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913.

trusts

Firms or corporations that combine for the purpose of reducing competition and controlling prices (establishing a monopoly). There are anti-trust laws to prevent these monopolies.

Battle of Okinawa

First Japanese Home island (only 340 miles from mainland Japan) to be invaded. Island of immense strategic value. Involving over 500,000 troops and over 1,200 ships. Battle showed Japanese determination to resist invasion.

Sputnik

First artificial Earth satellite, it was launched by Moscow in 1957 and sparked U.S. fears of Soviet dominance in technology and outer space. It led to the creation of NASA and the space race.

Truman Doctrine

First established in 1947 after Britain no longer could afford to provide anti-communist aid to Greece and Turkey, it pledged to provide U.S. military and economic aid to any nation threatened by communism.

genetically modified food

Foods that are mostly products or organisms that have their genes altered in a laboratory for specific purposes, such as disease resistance, increased productivity, or nutritional value allowing growers greater control, predictability, and efficiency.

Standard Oil Company Grade-Level Expectations

Founded and owned by John D. Rockefeller. In 1870 it was the largest oil refiner. It had horrible working conditions that were exposed by Ida Tarbell.

American Federation of Labor - (AFL) 1886

Founded by Samuel Gompers; they sought better wages, working hrs, working conditions; skilled laborers, arose out of dissatisfaction with the Knights of Labor, rejected socialist and communist ideas, non-violent. Still exist today. Keep it simple. That was the mantra of labor leader SAMUEL GOMPERS. He was a die-hard capitalist and saw no need for a radical restructuring of America. Gompers quickly learned that the issues that workers cared about most deeply were personal. They wanted higher wages and better working conditions. These "BREAD AND BUTTER" issues would always unite the labor class. By keeping it simple, unions could avoid the pitfalls that had drawn the life from the National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor. Samuel Gompers was born in London in 1850 to a family of Jewish cigar-makers. Coming to Manhattan at the height of the American Civil War, the Gompers family maintained that trade. An effective organizer and speaker, Gompers became the head of the local cigar-makers' union at the age of only twenty-seven. A Union for the Skilled In December of 1886, the same year the Knights of Labor was dealt its fatal blow at Haymarket Square, Gompers met with the leaders of other craft unions to form the AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. The A.F. of L. was a loose grouping of smaller craft unions, such as the masons' union, the hat-makers' union or Gompers's own cigar-makers' union. Every member of the A.F. of L. was therefore a skilled worker. Gompers had no visions of uniting the entire working class. Tradespeople were in greater demand and already earned higher wages than their unskilled counterparts. Gompers knew that the A.F. of L. would have more political and economic power if unskilled workers were excluded. He served as president of the union every year except one until his death in 1924. Although conservative in nature, Gompers was not afraid to call for a strike or a boycott. The larger A.F. of L. could be used to support these actions, as well as provide relief for members engaged in a work stoppage. By refusing to pursue a radical program for political change, Gompers maintained the support of the American government and public. By 1900, the ranks of the A.F. of L. swelled to over 500,000 tradespeople. Gompers was seen as the unofficial leader of the labor world in America. Simplicity worked. Although the bosses still had the upper hand with the government, unions were growing in size and status. There were over 20,000 strikes in America in the last two decades of the 19th century. Workers lost about half, but in many cases their demands were completely or partially met. The A.F. of L. served as the preeminent national labor organization until the Great Depression when unskilled workers finally came together. Smart leadership, patience, and realistic goals made life better for the hundreds of thousands of working Americans it served.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

Founded by W.E.B. Du Bois, it emerged out of the Niagara Movement in 1909. It worked for equal rights for African Americans.

women's rights movement (Betty Friedan, Equal Rights Amendment, National Organization for Women, opposition to the women's rights movement)

Group of people who believed women should have the same rights as men: voting, ownership, decision making, etc.

organized crime

Groups of men that partake in illegal activities for money and control a city.

Bill Clinton

He was elected president in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the baby boomer generation. He presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history, and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass national health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994 for the first time in 40 years. Two years later, He became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected president twice. He passed welfare reform and the State Children's Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. In 1998, he was impeached by the House of Representatives for perjury before a grand jury and obstruction of justice during a lawsuit against him, both related to a scandal involving White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the U.S. Senate in 1999 and served his complete term of office. The Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of his presidency. In foreign policy, He ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnia and Kosovo wars, signed the Iraq Liberation Act in opposition to Saddam Hussein, and participated in the 2000 Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. He left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since World War II. Since then, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work.

Theodore Roosevelt

He was often referred to as Teddy or TR, was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th President of the United States, from 1901 to 1909. A leader of the Republican Party, he was a leading force of the Progressive Era. The assassination of President McKinley in September 1901 meant that at age 42, this man became President of the United States. He was the youngest in history. Leading his party and country into the Progressive Era, he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Making conservation a top priority, he established myriad new national parks, forests, and monuments in order to preserve the nation's natural resources. Increased size of Navy, "Great White Fleet". Added a Corollary to Monroe Doctrine. "Big Stick" policy. Received Nobel Peace Prize for mediation of end of Russo-Japanese war. Later arbitrated split of Morocco between Germany and France. Elected in 1904 to a full term, he continued pursuit of progressive policies, eventually culminating in blockage of his legislative agenda in Congress. He successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, for the presidency. He later ran against Taft in the 1912 election, that he and Taft lost to the Democratic Candidate - Woodrow Wilson.

Samuel Gompers

He was the first and longest-serving president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL); it is to him, as much as to anyone else, that the American labor movement owes its structure and characteristic strategies. Under his leadership, the AFL became the largest and most influential labor federation in the world. It grew from a marginal association of 50,000 in 1886 to an established organization of nearly 3 million in 1924 that had won a permanent place in American society. In a society renowned for its individualism and the power of its employer class, he forged a self-confident workers' organization dedicated to the principles of solidarity and mutual aid. It was a singular achievement. Born in 1850 into a Jewish family in London, he began making cigars alongside his father at the age of 10. In 1863, the entire family immigrated to New York City. Settling into a tenement apartment on Houston Street, He continued rolling cigars at home with his father until he found work in one of the local shops. In 1864, he joined Local 15 of the United Cigar Makers; two years later, he married Sophia Julian, with whom he would have 12 children. At his job and in his local union, Gompers socialized with a group of older émigré socialists and labor reformers whom he would always credit for his commitment to trade unionism as the essential vehicle for bringing about social reform. In 1875, he was elected president of the reorganized Local 144 of the Cigar Makers' International Union (CMIU) in New York City, a post he held from 1875 to 1878 and again from 1880 to 1886. He then served as second vice president of the CMIU from 1886 to 1896, when he was elevated to first vice presidency. In the 1880's, Gompers was also instrumental in establishing the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions, which he served as vice president from 1881 to 1886. When the FOTLU re-organized in 1886 as the American Federation of Labor, he was elected its first president, a position he held for nearly 40 years.

Terence V. Powderly

He was the son of Irish immigrants to the United States, became a railroad worker at the age of 13 in Pennsylvania. At 17 he became a machinist's apprentice, and he worked at that trade until age 28. He joined the Machinists' and Blacksmiths' Union in 1871 and rose steadily within the organization. In 1874 he joined the secret order of the Knights of Labor, in which he also advanced rapidly. In 1879 he was chosen grand master workman (after 1883, general master workman), the union's highest post. In addition to his union activities, Powderly was also elected mayor of Scranton, Pennsylvania, three times as a Greenback-Labor candidate, serving from 1878 to 1884.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Head of the Soviet Union from 1985-1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of communist governments in eastern Europe.

critics of New Deal (Father Coughlin, Huey Long)

Huey Long. Governor and senator from Louisiana; supported FDR in 1932; broke and was setting up a presidential campaign on the left in 1936 William Lemke, North Dakota, Picked up Huey Long support in 1936 Norman Thomas, frequent presidential candidate on the Socialist ticket. John L. Lewis, leader of Mineworkers and CIO; strong supporter of FDR 1936; in opposition 1940 because of Roosevelt's foreign-policy opposing Germany

anti-lynching campaign

Ida B. Wells led by the NAACP starting in 1909, it lobbied Congress to pass legislation to stop the practice, keeping the issue in the news and helping to reduce the number that took place

Little Rock Nine

In September 1957 the school board in Little rock, Arkansas, won a court order to admit nine African American students to Central High a school with 2,000 white students. The governor ordered troops from Arkansas National Guard to prevent the nine from entering the school. The next day as the National Guard troops surrounded the school, an angry white mob joined the troops to protest the integration plan and to intimidate the AA students trying to register. The mob violence pushed Eisenhower's patience to the breaking point. He immediately ordered the US Army to send troops to Little Rock to protect and escort them for the full school year.

Miranda v. Arizona

In a number of cases, defendants were not informed of their rights under the 5th A. Miranda raped a woman and admitted to it after not being informed of the right to not self-incriminate. Result: The Court cannot use any statements obtained without the statement of "Miranda" rights.

Boxer Rebellion

In 1900, in what became known as the Boxer Rebellion (or the Boxer Uprising), a Chinese secret organization called the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists led an uprising in northern China against the spread of Western and Japanese influence there. The rebels, referred to by Westerners as Boxers because they performed physical exercises they believed would make them able to withstand bullets, killed foreigners and Chinese Christians and destroyed foreign property. From June to August, the Boxers besieged the foreign district of Beijing (then called Peking), China's capital, until an international force that included American troops subdued the uprising. By the terms of the Boxer Protocol, which officially ended the rebellion in 1901, China agreed to pay more than $330 million in reparations.

Executive Order 8802

In 1941 FDR passed it which prohibited discriminatory employment practices by fed agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war related work. It established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

In 1949, the United States, Canada, and ten European nations formed this military mutual-defense pact. In 1955, the Soviet Union countered NATO with the formation of the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance among those nations within its own sphere of influence.

McCarthyism

In 1950, Senator Joseph R. McCarthy began a sensational campaign against communists in government that led to more than four years of charges and countercharges, ending when the Senate censured him in 1954. McCarthyism became the contemporary name for the red scare of the 1950's.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

In 1955, after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus, Dr. Martin L. King led a boycott of city buses. After 11 months the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public transportation was illegal.

oil embargo of 1973

In 1973, Saudi Arabia initiated the oil embargo. They were trying to tell the U.S. to stay out of the Arab-Israeli conflict and trying to make the U.S. stop funding Israel. The oil embargo rose oil prices up 70%. When President Nixon gave Israel 2.2 billion dollars in aid, the Arabs responded in cutting off oil completely. They wanted Israel to withdraw from the land it obtained in the 1967 War. The impact of the oil embargo was not catastrophic but it was dramatic. By 1973, the oil production had fallen 9 percent.

Pullman Strike 1894

In Chicago, this company cut wages and refused to lower the rent on workers places to live, who all lived in a company owned town called a, "company town". Eugene Debs had the American Railway Union refuse to use these cars, Debs was thrown in jail after being sued. The strike achieved nothing. Nonviolent strike (brought down the railway system in most of the West) over wages, President Cleveland shut it down because it was interfering with mail delivery.

Clinton impeachment

In January 1998, another scandal emerged that threatened to undermine Clinton's entire presidency. Paula Jones, a former Arkansas state employee accused the president of sexual harassment while he was Arkansas governor. In connection with the Paula Jones trial, investigators uncovered information that suggested that Clinton had had an affair with a young White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Both Clinton and Lewinsky had been deposed in the Paula Jones case, and allegations began to surface that Clinton had encouraged Lewinsky to lie under oath about their relationship, leaving Clinton open to charges of perjury and obstruction of justice, as well as adultery. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Clinton for perjury before a grand jury and obstruction of justice. A Senate trial, presided over by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, began in January 1999. Clinton was acquitted on February 12, 1999, although Judge Susan Webber Wright later found him to be in contempt for misleading testimony in the Paula Jones case and ordered him to pay a fine.

Haymarket Square Riot

In May of 1886, workers mounted a national demonstration in support of an eight-hour workday. On May 4, many of them held a rally in at Chicago. During the rally, a group of radicals exploded a bomb that killed seven police officers. A riot immediately broke out with gunfire that killed both police and striking workers. This riot turned public opinion against the unions as many in the nation began to identify strikes with anarchy and violence.

Iran hostage crisis

In November 1979, revolutionaries stormed the American embassy in Tehran and held 52 Americans hostage. The Carter administration tried unsuccessfully to negotiate for the hostages release. On January 20, 1981, the day Carter left office, Iran released the Americans, ending their 444 days in captivity.

wars in Iraq and Afghanistan

In response to 9/11, Bush launched the War on Terror, an international military campaign which included these wars. The war in Afghanistan's public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda, and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by invading Afghanistan and removing the Taliban from power. The war in Iraq was led by the US to remove the government of Saddam Hussein and replace it with a democratic government.

Great White Fleet

In the twilight of United States President Theodore Roosevelt's administration, Roosevelt dispatched sixteen U.S. Navy battleships of the Atlantic Fleet on a worldwide voyage of circumnavigation from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909. The hulls were painted white, the Navy's peacetime color scheme, decorated with gilded scroll work with a red, white, and blue banner on their bows. Additionally, the voyage of the Great White Fleet demonstrated both at home and on the world stage that the U.S. had become a major sea power in the years after its triumph in the Spanish-American War, with possessions that included Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico.

growth of national culture

Includes flappers, jazz, automobiles, airplanes during the 1920's

propaganda

Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view.

Iraq

Invaded by the United States for having "weapons of mass destruction"; but later changed our story to needing to overthrow Hussein; part of War on Terror

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

Involved in the American Civil Rights Movement formed by students whose purpose was coordinate a nonviolent attack on segregation and other forms of racism.

personal computer

Is a microprocessor based computing device designed to meet the computing needs of an individual.

founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People the N.A.A.C.P.

It is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909 by Moorfield Storey, Mary White Ovington and W. E. B. Du Bois. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination". Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the once common term colored people.

Twenty-Fourth Amendment

It outlawed taxing voters, i.e. poll taxes, at presidential or congressional elections, as an effort to remove barriers to Black voters.

self-determination

It states that nations, based on respect for the principle of equal rights and fair equality of opportunity, have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no interference.

map of territories acquired

January 4, 1896 - Utah Territory was admitted as the 45th state, Utah. August 12, 1898 - The Republic of Hawaii was annexed by the United States. June 14, 1900 - The annexed Hawaiian islands were organized as the Territory of Hawaii, and corresponded, except for including Palmyra Atoll, to the present-day state of Hawaii. November 16, 1907 - Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were combined and admitted as the 46th state, Oklahoma. Present day states and future states now have current borders. January 6, 1912 - New Mexico Territory was admitted as the 47th state, New Mexico. February 14, 1912 - Arizona Territory was admitted as the 48th state, Arizona. August 24, 1912 - The District of Alaska was organized as Alaska Territory. January 3, 1959 - Alaska Territory was admitted as the 49th state, Alaska. August 21, 1959 - Hawaii Territory was admitted as the 50th state, Hawaii, resulting in the present-day situation of the United States. The statehood act specifically excluded Palmyra Atoll from the new state; it thus became unorganized land. Since it had been incorporated as part of the Hawaii Territory, Palmyra Atoll became the only incorporated territory left in the United States.

Japanese internment

Japanese and Japanese Americans from the West Coast of the United States during WWII. While approximately 10,000 were able to relocate to other parts of the country of their own choosing, the remainder-roughly 110,000 me, women and children-were sent to hastly constructed camps called "War Relocation Centers" in remote portions of the nation's interior.

kamikaze pilots

Japanese suicide pilots who would crash their planes into ships and military bases in order to cause lots of damage.

Pearl Harbor

One of our MAIN Navel Stations in Hawaii that was attacked in World War 2 by the Japanese.

electrical appliances

Machine powered by electricity (refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing machines)

eastern and southern European immigrants

Major push factors for immigrants of this period were European population growth and subsequent overcrowding, scarcity of land, unemployment and food shortages. Religious persecution forced thousands of Jews from their homelands, especially in countries such as Russia and Poland Major pull factors for immigrants of this period were available jobs and land and the opportunity to pursue ones' dreams and to live in a free and democratic society.

push and pull factors of immigration

Major push factors for immigrants of this period were European population growth and subsequent overcrowding, scarcity of land, unemployment and food shortages. Religious persecution forced thousands of Jews from their homelands, especially in countries such as Russia and Poland Major pull factors for immigrants of this period were available jobs and land and the opportunity to pursue ones' dreams and to live in a free and democratic society.

March on Washington of 1963

Many people met at the Lincoln memorial in support for bill on civil rights. This is where Martin Luther King Jr. made his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

space race

Many scientists and military leaders believed that control of space would be very important. Consequently, the USA and USSR invested billions of dollars in developing satellites, space stations, rockets, etc. This investment led to great scientific advances, but also caused friction and insecurities.

Triangle Shirtwaist factory fire

March 1911 - It was determined by the fire marshal a single cigarette that wasn't properly extinguished, caught a trash can on fire. This New York factory had young women workers trapped inside. It was a common practice for management to lock the doors preventing employees from taking breaks or stealing stuff. Because of the locked exit doors; nearly 50 ended up jumping to their death; while 100 died inside the factory. This disaster led to the establishment of many factory reforms, new laws for workers, including increasing safety precautions for workers.

Griswold v. Connecticut

Mrs. Griswold gave counsel to marital couples that wished to use birth control that was apparently against a Connecticut statute. Result: Marital couples have the right to privacy implied by a few amendments of the Bill of Rights. The statue therefore is unconstitutional. "right to privacy" = 1st, 3rd, 4th, 8th, and 14th

Jazz Age

Name for the 1920s, because of the popularity of jazz. A new type of American music that combined African rhythms, blues, and ragtime.

Exodusters

Name given to African Americans who fled the Southern United States for Kansas in 1879 and 1880 because of racial oppression.

code talkers

Navajo Indians recruited by the U.S. Marine Corps to transmit messages in the Navajo language

Sacco and Vanzetti case

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian immigrants charged with murdering a guard and robbing a shoe factory in Braintree, Mass. The trial lasted from 1920-1927. Convicted on circumstantial evidence, many believed they had been framed for the crime because of their anarchist and pro-union activities.

EOC Test Specifications Approximate Number and Percentage of Points by Standard (Reporting Category) Standard 4 - Becoming a World Power through World War II

No. of GLE's on EOC - 10 No. of Points on EOC - 15 Percentage of Points on EOC - 29% (due to rounding the %'s do not add up to a 100%)

EOC Test Specifications Approximate Number and Percentage of Points by Standard (Reporting Category) Standard 5 - Cold War Era

No. of GLE's on EOC - 5 No. of Points on EOC - 10 Percentage of Points on EOC - 19% (due to rounding the %'s do not add up to a 100%)

EOC Test Specifications Approximate Number and Percentage of Points by Standard (Reporting Category) Standard 3 - Isolation through the Great War

No. of GLE's on EOC - 6 No. of Points on EOC - 7 Percentage of Points on EOC - 13% (due to rounding the %'s do not add up to a 100%)

EOC Test Specifications Approximate Number and Percentage of Points by Standard (Reporting Category) Standard 6 - The Modern Age

No. of GLE's on EOC - 6 No. of Points on EOC - 7 Percentage of Points on EOC - 13% (due to rounding the %'s do not add up to a 100%)

EOC Test Specifications Approximate Number and Percentage of Points by Standard (Reporting Category) Standard 2 - Western Expansion to Progressivism

No. of GLE's on EOC - 8 No. of Points on EOC - 13 Percentage of Points on EOC - 25% (due to rounding the %'s do not add up to a 100%)

anti-war protests (Kent State, Jackson State)

On April 30, 1970, President Richard M. Nixon appeared on national television to announce the invasion of Cambodia by the United States and the need to draft 150,000 more soldiers for an expansion of the Vietnam War effort. This provoked massive protests on campuses throughout the country. At Kent State University in Ohio, protesters launched a demonstration that included setting fire to the ROTC building, prompting the governor of Ohio to dispatch 900 National Guardsmen to the campus.

oil crisis of 1979

On Jan. 16, 1979, the Shah of Iran was overthrown, and the Ayatollah Khomeini came to power. He cut Iran's oil production, which reduced shipments of crude oil to the United States. Gasoline prices soared, and the American economy plunged into a recession. The recession brought double-digit inflation and sent interest rates up to 20 percent. Consumer confidence evaporated. It sent the car industry into a depression.

New Orleans school integration crisis

On November 14, 1960 two New Orleans elementary schools were desegregated. The two schools selected to desegregate were the McDonogh 19 and William Frantz Elementary schools. Both schools were located in the Lower Ninth Ward, a predominantly low-income neighborhood in New Orleans. By the end of the day on November 14, there were few white children left at McDonogh 19 Elementary and it became apparent to the community that there was a white boycott occurring at both schools.

race riots (Harlem, Watts)

On Thursday, July 16, 1964, James Powell was shot and killed by police Lieutenant Thomas Gilligan. The second bullet of three fired by Lieutenant Gilligan killed the 15-year-old African American in front of his friends and about a dozen other witnesses. The incident immediately rallied about 300 students from a nearby school who were informed by the principal. This incident set off six consecutive nights of rioting that affected the New York City neighborhoods of Harlem and Bedford-Stuyvesant. In total, 4,000 New Yorkers participated in the riots which led to attacks on the New York City Police Department, vandalism, and looting in stores. At the end of the conflict, reports counted one dead rioter, 118 injured, and 465 arrested. It is said that the Harlem race riot of 1964 is the precipitating event for riots in July and August in cities such as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Rochester, New York; Chicago, Illinois; Jersey City, New Jersey; Paterson, New Jersey; and Elizabeth, New Jersey. The Watts riots (or, collectively, Watts rebellion) took place in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles from August 11 to 17, 1965. On August 11, 1965, an African-American motorist was arrested for drunk driving. A minor roadside argument broke out, and then escalated into a fight. The community reacted in outrage. Six days of looting and arson followed. Los Angeles police needed the support of nearly 4,000 members of the California Army National Guard to quell the riots, which resulted in 34 deaths and over $40 million in property damage. The riots were blamed principally on unemployment, although a later investigation also highlighted police racism. It was the city's worst unrest until the Rodney King riots of 1992.

Cesar Chavez

Organized Union Farm Workers (UFW); help migratory farm workers gain better pay & working conditions, Non-violent leader of the United Farm Workers from 1963-1970. Organized laborers in California and in the Southwest to strike against fruit and vegetable growers. Unionized Mexican-American farm workers.

corporations

Ownership of a corporation is held by individuals who own shares of corporation's stock. Individual shareholders are not responsible for the actions of the corporation-just lose initial investment. Employees cannot be prosecuted for the acts of the corporation at large. Attract solid managers, manipulate/influences govt policy to suit their ends.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Passed in 1882; it banned the immigration of these people to the US for a total of 40 years. Because Americans fear that their jobs would be taken. This act denied any additional laborers from this country to enter the America while allowing students and merchants to immigrate.

effects of automobiles on society

People could live in the suburbs and commute to work. they could take road trips. hotels, gas stations, and restaurants popped up along highways

perestroika

Policy of Mikhail Gorbachev calling for economic restructuring in the USSR in the late 1980s; more leeway for private ownership and decentralized control in industry and agriculture

free silver

Political issue involving the unlimited coinage of silver, supported by farmers and William Jennings Bryan. Movement for using silver in all aspects of currency. Silver is more plentiful than gold. Unrestricted minting of silver money would lead to more money circulating throughout the country. The farmers (The Populist) thought this would raise the prices of farm crops, which would help farmers pay off their debts. Not adopted because all other countries used a gold standard.

tenement housing

Poorly and cheaply constructed apartment dwellings, usually occupied by multiple families, for the housing of factory workers in the cities.

consumer debt

Products that had once been too expensive were suddenly affordable due to new forms of financing that made it possible for families to spend beyond more existing means. New forms of advertising resulted in the sale of increased goods through the capitalization of consumer hopes and dreams. For the first time it became possible for Americans to buy on credit through the credo of 'buy now, pay later' practices that ushered in the Roaring Twenties. Generous lines of credit were offered by department stores for families who were not able to pay upfront but who could demonstrate their ability to pay in the future. Installment plans were also offered to buyers who were not able to pay upfront. More than half of the automobiles in the nation were sold on credit by the end of the 1920s. As a result, consumer debt more than doubled during the decade.

Strategic Defense Initiative

Renamed "Star Wars" by critics, a plan for defense against the Soviet Union unveiled by President Reagan in 1983. The Strategic Defense Initiative would create a global umbrella in space, using computers to scan the skies and high-tech devices to destroy invading missiles.

trust busting

Roosevelt was known for doing this. He wanted to break these up, but made a distinction between regulating good ones and bad ones. The good ones would through efficiency and low prices help the consumer. The bad ones were the ones that harmed the public and stifled competition. Rich people's money and these were broken up, weeded out corruption. Teddy Roosevelt was known as by this term? He went around breaking up these up including Standard Oil. He said that it hurt the consumer and healthy competition.

Ku Klux Klan

Started by Nathan Bedford Forrest; secret organization that used terrorist tactics in an attempt to restore white supremacy in Southern states after the Civil War.

Homestead Strike 1892

Steelworker strike near Pittsburgh against the Carnegie Steel Company. Ten workers were killed in a riot when "scab" labor was brought in to force an end to the strike. One of the most violent strikes in America at the Carnegie Steel Company. 300 Pinkerton detectives were hired to break the strike.

Tiananmen Square protests of 1989

Student protests for freedom of press, educational reform, and an end to political corruption. After protesting for several days, hundreds of protesters were killed by the Chinese military.

conservation

TR made conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments in order to preserve the nation's natural resources. America started preserving natural resources and began stopping the rapid destruction of these resources and land. Preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife.

Transportation Security Administration

TSA employs a risk-based strategy to secure U.S. transportation systems, working closely with stakeholders in aviation, rail, transit, highway, and pipeline sectors, as well as the partners in the law enforcement and intelligence community.

1993 failure of health care vs. 2010 passage of health care

The Clinton health care plan, known officially as the Health Security Act and unofficially nicknamed "Hillarycare" (after First Lady Hillary Clinton) by its detractors, was a 1993 healthcare reform package proposed by the administration of President Bill Clinton and closely associated with the chair of the task force devising the plan, First Lady of the United States Hillary Rodham Clinton. Bill Clinton had campaigned heavily on health care in the 1992 U.S. presidential election. The task force was created in January 1993, but its own processes were somewhat controversial and drew litigation. Its goal was to come up with a comprehensive plan to provide universal health care for all Americans, which was to be a cornerstone of the administration's first-term agenda. A major health care speech was delivered by President Clinton to the U.S. Congress in September 1993. The core element of the proposed plan was an enforced mandate for employers to provide health insurance coverage to all of their employees. Opposition to the plan was heavy from conservatives, libertarians, and the health insurance industry. The industry produced a highly effective television ad, "Harry and Louise", in an effort to rally public support against the plan. Instead of uniting behind the President's original proposal, Democrats offered a number of competing plans of their own. Hillary Clinton was drafted by the Clinton Administration to head a new Task Force and sell the plan to the American people, a plan which ultimately backfired amid the barrage of fire from the pharmaceutical and health insurance industries and considerably diminished her own popularity. By September 1994, the final compromise Democratic bill was declared dead.

agrarian movement

The Farmers' movement was, in American political history, the general name for a movement between 1867 and 1896. In this movement, there were three periods, popularly known as the Grange, Alliance and Populist movements.

Patrons of Husbandry/the Grange

The Grange, officially referred to as The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, is a fraternal organization in the United States that encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well-being of the community and agriculture. The Grange, founded after the Civil War in 1867, is the oldest American agricultural advocacy group with a national scope. Major accomplishments credited to Grange advocacy include passage of the Granger Laws and the establishment of rural free mail delivery. In 2005, the Grange had a membership of 160,000, with organizations in 2,100 communities in 36 states. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C., in a building built by the organization in 1960. Many rural communities in the United States still have a Grange Hall and local Granges still serve as a center of rural life for many farming communities.

unemployment

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that ... Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%.

Industrial Workers of the World (I.W.W.)

The Industrial Workers of the World was established in Chicago, in 1905, by members of the socialist-led Western Federation of Miners and other groups opposed to what they saw as "class collaboration" by the American Federation of Labor (A.F.L.). The driving force behind the I.W.W. was William D. Haywood, the leader of the Western Federation of Miners, which had established a reputation for work stoppages. in Colorado mines. Joining Haywood at the launch of the I.W.W., which he described as the "first continental congress of the working class," were Eugene V. Debs of the Socialist Party and Daniel De Leon of the Socialist Labor Party. Also present were Mother Jones, the "angel of the miners," and Lucy Parsons, whose husband had been executed in the Haymarket affair. In the west, the ranks of I.W.W. were filled primarily by unskilled workers, mostly of the low-wage, migratory type. The I.W.W. organized unskilled factory workers in the eastern United States. But the union also spread its message to many distant lands through its maritime workers unit. Farm workers, miners, and loggers were heavily represented and they hoped that collective action would bring pay increases, shorter hours, and safer working conditions. Unlike other unions of the day, the I.W.W. organized on a class basis, welcoming all working people — including immigrants, minorities, women, and the unemployed. When children found organizing necessary for their own protection — for example, in schools during a strike by their parents — contingents of "Junior Wobblies" were formed. From its inception in 1905, the I.W.W. advocated the overthrow of the wage system, and putting workers in control of their own work lives through industrial organization. These goals were to be accomplished via class warfare. The I.W.W. willingly employed strikes, boycotts, slowdowns, and other forms of direct action to achieve their ends. They were initially opposed to the use of labor contract and quickly rejected electoral politics as a solution to the problems of poor working folk. The I.W.W. advocated the use of sabotage, defining this concept according to its original meaning, "the withdrawal of efficiency." Thus, according to the Wobblies, even a strike was one form of sabotage. Their tenacious advocacy of direct action, often in opposition to collective bargaining, brought harsh criticism in some quarters, and ultimately resulted in labor laws aimed at curtailing such creative tactics.

Progressive Party/Bull Moose Party

The Republicans were badly split in the 1912 election, so Roosevelt broke away forming his own Progressive Party called this? He named the party this name because he said, "I'm fit as a bull moose." It didn't matter because he and Taft split their votes allowing the election of Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson.

Socialist Party/Socialism

The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was a multi-tendency democratic-socialist political party in the United States, formed in 1901 by a merger between the three-year-old Social Democratic Party of America and disaffected elements of the Socialist Labor Party which had split from the main organization in 1899. In the first decades of the 20th century, it drew significant support from many different groups, including trade unionists, progressive social reformers, populist farmers, and immigrant communities. Its presidential candidate, Eugene V. Debs, twice won over 900,000 votes (in 1912 and 1920), while the party also elected two United States Representatives (Victor L. Berger and Meyer London), dozens of state legislators, more than a hundred mayors, and countless lesser officials. The party's staunch opposition to American involvement in World War I, although welcomed by many, also led to prominent defections, official repression and vigilante persecution. The organization was further shattered by a factional war over how it should respond to the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and the establishment of the Communist International in 1919. After endorsing Robert LaFollette's presidential campaign in 1924, the Socialist Party returned to independent action. It had modest growth in the early 1930's behind presidential candidate Norman Thomas. While the party was always strongly anti-Fascist, as well as anti-Stalinist, the SP's ambivalent attitude towards World War II cost it both internal and external support. This is a system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production. Socialism is basically a political ideology that opposes capitalism and supports government control of major aspects of the economy (ex. electricity, health care).

Brown v. Board of Education

The Supreme Court ruled that students have a right under the 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause to an equal education, and separate schools for white children and African-American children are not equal. Therefore, schools must be integrated.

military expansion

The US wanted a strong military that would have the most powerful weapons. Being economically ahead also meant having a stronger military to secure the transportation of goods and to be ready to fight in disputes. It is arguably tied to the ideas of social Darwinism and nationalism, we must compete with British and Germans. By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania aroused furious denunciations of German brutality.[citation needed] By 1915, in Eastern cities a new "Preparedness" movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. The driving forces behind Preparedness were all Republicans, notably General Leonard Wood, ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson; they enlisted many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. The Preparedness movement had what political scientists call a "realism" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses

election of 1912

The United States presidential election of 1912 was the 32nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5, 1912. The election was a rare four-way contest. Incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and created the Progressive Party (nicknamed the "Bull Moose Party"). It nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. Democrat Woodrow Wilson was finally nominated on the 46th ballot of a contentious convention, thanks to the support of William Jennings Bryan, the three-time Democratic presidential candidate who still had a large and loyal following in 1912. Eugene V. Debs, running for a fourth time, was the nominee of the Socialist Party of America. Wilson won the election, gaining a large majority in the Electoral College and winning 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won 27%, Taft 23% and Debs 6%. Wilson became the only elected president from the Democratic Party between 1892 and 1932, and the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was the last election in which a candidate who was not a Republican or Democrat came second in either the popular vote or the Electoral College, and the first election in which all 48 states of the contiguous United States participated.

Social Darwinism

The application of Charles Darwin's ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies- particularly as justification for imperialist expansion.

cancer research

The study of cancer, called oncology, involves anatomy, physiology, chemistry, epidemiology, and other related fields. It's one of the most rapidly evolving areas of modern medicine. There are many kinds of cancer, but they all start because the out-of-control growth of abnormal cells.

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan

The supreme court concluded that "actual malice" must be proved to support a finding of libel against a public figure.

militarism

The tendency to regard military greatness as the supreme ideal of the state and to subordinate all other interests to those of the military. A political orientation of a people or a government to maintain a strong military force and to be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests

robber barons vs. captains of industry

These people were accused of eliminating competition through predatory pricing and then overcharging when they had a monopoly. These terms combines the concept of a criminal robber with an illegitimate aristocrat baron. The term had originally been applied to bandits and minor nobility who had preyed upon the trade routes in the eastern areas of Europe during the middle ages, from approximately 800 AD to 1800 AD. This term contrasted with this term, which described industrialists who also helped society. These nineteenth century people included J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, Andrew W. Mellon, and John D. Rockefeller. Thomas Carlyle coined this term in his book "Past and Present" in 1843.

People's Party/Populist Party

These two names applied to a short-lived agrarian political party in the United States. It was highly critical of capitalism, especially banks and railroads, and allied itself with the labor movement. Established in 1891, as a result of the Populist movement, this movement reached its zenith in the 1892. Built on a coalition of poor, white cotton farmers in the South and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the Plains states. The Populists represented a radical crusading form of agrarianism and hostility to elites, cities, banks, railroads and gold.

Anti-Imperialist League

They objected to the annexation of the Philippines and the building of an American empire. Idealism, self-interest, racism, constitutionalism, and other reasons motivated them, but they failed to make their case and lost by 2 votes; the Philippines were annexed in 1900.

W. E. B. Du Bois

This African American progressive man, rejected the previous ideology of Booker T. Washington (who said that self-improvement/education comes first, and then whites will learn to accept blacks on their own); this man argued that blacks need political rights in order to make any economic gains and helped create the NAACP in 1909 to make changes. He initiated the The Niagara Movement, which was a black civil rights organization founded in 1905. It was named for the "mighty current" of change the group wanted to effect and Niagara Falls, near Fort Erie, Ontario, was where the first meeting took place in July 1905. The Niagara Movement was a call for opposition to racial segregation and disenfranchisement, and it was opposed to policies of accommodation and conciliation promoted by African-American leaders such as Booker T. Washington.

William Jennings Bryan

This Democratic candidate ran for president most famously in 1896 (and again in 1900). His goal of "free silver" (unlimited coinage of silver & "The Cross of Gold Speech") won him the support of the Populist Party. Though a gifted orator, he lost the election to Republican William McKinley. He ran again for president and lost in 1900. Later he opposed America's imperialist actions, and in the 1920's, he made his mark as a leader of the fundamentalist cause and prosecuting attorney in the Scopes Monkey Trial. He prosecuted John Scopes (1925) for teaching evolution in a Tennessee high School.

Dawes Act - 1887

This act dismantled American Indian tribes, set up individuals as family heads with 160 acres, tried to make rugged individualists out of the Indians, attempt to assimilate the Indian population into that of the American. Large amounts of tribal lands were not claimed by Native Americans, and thus were purchased by land speculators.

Federal Reserve Act

This act established the Federal System, which established 12 distinct reserve to be controlled by the banks in each district; in addition, a Federal Reserve board was established to regulate the entire structure; improved public confidence in the banking system.

1943 repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act

This allowed Chinese to Immigrate for the first time since Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

Arab-Israeli Conflict

This conflict has been going on for years. It started when both the Jewish and Arab Palestinians wanted Palestine for their own. Eventually the Jews got control of Palestine, but there has been a number of wars and terrorist attacks between these two. This conflict continues today.

settlement houses (Hull House)

This was a settlement house in the United States that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located in the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois, Hull House (named for the home's first owner) opened its doors to recently arrived European immigrants. By 1911, Hull House had grown to 13 buildings. In 1912 the Hull House complex was completed with the addition of a summer camp, the Bowen Country Club. With its innovative social, educational, and artistic programs, Hull House became the standard bearer for the movement that had grown, by 1920, to almost 500 settlement houses nationally. The Hull mansion and several subsequent acquisitions were continuously renovated to accommodate the changing demands of the association. The original building and one additional building which has been moved 200 yards survive today. On June 12, 1974, the Hull House building was designated a Chicago Landmark.[8] On June 23, 1965, it was designated as a U.S. National Historic Landmark . On October 15, 1966, which is the day that the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 was enacted, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Zimmermann Telegram

This was a telegraph message sent from a German secretary to Mexico stating that it would help Mexico re-conquer land lost to America if it joined the war on the side of the central powers. It was intercepted by America, and scene as the last straw. Many Americans already wanted to join the war on the side of the Allies, so on April 2, 1917, Woodrow Wilson asked congress to declare war on Germany.

Roosevelt Corollary/Big Stick policy

This was the names of the assertive approach's a certain president used in Latin America and the Caribbean and has often been characterized as the "Big Stick Policy," and his policy came to be known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Although the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 was essentially passive (it asked that Europeans not increase their influence or recolonize any part of the Western Hemisphere), by the 20th century a more confident United States was willing to take on the role of regional policeman. In the early 1900's Roosevelt grew concerned that a crisis between Venezuela and its creditors could spark an invasion of that nation by European powers. The Roosevelt Corollary of December 1904 stated that the United States would intervene as a last resort to ensure that other nations in the Western Hemisphere fulfilled their obligations to international creditors, and did not violate the rights of the United States or invite "foreign aggression to the detriment of the entire body of American nations." As the Roosevelt Corollary worked out in practice, the United States increasingly used military force to restore internal stability to nations in the region. Roosevelt declared that the United States might "exercise international police power in 'flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence.'" Over the long term the Corollary had little to do with relations between the Western Hemisphere and Europe, but it did serve as justification for U.S. intervention in Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.

weaknesses in agricultural sector

Thus when the Stock Market crashed and the economy began to restrict rural America was especially vulnerable. And the subsequent drop in farm prices devastated rural America. Many farmers were already behind on their mortgages and with price declines they had no hope of keeping up payments or borrowing more money. And this only accentuated the economic spiral. Farmers unable to pay their mortgages put increasing pressure on banks, which were also troubled by defaults on loans to city residents. And this was made even worse when the farmers on the Great Plains had to contend with a severe drought. Unappreciated by the pioneers that settled on the Great Planes after the Civil War, they were settling down on a fragile environmental system. The term eco-system had not yet entered the vocabulary. This was suddenly brought home by the dust storms and the new term Dust Bowl. While the drought and resulting dust storms were the most visible problem, farmers experienced other problems, including insects, summer heat and winter cold. The economy spiraled down. A depression in rural America meant that farmer could not afford to buy the products made by urban workers like tractors, their farm equipment, pumps, tools, and much more including range of consumer good. An unemployed workers could not aford to buy farm products. Farmers losing their land were forced into the cities, competing for jobs with unemployed city workers. Many farm families were forced to pack what they could fit into their Model-T

Meat Inspection Act

Today we are assured of buying safe/healthy meat at the store because of this act. It required strict cleanliness for meat packers and created a program of meat inspection. It came about in 1906 as a result of president Roosevelt reading Upton Sinclair's," The Jungle." Roosevelt appointed a commission of experts. They thoroughly investigated the meat packing industry. They then issued a report backing up Sinclair's account of the disgusting conditions in the industry. TR quickly pushed this act into law.

Battle of Midway

U.S. naval victory over the Japanese fleet in June 1942, in which the Japanese lost four of their best aircraft carriers. It marked a turning point in World War II.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

United States civil rights leader and Baptist minister who campaigned against the segregation of Blacks (1929-1968). He preached non-violence and was assassinated by James Earl Ray.

U.S. isolationism

United States is isolating itself from World War 2, meaning that it wants to stay out.

Battle of Stalingrad

Unsuccessful German attack on the city of Stalingrad during World War II from 1942 to 1943, that was the furthest extent of German advance into the Soviet Union.

Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower

served as supreme commander in charge of U.S. forces

weapons of mass destruction

WMD-nuclear, chemical and biological weapons that can kill a large number of people at one time

island hopping

WWII strategy of conquering only certain Pacific islands that were important to the Allied advance toward Japan. The US took control of numerous Pacific islands to get close enough to Japan to attack.

Spanish-American War

War fought between the US and Spain in Cuba and the Philippines. It lasted less than 3 months and resulted in Cuba's independence as well as the US annexing Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

war in Iraq

War in which the US led an international coalition in an invasion of Iraq for the purpose of deposing Saddam Hussein. Its justification was based largely on intelligence reports that Saddam had "weapons of mass destruction" and ties to terrorism. Although Saddam was removed from power, no weapons of mass destruction were found and many criticize Bush's decision to wage the war.

Warren Harding and "normalcy"

Warren G. Harding campaign slogan n 1920 promised "A return to normalcy!" Harding and his Republican party understood that the public in general was tired of the expansion of government power. The progressives had outlawed liquor, greatly increased regulation of business. Life during WWI had become even more government-centered (Wheatless Wednesdays, Meatless, Mondays, etc.). People elected Harding hoping to return life back to normal.

John D. Rockefeller

Wealthy owner of Standard Oil Company. Considered to be a robber baron who used ruthless tactics to eliminate other businesses. Built trusts and used money to influence the government and our politicians.

détente

a French word meaning release from tension, is the name given to a period of improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that began tentatively in 1971 and took decisive form when President Richard M. Nixon visited the secretary-general of the Soviet Communist party, Leonid I. Brezhnev, in Moscow, May 1972.

Freedom Summer

a campaign in the United States launched in June 1964 to attempt to register as many African American voters as possible in Mississippi, which up to that time had almost totally excluded black voters. The project was organized by the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO), a coalition of four established civil rights organizations: the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), with SNCC playing the lead role.

Students for a Democratic Society

a campus-based political organization founded in 1961 by Tom Hayden that became an iconic representation of the New Left. Originally geared toward the intellectual promise of "participatory democracy," SDS emerged at the forefront of the civil rights, antipoverty, and anitwar movements during the 1960s

propaganda

a kind of biased communication designed to influence people's thoughts and actions

Social Security Act

a law enacted in 1935 to provide aid to retirees, the unemployed, people with disabilities, and families with dependent children

Lend-Lease Act

a law, passed in 1941, that allowed the United States to ship arms and other supplies, without immediate payment, to nations fighting the Axis powers

rationing

a restriction of people's right to buy unlimited amounts of particular foods and other goods, often implemented during wartime to ensure adequate supplies for the military.

Neutrality Acts

a series of laws enacted in 1935 and 1936 to prevent U.S. arms sales and loans to nations at war.

growth of consumer economy

advertising and buying on credit

federal debt

all the money borrowed by the federal government over the years and still outstanding

victory gardens

also called war gardens or food gardens for defense, were vegetable, fruit, and herb gardens planted at private residences and public parks in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Germany during World War I and World War II.

stock market crash

also known as Black Tuesday (October 29), the Great Crash, or the Stock Market Crash of 1929, began on October 24, 1929 ("Black Thursday"), and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its fallout. The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries.

Committee on Public Information

also known as the CPI or the Creel Committee, was an independent agency of the government of the United States created to influence U.S. public opinion regarding American participation in World War I. Over just 28 months, from April 14, 1917, to June 30, 1919, it used every medium available to create enthusiasm for the war effort and enlist public support against foreign attempts to undercut America's war aims. It primarily used propaganda techniques to accomplish these goals.

Vietnam War (Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Tet Offensive, My Lai Massacre, Vietnamization, Cambodia, War Powers Act)

also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America (Vietnamese: Kháng chiến chống Mỹ) or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War (1946-54) and was fought between North Vietnam—supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies—and the government of South Vietnam—supported by the United States, Philippines and other anti-communist allies. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North, fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The People's Army of Vietnam, also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units to battle.

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

an agency created in 1933 to insure individuals' bank accounts, protecting people against losses due to bank failures.

Office of Price Administration

an agency established by Congress to control inflation during World War II.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

an agency established in 1932 to provide emergency financing to banks, life-insurance companies, railroads, and other large businesses.

Securities and Exchange Commission

an agency, created in 1934, that monitors the stock market and enforces laws regulating the sale of stocks and bonds.

Civilian Conservation Corps

an agency, established as part of the New Deal, that put young unemployed men to work building roads, developing parks, planting trees, and helping in erosion-control and flood-control projects.

Works Progress Administration

an agency, established as part of the Second New Deal, that provided the unemployed with jobs in construction, garment making, teaching, the arts, and other fields.

Non-Aggression Pact

an agreement in which two nations promise not to go to war with each other.

assembly line

an arrangement where a product is moved from worker to worker, with each person performing a single task in the making of the product.

war bond drives

are debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations and other expenditure in times of war. The bonds also remove money from circulation and thus help to control inflation.

war in Afghanistan

began on October 7, 2001, as the armed forces of the United States and the United Kingdom, and the Afghan United Front (Northern Alliance), launched Operation Enduring Freedom in response to the September 11 attacks on the United States, with the stated goal of dismantling the Al-Qaeda terrorist organisation and ending its use of Afghanistan as a base.

Barack Obama

born August 4, 1961 is an American politician serving as the 44th President of the United States, the first African American to hold the office. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, and ran unsuccessfully in the Democratic primary for the United States House of Representatives in 2000 against incumbent Bobby Rush. In 2004, Obama received national attention during his campaign to represent Illinois in the United States Senate with his victory in the March Democratic Party primary, his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July, and his election to the Senate in November. He began his presidential campaign in 2007 and, after a close primary campaign against Hillary Rodham Clinton in 2008, he won sufficient delegates in the Democratic Party primaries to receive the presidential nomination. He then defeated Republican nominee John McCain in the general election, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months after his inauguration, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. During his first two years in office, Obama signed into law economic stimulus legislation in response to the Great Recession in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Re-authorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Other major domestic initiatives in his first term included the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, often referred to as "Obamacare"; the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act; and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010. In foreign policy, Obama ended U.S. military involvement in the Iraq War, increased U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, ordered U.S. military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, and ordered the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden. In January 2011, the Republicans regained control of the House of Representatives as the Democratic Party lost a total of 63 seats; and, after a lengthy debate over federal spending and whether or not to raise the nation's debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control Act of 2011 and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. Obama was reelected president in November 2012, defeating Republican nominee Mitt Romney, and was sworn in for a second term on January 20, 2013.

George W. Bush

born July 6, 1946 is an American politician and businessman who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009, and the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. The eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush, he was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial election, becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes nationwide than his opponent. He is the second president to have been the son of a former president, the first having been John Quincy Adams. Eight months into Bush's first term as president, the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks occurred. Bush responded by launching the "War on Terror", an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan, launched in 2001 and the war in Iraq, launched in 2003. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, social security reform, and amending the Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage. He signed into law broad tax cuts, the Patriot Act, the No Child Left Behind Act, the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors, and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR. His tenure saw national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. Bush successfully ran for re-election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004, in another relatively close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina, and other challenges. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections. In December 2007, the United States entered its longest post-World War II recession, often referred to as the "Great Recession," prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country's financial system. Nationally, Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history, having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks, as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis.

Munich Conference

came as a result of a long series of negotiations. Adolf Hitler had demanded the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia; British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain tried to talk him out of it.

flappers

carefree young women with short, "bobbed" hair, heavy makeup, and short skirts. The flapper symbolized the new "liberated" woman of the 1920s. Many people saw the bold, boyish look and shocking behavior of flappers as a sign of changing morals. Though hardly typical of American women, the flapper image reinforced the idea that women now had more freedom.

totalitarianism

characteristic of a political system in which the government exercises complete control over its citizens' lives.

entry of American Expeditionary Force

consisted of the United States Armed Forces sent to Europe under the command of General John J. Pershing in 1917 to help fight World War I . During the United States campaigns in World War I the AEF fought in France alongside French and British allied forces in the last year of the war, against German forces. Some of the troops fought alongside Italian forces in that same year, against Austro-Hungarian forces. The AEF helped the French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood) in June 1918, and fought its major actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in late 1918.

de jure vs. de facto segregation

de jure segregation is segregation enforced by law, and de facto segregation is segregation enforced by society through habits.

deficit spending

deficit spending a government's spending of more money than it receives in revenue.

Grade-Level Expectations US.2.4 Examine the effect of the government's laissez-faire policy, innovations in technology and transportation, and changes in business organization that led to the growth of an industrial economy for this Key Concept.

electricity The period of 1901-1909 was marked by many notable electrical firsts — a few of which included: the first trans-Atlantic wireless radio signal; the first arc generator; the first main-line locomotive powered by a single-phase alternating current; the first true radio broadcast; the first single-phase alternating current motor for variable-speed operations; and the first continuous-filament tungsten lamp. As reported in an historical perspective piece written by EC&M editors in 1951, the carbon incandescent, or "hot hairpin in a bulb," began to replace gaslights in 1901. Cities found a new brightness in the arc lamp. Mills and factories began to use electric motors instead of steam.

Sedition Act of 1918

enacted May 16, 1918 was an Act of the United States Congress that extended the Espionage Act of 1917 to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinion that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale of government bonds. It stated that people or countries cannot say negative things about the government or the war. It forbade the use of "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States government, its flag, or its armed forces or that caused others to view the American government or its institutions with contempt. Those convicted under the act generally received sentences of imprisonment for five to 20 years.

Selective Service Act

enacted May 18, 1917 authorized the federal government to raise a national army for the American entry into World War I through the compulsory enlistment of people. It was envisioned in December 1916 and brought to President Woodrow Wilson's attention shortly after the break in relations with Germany in February 1917. The Act was canceled with the end of the war on November, 1918.

war conferences (Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam)

held from February 4 to 11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta in Crimea. The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.

bimetallism

in American history was a political movement in the second half of the 19th century that advocated the use of silver as a monetary standard in addition to gold. Farmers, especially in the wheat and cotton belts, supported bimetallism because they felt it was inflationary and advantageous to them and the economy; silver miners in the western United States supported bimetallism to ensure the value of silver.

the Second Red Scare

in the late 1940s and 50s, the US government harassed and arrested people due to their alleged connections to the Communist Party; fueled by McCarthyism and the Cold War

social media

independent and commercial online communities where people congregate, socialize, and exchange views and information

integration of the University of Mississippi (James Meredith)

is a Civil Rights Movement figure, writer, political adviser and Air Force veteran. In 1962, he became the first African-American student admitted to the segregated University of Mississippi after the intervention of the federal government, an event that was a flashpoint in the Civil Rights Movement. Inspired by President John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, Meredith decided to exercise his constitutional rights and apply to the University of Mississippi. His goal was to put pressure on the Kennedy administration to enforce civil rights for African Americans. In 1966 Meredith planned a solo 220-mile March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi; he wanted to highlight continuing racism in the South and encourage voter registration after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He did not want major civil rights organizations involved. The second day, he was shot by a white gunman and suffered numerous wounds. Leaders of major organizations vowed to complete the march in his name after he was taken to the hospital. While Meredith was recovering, more people from across the country became involved as marchers. He rejoined the march and when Meredith and other leaders entered Jackson on June 26, they were leading an estimated 15,000 marchers, in what was the largest civil rights march in Mississippi. During the course of it, more than 4,000 African Americans had registered to vote, and the march was a catalyst to continued community organizing and additional registration.

Poland's Solidarity movement

is a Polish trade union that was founded on 17 September 1980 at the Gdańsk Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Wałęsa. It was the first trade union in a Warsaw Pact country that was not controlled by a communist party. Its membership reached 9.5 million members before its September 1981 Congress (when it reached 10 million), which constituted one third of the total working-age population of Poland. In the 1980's, Solidarity was a broad anti-bureaucratic social movement, using the methods of civil resistance to advance the causes of workers' rights and social change. The government attempted to destroy the union by imposing martial law in Poland, which lasted from December 1981 to July 1983 and was followed by several years of political repression, but in the end it was forced to negotiate with Solidarity. In the union's clandestine years, the United States provided significant financial support, estimated to be as much as 50 million US dollars. The round table talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989. By the end of August, a Solidarity-led coalition government was formed. In December 1990, Wałęsa was elected President of Poland. Since then Solidarity has become a more traditional, liberal trade union. Its membership had dropped to 680,000 by 2010 and 400,000 by 2011.

Espionage Act of 1917

is a United States federal law passed on June 15, 1917, shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was intended to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment, to prevent insubordination in the military, and to prevent the support of U.S. enemies during wartime. In 1919, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled through Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions. The constitutionality of the law, its relationship to free speech, and the meaning of its language have been contested in court ever since.

1988 "read my lips" campaign promise

is a phrase spoken by then American presidential candidate George H. W. Bush at the 1988 Republican National Convention as he accepted the nomination on August 18. Written by speechwriter Peggy Noonan, the line was the most prominent sound bite from the speech. The pledge not to tax the American people further had been a consistent part of Bush's 1988 election platform, but its prominent inclusion in his speech cemented it in the public consciousness. The impact of the election promise was considerable, and many supporters of Bush believe it helped Bush win the 1988 presidential election. The line later hurt Bush politically. Although he did oppose the creation of new taxes as president, the Democrat-controlled Congress proposed increases of existing taxes as a way to reduce the national budget deficit. Bush negotiated with Congress for a budget that met his pledge, but was unable to make a deal with a Senate and House that was controlled by the opposing Democrats. Bush agreed to a compromise, which increased several existing taxes as part of a 1990 budget agreement. In the 1992 presidential election campaign, Pat Buchanan repeatedly cited the pledge as an example of a broken promise in his unsuccessful challenge to Bush in the Republican primaries. In the general election, Democratic nominee Bill Clinton, running as a moderate, also cited the quotation and questioned Bush's trustworthiness. Bush lost his bid for re-election to Clinton.

National Labor Relations Act/Wagner Act

is a statute of United States labor law which guarantees basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessary.

the Religious Right

is a term used - mainly in the United States - to label right-wing Christian political factions that are characterized by their strong support of socially conservative policies. Christian conservatives principally seek to apply their understanding of the teachings of Christianity to politics and to public policy by proclaiming the value of those teachings or by seeking to use those teachings to influence law and public policy

Egypt

is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia, via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is the world's only contiguous Eurafrasian nation. Most of Egypt's territory of 1,010,408 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) lies within the Nile Valley. Egypt is a Mediterranean country. It is bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.

effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement

is an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral rules-based trade bloc in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994. It superseded the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement between the U.S. and Canada. NAFTA has two supplements: the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC).

patriotic activities

is an emotional attachment to a nation which an individual recognizes as their homeland. This attachment, also known as national feeling or national pride, can be viewed in terms of different features relating to one's own nation, including ethnic, cultural, political or historical aspects.

breakthroughs in genetic research (Human Genome Project)

is an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional standpoint. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government the planning started, with the project formally launched in 1990, and finally declared complete in 2003.

Bolshevik Revolution

is the collective term for a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarists autocracy and led to the eventual rise of the Soviet Union. The Russian Empire collapsed with the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II, and the old regime was replaced by a provisional government during the first revolution of February 1917 (March in the Gregorian calendar; the older Julian calendar was in use in Russia at the time). In the second revolution that October, the Provisional Government was removed and replaced with a Bolshevik (Communist) government.

jingoism

it refers to excessive bias in judging one's own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism, it is patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy, it also refers to a country's advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations, in efforts to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests.

Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination hearing

law professor Anita Hill accused Thomas of sexual harassment when she worked for him in the 1980s. Thomas won approval to the Supreme Court by a vote of 52-48.

Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, detention camp

military prison located within Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, also referred to as Guantánamo or GTMO (pronounced 'gitmo'), which fronts on Guantánamo Bay in Cuba. At the time of its establishment in January 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld said the prison camp was established to detain extraordinarily dangerous people, to interrogate detainees in an optimal setting, and to prosecute detainees for war crimes.

bank failures

occurs when a bank is unable to meet its obligations to its depositors or other creditors because it has become insolvent or too illiquid to meet its liabilities. More specifically, a bank usually fails economically when the market value of its assets declines to a value that is less than the market value of its liabilities. The insolvent bank either borrows from other solvent banks or sells its assets at a lower price than its market value to generate liquid money to pay its depositors on demand.

new weapons

poison gas, trench warfare, machine guns, airplanes, submarines, tanks poison gas A new weapon introduced by the Germans but used by both sides. This could cause blindness or severe blisters, or even death because of choking. trench warfare Opposing armies on the Western Front had dug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. Armies traded huge losses of human life for small land gains. machine guns Fired ammunition automatically. Could wipe out waves of attackers and thus made it difficult for forces to advance. airplanes Countries on both sides used these to drop bombs and shoot at one another in the sky This was also a powerful military weapon because countries could locate enemy targets easier. submarines Introduced by the Germans in 1914 as an effective warship. It's primary weapon against ships was a torpedo, an underwater missile. tanks Armored combat vehicles that moved on chain tracks - and thus could cross many types of terrain. Introduced by the British in 1916.

massive resistance

policy declared by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. on February 24, 1956 to unite other white politicians and leaders in Virginia in a campaign of new state laws and policies to prevent public school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954

Bush tax cuts of 2001 and 2003

refers to changes to the United States tax code passed originally during the presidency of George W. Bush and extended during the presidency of Barack Obama, through: Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA) Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003 (JGTRRA) Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Re-authorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (partial extension) While each act has its own legislative history and effect on the tax code, the JGTRRA amplified and accelerated aspects of the EGTRRA. Since 2003, the two acts have often been spoken of together, especially in terms of analyzing their effect on the U.S. economy and population and in discussing their political ramifications. Both laws were passed using controversial Congressional reconciliation procedures.

Big Four

refers to the four top Allied powers and their leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. The Big Four are also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.

response to 9/11 attacks

sparked investigations into the motivations and execution of the attacks, as well as the ongoing War on Terrorism in Afghanistan The response included funds for affected families, plans for the War on Terrorism, rebuilding of Lower-East Manhattan, and the invasion and investigation of Iraq and Afghanistan.

stem cell research

technology that takes primitive human cells and develops them into most any of the 220 varieties of cells in the human body

silent majority

that group of quiet honest hard-working middle class Americans who do their job, respect their country and support gov.; Nixon wants their votes in 1968 and 1972

Treaty of Versailles

the 1919 peace treaty at the end of World War I which established new nations, borders, and war reparations.

Clinton impeachment

the 42nd President of the United States, was impeached by the House of Representatives on two charges, one of perjury and one of obstruction of justice, on December 19, 1998. He was subsequently acquitted of these charges by the Senate on February 12, 1999. Two other impeachment articles - a second perjury charge and a charge of abuse of power - failed in the House.

desegregation busing

the concept that desegregated busing would lead to desegregated school. Forced busing would force integration within the schools.

appeasement

the granting of concessions to a hostile power in order to keep the peace.

buying on margin

the purchasing of stocks by paying only a small percentage of the price and borrowing the rest

dust bowl

the region, including Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico, that was made worthless for farming by drought and dust storms during the 1930s

Taft-Hartley Act of 1947

this act was an attempt to support big business; truman vetoed it but congress overturned that; it outlawed "closed shops" by states who wished, boycotts from other unions, & allowed the pres. to demand a cooling-off period of 80 days before a strike began

Afghanistan

this country has been a safe haven for terrorists like Bin Laden. The Taliban government sponsored terrorist training camps and suppressed the people of this country. In response to September 11, 2001, President Bush (43) ordered the invasion of this country.

Selma Marches

trying to get voting rights act passed; Southerners use poll taxes and literacy tests to stop black voters, Marchers beaten by state troopers and authorities at Edmund Pettis Bridge, King comes back with them and marches a second time but then turns back, Third March---20,000 marchers come back with King and the support of the National Guard; LBJ orders federal protection for the march; Widespread TV coverage

China (Chang Kai-shek/Mao Zedong)

was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration

was a United States federal law of the New Deal era which reduced agricultural production by paying farmers subsidies not to plant on part of their land and to kill off excess livestock. Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops. The money for these subsidies was generated through an exclusive tax on companies which processed farm products.

War Industries Board

was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during World War I, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency and urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products. The board set production quotas and allocated raw materials. It also conducted psychological testing to help people find the right jobs.

election of 2008

was the 56th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 4, 2008. Democratic Party nominee Senator Barack Obama and running mate Senator Joe Biden defeated Republican Party nominee Senator John McCain and running mate Governor Sarah Palin.

Contract with America of 1994

was a document released by the United States Republican Party during the 1994 Congressional election campaign. Written by Newt Gingrich and Richard Armey, and in part using text from former President Ronald Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address, the Contract detailed the actions the Republicans promised to take if they became the majority party in the United States House of Representatives for the first time in 40 years. Many of the Contract's policy ideas originated at The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank. The Contract with America was introduced six weeks before the 1994 Congressional election, the first mid-term election of President Bill Clinton's Administration, and was signed by all but two of the Republican members of the House and all of the Party's non-incumbent Republican Congressional candidates. Proponents say the Contract was revolutionary in its commitment to offering specific legislation for a vote, describing in detail the precise plan of the Congressional Representatives, and broadly nationalizing the Congressional election. Furthermore, its provisions represented the view of many conservative Republicans on the issues of shrinking the size of government, promoting lower taxes and greater entrepreneurial activity, and both tort reform and welfare reform. Critics of the Contract describe it as a political ploy and election tool designed to have broad appeal while masking the Republicans' real agenda and failing to provide real legislation or governance. The 1994 elections resulted in Republicans gaining 54 House and 9 U.S. Senate seats. When the Republicans gained this majority of seats in the 104th Congress, the Contract was seen as a triumph by party leaders such as Minority Whip Newt Gingrich, Dick Armey, and the American conservative movement in general. The fate of the proposals in the Contract were mixed with some becoming law while some failed to pass the House or the Senate or were vetoed by President Clinton.

Adm. Chester Nimitz

was a fleet admiral of the United States Navy. He played a major role in the naval history of World War II as Commander in Chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CinCPac), for U.S. naval forces and Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas (CinCPOA), for U.S. and Allied air, land, and sea forces during World War II.

Supreme Court packing plan

was a legislative initiative proposed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme Court. Roosevelt's purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New Deal legislation that the court had ruled unconstitutional.

Hoovervilles

was a shanty town built by homeless people during the Great Depression. They were named after Herbert Hoover, who was President of the United States during the onset of the Depression and widely blamed for it. The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the Democratic National Committee. There were hundreds of Hoovervilles across the country during the 1930s and hundreds of thousands of people lived in these slums.

Fourteen Points

was a statement of principles for world peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress by President Woodrow Wilson. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's points but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

was an act sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley and signed into law on June 17, 1930, that raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels.

President Nixon travels to China

was an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States (U.S.) and the People's Republic of China (PRC). It marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the PRC, which at that time considered the U.S. one of its foes, and the visit ended 25 years of separation between the two sides.

Office of War Mobilization

was an independent agency of the United States government formed during World War II to coordinate all government agencies involved in the war effort. It was formed on May 27, 1943 by Executive Order 9347.

League of Nations

was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members.

Black Cabinet

was first known as the Federal Council of Negro Affairs, an informal group of African-American public policy advisors to United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It was supported by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. By mid-1935, there were 45 African Americans working in federal executive departments and New Deal agencies.

founding of the United Nations

was formed in 1945 with a general assembly (all unimportant countries) and the council (USA, Russia, GB, China, and France), they had more power. The UN provides economic assistance, prevent wars and genocide, and the stopping the spread of disease and hunger.

cultural and athletic competitions

was reflected in culture through music, movies, books, television and other media, as well as sports and social beliefs and behavior. One major element of the Cold War was the threat of a nuclear war; another was espionage. Many works use the Cold War as a backdrop, or directly take part in fictional conflict between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. The period 1953-62 saw Cold War themes first enter the mainstream culture as a public preoccupation. For the historical context in America see United States in the 1950s. During the Cold War, Sport was one of many spheres the USSR and the West competed in bitterly. Purportedly amateur, sport meant a lot to the Soviet authorities as did awards and gold medals. Athletes often spent most of their time training in world class facilities even though they were meant to be factory workers or army officers.

election of 2000

was the 54th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 7, 2000. The contest was between Republican candidate George W. Bush, the incumbent governor of Texas and son of former president George H. W. Bush; Democratic candidate Al Gore, the incumbent vice president; and various third-party candidates including Ralph Nader. The result of the election hinged on Florida, where the margin of victory triggered a mandatory recount. Litigation in select counties started additional recounts, and this litigation ultimately reached the United States Supreme Court. The Court's contentious decision in Bush v. Gore, announced on December 12, 2000, ended the recounts, effectively awarding Florida's votes to Bush and granting him the victory. This marked the fourth election in U.S. history in which the eventual winner failed to win a plurality of the popular vote (after the elections of 1824, 1876, and 1888). Later studies have reached conflicting opinions on who would have won the recount had it been allowed to proceed.

"Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy

was the official United States policy on service by gays, bisexuals, and lesbians in the military instituted by the Clinton Administration on February 28, 1994, when Department of Defense Directive 1304.26 issued on December 21, 1993, took effect, lasting until September 20, 2011. The policy prohibited military personnel from discriminating against or harassing closeted homosexual or bisexual service members or applicants, while barring openly gay, lesbian, or bisexual persons from military service.

war guilt clause

was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. The article did not use the word "guilt" but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations. Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It specified: "The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies." Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war. German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty.

voluntary policies of the Food Administration

was the responsible agency for the administration of the U.S. army overseas and allies' food reserves. One of its important tasks was the stabilization of the price of wheat on the U. S. market. It was established by Executive Order 2679-A of August 10, 1917 pursuant to the Food and Fuel Control Act.

reparations

were compensation imposed during the Paris Peace Conference upon the Central Powers following their defeat in the First World War by the Allied and Associate Powers. Each of the defeated powers was required to make payments in either cash or kind. Historians have recognized the German requirement to pay reparations as the "chief battleground of the post-war era" and "the focus of the power struggle between France and Germany over whether the Versailles Treaty was to be enforced or revised".

"Four Freedoms" speech

were goals articulated by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6, 1941. In an address known as the (technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy: Freedom of speech.

federal government shutdown of 1995-1996

were the result of conflicts between Democratic President Bill Clinton and the Republican Congress over funding for Medicare, education, the environment, and public health in the 1996 federal budget. The government shut down after Clinton vetoed the spending bill the Republican Party-controlled Congress sent him. The federal government of the United States put government workers on furlough and suspended non-essential services from November 14 through November 19, 1995, and from December 16, 1995, to January 6, 1996, for a total of 27 days. The major players were President Clinton and Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives Newt Gingrich.