MUS 620 - Research Terms

Validity

Indicates whether an instrument or device measures what it is supposed to measure

Research Questions

Like hypotheses, these are stated a priori and address outcomes of the research. These questions are slightly less formal than hypotheses and are often used in descriptive research.

Standardized, Normalized Distribution

Often referred to as the "bell curve," this set of results features an identical number of scores falling on each side of the mean with a preset number slightly above and below average (34%), a smaller group well above average and below average (14%), and a very few achieving outstanding or horrible results (2%).

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

One way: one of two basic designs for comparing groups of subjects after experimental manipulation. Analysis of variance involves three or more independent random samples, not necessarily of the same size. The test compares experimental group means. Two way: another basic design for comparing three or more groups on two separate variables simultaneously. The same individuals, cases, or groups are compared under both conditions. The test compares differences in means.

Independent variable

The thing you manipulate to test its effect on the dependent variable. This variable usually precedes the word "on" in experimental research titles.

Rating Scale

a research tool that allows the researcher to measure the opinions and behaviors of respondents in a quantitative manner

Closed Questionnaire

a research tool that may ask respondents to answer "yes or no," circle or otherwise identify an answer, rank items according to their correctness or validity, or insert specific data into a blank

primary source

a source of data that is firsthand information

Statistical Significance

a statistic yields a "significant" result if it deems that the current results could not have occurred by chance alone

Branching

a survey tool that allows (or forces) respondents to skip ahead to questions that apply to them

interview

a technique allowing the researcher to take an active role by prompting a participant with questions

Observation

a technique that leans heavily toward listening and seeing the behavior, etc. of participants

Standard Score

a value that indicates the amount by which a raw score deviates from the mean in standard deviation units. The most common is represented by a Z.

Proportion

category divided by the total and expressed as a decimal between 0 & 1.00

Percentage

category divided by the total and expressed as a whole number

Null hypothesis

a priori statement that all groups will perform equally

Directional hypothesis

a priori statement that one group will do better than another

Triangulation

using more than one method to collect data on the same topic

Quantitative/Experimental Research

"Makes use of measurement, statistical principles, and models to verify the phenomenon being studied. ...in an experiment the effects of a treatment are compared with those of a different treatment or no treatment at all. In a simple experiment these groups would be called experimental and control. Strict control is the key to the success of experimental research."

Parametric Statistics

Analysis based on Interval-Ratio Data Assumes date are normally distributed

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

By using this, statistical adjustments are made to the dependent variable. This is similar to ANOVA except scores of the dependent variable are adjusted on the basis of the dependent variable's relationship to some other relevant variable.

Descriptive Research

Describes a population. This type of research simply presents characteristics of a sample with no attempt to show casual relationships among variables.

Internal Validity

Do changes in the independent variable account for changes in the dependent variable?

External Validity

Do research techniques used and the sample employed reflect the real world?

One-tailed Tests

Statistical analysis where the outcome has been predicted. Used with directional hypothesis.

Dependent variable

The phenomenon that appears, disappears, or changes when the independent variable is applied, removed, or varied. The "it" you are trying to measure in your sample (typically a test score or some other measurement).

Skewed Data

These results are not symmetrical. Typically they mean that a large proportion or even a majority do very well or very poorly on a given task. Somtimes this term is used interchangeably with the word "biased" meaning that some information or activity caused the results to appear higher or lower than they actually are.

Chi Square (x^2)

This distribution is used for statistics generated by non-parametric analysis. Used when measurements are classified in frequencies. The question to be answered is whether or not the frequencies observed in the categories are significantly different from some expected frequencies.

Correlation

This term never indicates causality and rarely even indicates whether either variable is influencing the other. This term may vary from +1.0 to -1.0. The more the scores agree, the more positive the ___________ (and vice versa). Usually labeled as the letter r.

Secondary Source

When data are not original to the one reporting them. Often have value but should be used only when primary sources are untrustworthy or difficult to procure.

historiography

a collection of data, recording, and interpreting past events to determine how they impinge on the present and may ported the future

Frequency

a head count

Standard Deviation

a measure of variability. a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from the mean.

Random Sample

all members have an equal chance of being included in the research

Population

all members of the group you wish to investigate

Reliability

an indication of whether an instrument or device will show the same results under identical or similar conditions

Non-parametric Statistics

analysis based on nominal or ordinal date do not assume the populations are normally distributed

Ratio

any category compared to any other category

probability

can be ascertained by applying external criticism to establish its validity

Interval/Ratio Data

data which can be compared to determine order and which provide enough information to calculate the exact distances between each data point. The only difference between interval and ratio data categories is that the first has an arbitrary starting point and the second has an absolute zero.

Ordinal Data

data which can be compared to determine rank order (faster, smarter, better), but the degree to which one is better, faster, smarter, etc. cannot be determined

Nominal Data

data which can be given a name or category designation but which typically are not compared regarding better, faster, smarter, louder, etc.

Case study

detailed consideration and examination of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time

Type II Error

failing to reject a hypothesis when it is false

Haphazard Sample

group selected where all members of the population do not have an equal chance of being included in the research

Cooperative history

historical reference works

psychohistory

includes procedures borrowed from the behavioral sciences; uses both historical analysis and clinical insights. asks "how did this impact people psychologically"

Continuous Data

information which can be measured with ever increasing levels of precision depending on the equipment, goals, and/or approach employed by the researcher

Discrete Data

information which cannot achieve any more exact level of precision regardless of the researcher's technology, data gathering procedures, etc.

Biased Sample

intentional or unintentional overselection of subjects from a given strata

Parameters

numbers used to summarize or provide a brief description of a population

Statistics

numbers used to summarize or provide a quick overview of a sample

Deductive Logic

prediction or assumption made about a specific member of the population based on information from other members

inferential logic

prediction or assumption made by a majority of the population based on information (results) from an individual member or small sample

oral history

purpose is to collect spoken memories and personal commentaries of historical significance through recorded interviews

Type I Error

rejecting a hypothesis when it is true

Judge or Inter-Judge Reliability

relates to a judge's or a group's ability to match previous evaluations or evaluations given by each other. Scores range from 0 to 1.00 with 0 representing complete disagreement and 1.00 representing complete agreement

Assumptions

views held by the research which may or may not be accepted by the readers or experts in the field

Hypothesis

statement, the truth of which is to be tested, by the research. Not essential that the researcher believe in the term, particularly if it is stated in the null form.

Two-tailed test

statistical analysis used when the outcome has not been predicted a priori

Ethnography

study of a person or group of people in real-life environment; social phenomena

Comparative history

systematically compares the same events in different social settings. Begun in the 1960s, most of the research has dealt with civil rights, slavery, and race relations. A comparison is made of how an event may be the same or different in various settings.

Sample Size

the number of subjects in your study

Stratified Random Sample

the population is first divided into categories to ensure representation of all subgroups of interest to the research in the study

Coding

the process of creating a term or short descriptive phrase that captures the essence of a section of data

External criticism

the process of learning whether or not the object of your inquiry is authentic or genuine

Internal criticism

the type of criticism whose purpose is to determine how credible the data may be

Confounding variable

things other than the independent variable which cause changes in the dependent variable

Mode of Inquiry

typically refers to the methodology used in research. Common types: descriptive, quantitative/experimental, historical, philosophical, and qualitative

Quantitative Historical Method

use of standard statistical data in support of historical research questions

t-test

used to statistically compare differences between two means. This test is essentially a z score and actually shows the number of deviation units from a mean