Music Exam 1

Aerophones

wind instruments

Commercialization of Andean Music

• 1950 - 1960's: urban-country • Commercial recordings and radio broadcasts • Highland migrants to Lima ○ People recognized music from highland routes but still appealed to characteristics of urban-country music • Mixed and matched styles from different highland regions • Both musical and costumes Ex.) Pastoria Huaracina, country singer from Ancash province

Music in Peru

• Multi-ethnic heritage: ○ Indigenous ○ European ○ African • Cultural practices ○ Indigenous ○ Criollo - full or near full European descent ○ African ○ Mestizo - mix of European and indigenous descent ○ Local vs. cosmopolitan groups

Form

• The architectural design of the piece, divided into discrete sections • We organize based on repetition, contrast, and variation (similar enough to recognize as a repetition but different enough to categorize as a variation) • Usually represented with letters such as ABAB, AAB, AABBCC, AA'BB' ○ Use of apostrophe indicates slight variation on an earlier section • Ex.) twinkle, twinkle little star ○ Form - ABA (ternary form) ○ First (A) and last lines (A) are the same but middle line (B) is different as well as the words

Indigenous Style

• Thin metal strings, higher pitched • Tends to focus on melody against dense, buzzy background of open strings • Only strumming • Lack of major contrasts, short repetitive forms • High pitched favored • Music and instruments tied to specific contexts (courting) Ex.) Tuta Kashua (Night Dance)

4 Types of Electronic Musical Sounds

1) Iconic of real world sounds derived from unaltered sample sounds 2) Iconic sound diverges from known sound source's but is close enough to suggest possible relation 3) Iconic sounds could never exist in real world 4) Iconic sounds have no iconitcity whatsoever and produce anxiety

Pierce's effects

1) Sense or feeling 2) Physical reaction 3) More developed sign in the mind - visual images, sonic olfactory, etc.

Homophony

2 or more voices/instruments in harmony (different pitches) with more or less the same rhythm Move together but different pitches Ex.) Retirada 96, Al Mate Amargo

Polyphony

2 or more voices/instruments of about equal importance sounding different material at the same time More than one melody that don't move together and have different pitches Ex.) Elephant Hunting Song, Mbuti people

Edith (performed by Qhantati Ururi Of Ayllu Sulcata)

22 sikuri players. Siku Lento (slow siku) genre. Peru. Drawn out chords Serious sentiment Short repeated sections in AABBCC form Participatory High pitch Accompanied by drums Dense texture creates a cloaking effect

Aymara

2nd most commonly spoken around Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia

Flow

A state of heightened concentration when one is so intent on the activity that all other thoughts disappear and the actor is fully in the present

Overtones

Additional sound waves that are not as easy to hear but help make the sound distinct All of these pitches are above the fundamental pitch Because they are so faint, or brains perceive it as a single note Higher in frequency

Emile Berliner's disc record gramophone (1887)

An analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The phonograph disc record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century.

Sign

Anything perceived by an observer which stands for or calls to mind something else Ex.) Exists in real world

Raul Quispe, "Tuta Kashua" In The Plaza Descanso, Canas, 1982

Charango/Vocal Charango for courting High pitch for thin metal strings Open form Strumming Repetitive forms

Communitas

Collective state achieved during rituals when individual differences are stripped away

Primary Process

Connects images and ideas that rationally do not belong together

Tuta Kashua

Courting tune that has two melodic phases corresponding to vocal melody and lasting 3 beats each 2 phases distinguished by different endings on a higher and lower pitch Boys play charango together and dance a simple shuffle step as the serenade the girl

Muscular bonding

Deep unspoken feelings of being as one

Tone color

Determined by number of overtones and their intensity (how easy are they to hear) Synonym for timbre Quality of the sounds we are hearing Rich, smooth, dark, light, bright, round, mellow, clear, nasal, etc.

Thomas Edison's cylinder phonograph (1877)

Earliest commercial medium for recording and reproducing sound.

Pulse or meter

Evenly spaced division of time underlying a piece of music The underlying organization of a piece - think of a metronome Often grouped in repeating patterns of beats Not always directly heard but can be felt Can be part of what defines the genre of a piece

Siku Ligero

Fast genre, up-beat emotions Cadences conclude with quick alternation between ira and arca Cadence - Chuta Chuta

Saqsahumanpi/ Valicha/ Capulinawi Cusquenita

Folkloric Andean highlands music, presentational, Takiy Orqo This is an example of the cosmopolitan folkloric style of Andean music developed for nightclub, folk club, and festival presentational performance. It is a medley of three songs from Cusco, Peru, with a fourth fug (concluding) section and is an example of particularly transparent homophonic texture and planned contrasts, especially between vocal and instrumental sections and among the three melodies. The first text is in the Andean Quechua language and the second is in Spanish.

Tuvan throat singing

Fundamental pitch never changes but the overtones do to create a melody over fundamental pitch Uses overtones to create melody over the drone of the fundamental pitch Emphasize the overtones to create a melody

Icon

Groups phenomena based on resemblence Visual resemblance - drawings/maps Sound resemblance - genre/style of music Scary sounds for which a person has no iconic connection Meaning can be personal - "internal context" Timpani sound evokes different objects to different people (thunder, subway, cannons, etc.)

Sign object relation

Icons connect signs to their objects by resemblance

Object

Idea that the sign points to Ex.) Exists in mind

Standard placement of Formulas in Indigenous Wind Ensembles

In ligero, chuta chuta cadence In lento, long held chords at cadences Melodies in undulating shape Simple binary meter Value high pitches Value long, open-ended Dense, instrumental vocal timbres

Ontology

In philosophy, the study of the nature of being/existence ○ What is a thing? ○ Into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things ○ What is Music? Is it written text? Is it the musical sound itself? Is it the song, arrangement, or track? Depends on who you ask. ○ "What is work" is socially and culturally determined

Carnival Pinkillu

Indigenous Andean flute music. Aymara musicians in the town of Moho, near Conima, Puno, Peru. Participatory tradition. Ten flute players accompanied by six large snare drums. This example well illustrates dense texture and wide tuning. The drums add density as well as rhythmic drive for dancing. The form here is AABBCC: A (0.04), A (0.13), B (0.23), B (0.33), C (0.43), C (0.51), A (1.00) The same motive is used at section cadences: A (0.10), (A 0.20),B(0.30), B (0.40), (C 0-49), (C 0.57), illustrating the trait of motivic repetition across sections, discussed in chapter 2 (recorded by author).

Guias

Informal leaders if ensemble

Idiophones

Instruments that produce sound by being struck.

Chokelas

Large end-notched vertical flutes that resemble the smaller Kena

Effect

Meaning of the sign-object relation to the observer Physical reaction, feeling, thought, idea, etc.

Quecha

Most commonly spoken in Andes

Participatory performance

No artist-audience distinctions - only participants and potential participants performing different roles Primary goal is to involve max number of people Different roles have different skill levels Short, open, repetitive forms Feathered beginning and end Intensive variation Uncommon to have solos or dramatic contrasts Constancy of rhythm Dense textures, in-sync-out-of-phase, cloaking effect Piece as a collection of resources t be refashioned aknew every performance

Presentational performance

One group provides music for another group (audience) who does not participate in the music/dancing Closed, scripted, longer forms Organized beginning and end Extensive variation, dramatic contrasts, solos Variability of rhythm and artistic freedom Transparent textures Piece as a set item; an art object

Rhythm

Patterns and relative lengths (duration) of sound or the alternation of sounds and silences Refers to sounds actually heard

Color Color Punchituchay

Performed by Julio Benevente, charango, and Rafael Parejo, guitar. European influences in melody Plucking High pitch of charango Planned contrasts Transparent timbre Includes guitar

Concept of Music

Records themselves remove many cultural barriers that traditionally were defined by such things as access to performance venues or one's ability to play an instrument Levels the field allowing almost anyone to access almost any music Idea that musical composition is an activity by which labor is converted into a durable product began in 19th century Idea that musical composition is an autonomous entity who's meaning is contained entirely in the entity itself Songs have built-in fluidity and the work's essential identity lies in the visual but silent realm of its musical score Records, unlike scores, have material content - records represent more than musical thought, also encompass musical utterances and sonic relationships Particular sonic configuration and expressive shape of performance are influenced by such things as the choice of recording tools, the space in which the recording takes place, and the dynamics of the interaction among the members of the recording team Record's power is in its sound which represents multiple elements, processes, and voices - song, arrangement, sounds, techniques of sound recording and processing, musical performances, etc. Music has no content opposed to form b/c music has no form other than the content Principle of transparence - experiencing the luminousness of the thing itself of things being what they are Composing tracks involves making, capturing, and shaping sound Track's formative elements include things such as actual timbres and textures, specific musical performances, and sonic images of ambient spaces Compositional procedures include things as spatial arrangement, timbral manipulation, assembly of diverse ear points into a composite acoustic image

Pinkillu

Round, cane flute Played in wide unison in large ensembles accompanied by large snare drums 6-holed - has lower pitch, more serious sentiment 5-holed - higher pitch, more up-beat emotions

Index

Sign and object connected by perceiver through co-occurrence Strongly based in individual experiences May also be social, and even mass experiences Ex.) Smoke = fire; police = emergency; advertising jingle = product Based in experience, understood as real Semantic snowballing - multiple layers of indexical meanings collected over time Ex.) music associated with Civil Rights Movement drawn from pre-existing associated both with the church and progressive labor movements

Egenio (performed by Qhantati Ururi Of Ayllu Sulcata).

Siku ligero (fast siku) genre. 22 sikuri players, bombos drums. Fast pace associated with up-beat emotions Chuta Chuta cadences High pitch Dense timbre Participatory

Monophony

Single instrument or voice Unison or octaves Single instrument, single melody or multiple instruments, single melody Ex.) Wayno (Quena solo from Peru)

Siku Lento

Slow genre, serious sentiment Drawn out chords Form: AABBCC

Social field

Specific domain of social activity defined by the purpose and goals plus social status/roles and power relations of people involved

Tarka

Square, wood flute Mouthpieces constructed to split octaves to create a buzzy, fat sound

Magnetic tape audio recording

Steel tapes (1920's) - Medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. Devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders respectively. German magneto phone (1930's) - Magnetophon was the brand or model name of the pioneering reel-to-reel tape recorder developed by engineers of the German electronics company AEG in the 1930s, based on the magnetic tape invention by Fritz Pfleumer.

Timbre

The general quality of the sound

Fundamental Pitch

The most prevalent pitch of what you hear The lowest pitch that you hear; lowest frequency

Texture

The number of "voices" (actual or instrumental parts) and how they relate to one another The overall quality of voice relationship (sparse, Tdense, etc.)

Tempo

The speed of the underlying pulse How fast that meter goes by in time Not to be confused with surface rhythm (rhythms that you hear) Can have fast rhythms with slow tempo or vice versa

Semiotics

Theory of meaning and communication involving "signs"

Hertz

Unit of frequency - one cycle per second (periodic wave form) More hertz = more frequency = higher pitch

Indgenismo

Valorization of indigeneity (but not necessarily indigenous people)

Siku Choclo

Variant of Siku Ligero genre Accompanied by bass and snare drum not bombos

Quisiera Olvidarte (performed by Pastorita Huraracina a.k.a. María Dictenia Alvarado Trujillo).

Wayno. Female singer, violin, mandolin, harp. European influences in melody and instrumentation Plucking and strumming Includes other instruments Planned contrasts High pitch singing of woman Transparent timbre

Symbol

When a sign and an object are connected through linguistic definition and social agreement Symbols make theoretical or abstract thought and communication possible Must contain: □ A specific linguistic definition □ Social agreement □ Generality - refers to general concept of a thing □ Do not require resemblance or co-occurrence Words: horse - the word has no resemblance to an actual horse but we have agreed upon the word to describe the concept of a horse

Membranophones

drum-type instruments that are sounded from tightly stretched membranes

Ayllu

indigenous community group, rural farmers

Electrophones

instruments that produce sound using electricity

Chordophones

string instruments

Vecinos

town dwellers

Track

• Actual timbres, textures, specific musical performance, fixed set of sound • The recording itself • The arrangement is now solidified into a particular recorded performance that is unchanging • Song + arrangement + realization in actual sound = track • We experience recordings NOT songs • Recordings are a fixed representation of musical thought • The recording is the art object • Recordings also show relationships in the sounds and preserves them in a way that does not happen in other methods of music making ○ These sound characteristics are important to the identity of the recording ○ Fixed set of sounds in recording is essential to the work's identity

Characteristics of Presentational Performance

• Artist/audience divide • Value given to the quality of performance • Framed activity - stage, lights, microphones • Music is an art object • Level of ability of performers tends to be similar • Planned/scripted • Greater artistic freedom • Greater contrasts (indexical nows) • Extensive variation • Transparent textures, timbre, tunings • No security in constancy • Social aspect (live, not recorded) • Presentation of a given musical style creates a fulcrum around which given identity groups can form or be maintained ○ Socio-economic class ○ Fan groups • May be some level of audience participation but is not the primary goal

Wayno

• Associated with mestizo charango • Rhythm - long-short-short • Can have different topics - romantic, comedic, political • Texts in spanish, quechua, or both • Often involves couples dancing • Strophic with 4 line stanzas in short musical sections in AABBCC form • bimodal qualities with phrases alternating between the relative major and minor modes • expresses wide range of topics and emotions

Song

• Chord changes, structure/form, main melodies, lyrics • Can be represented by a lead sheet ○ Only shows basic elements of song (melodies, chord changes, etc.) ○ Omits other important musical aspects (timbre, instrumentation, rhythm). Does not specify which instruments are playing, how they are playing, how vocals sound • Multiple versions of the same song • Basic structure of song remains same but how it is played can vary

Participatory Music Rhythmic Repetition & Social Synchrony

• Cloaking - moving and sounding in sync creates comfort in social situation ○ Index of belonging of social identity • Not intended for presentational context - intended for doing • Conductive of flow state Mutual experience of flow contributes to social synchrony

Arrangement

• Comes after song has been created • In case of rock music, usually starts as head arrangements by band ○ Arrangements in band member's heads while song is actually written out • Additional parts added during the recording (session players) • Includes use of studio manipulation techniques • Arrangement may be partially scripted or notated but not in formal music notation • Moment where the execution of the song is decided in more detail • Can have multiple versions of the same song by having different arrangements ○ Covers - versions of song produced by other artists other than the original artist where they have their own arrangement but is still recognizable to original song ○ Ex.) "Feeling Good" (1964) - original genre was a show tune for a musical - characteristic descending instrumental line is an important part of the arrangement that is retained from arrangement to arrangement ○ Nina Simone (1965) - jazz/blues/soul □ "jazz scat" is unique to Nina Simone's version ○ Michael Buble (2005) - big band jazz/blue-eyed soul □ Same song different arrangement □ Same descending baseline rhythm but no jazz scat □ Repeats title at very end ○ Muse (2001) - alternative rock/metal □ Timbre and instrumentation very different □ Keeps descending baseline rhythm □ Sings into megaphone for first part of performance to distort voice

Participatory Musical Texture, Timbre, Tuning, and Density

• Dense texture - different musical parts overlap and cannot be clearly distinguishable ○ Often heterophonic or polyphonic ○ In-sync-out-of-phase • Dense timbres - instruments designed or manipulated to create buzzy sound ○ Impairs ability to distinguish individuals • Wide tuning - imprecision in tuning of instruments (on purpose or not) ○ Beats - created by two sound waves just slightly out of tune ○ Contributes to cloaking

Sound Features of Indigenous Andean Music

• Ensembles of similar instruments as opposed to mixed • Music and dance typically together • Open ended repetitive forms built of short sections • High pitch is valued • Women preferred for singing • Wide tunings • Dense timbres ○ Overblown instruments • Volume and timbre is usually constant (wall of sound) ○ Creates cloaking effect

Uses of Music in Society

• Express emotion • Religious ceremony • Courtship • Weddings • Friendships/parties • Political movements • Soothe babies • Advertising

Aymara Lifestyle Around Conima

• Famers, pastoral • Collective community life • Core values ○ Egalitarianism ○ Different social roles based on gender ○ Rotating leadership of married couples ○ Avoidance of conflict ○ Community solidarity ○ Social and musical ramifications

Studio Audio Art

• For the first time sound could be frozen in time and changed, sculpted • Reverse, change speed, splice the tape, and mix the sounds • Recorded audio art - recorded music that is clearly a studio form with no suggestion or expectation that it should or could be performed in real time • Different goals and potentials • Manipulation of recorded sounds, synthesized sounds, or digital technology that exist only as recordings • "sonic paintings" • Spectrum of types of studio audio art ○ In classical music - electroacoustic music. Takes sounds created in real world and changing it in studio. "Musique concrete" 1948. Does no mask electronic manipulation. Individual artist can have max control over the piece. Infinite number of sounds possible • In popular music - EDM and techno • Also operates in high fidelity field - live performance and manipulation

High fidelity music

• High fidelity music - musical sounds heard on recordings that index or are iconic of live performance • Represent "live" sound ○ Live concert album ○ Ethnographic field recording ○ A studio recording that could be reproduced live • Why isn't this the same as live music ○ Involves some level of manipulation in the studio or after the fact ○ Editing and mixing processes ○ Plan program, edit sequence of tracks, manipulate sounds, etc. ○ Downplay/conceal the recording process ○ Achieving a live sound in a recording involves technological intervention • Recording studio has different requirements than live stage performance ○ No audience and no visual performance aspect ○ Issues of playback on different devices ○ Electronic manipulation necessary ○ Related to presentational field

Indigenous Participatory Music Making

• Large wind and drum ensembles ○ No mixing of different melodic instruments Ex.) siku and bombos or tarkas and bombos • No solos, no formal leader • Practice together • Compose music collectively for competitions on festival days • Play as one - dense, well-integrated sound • Dancing

Mestizo Style, Traits, and Aesthetics

• Nylon strings with more bass • Accompanied by other instruments • Harmony as well as melody, European harmony, parallel 3rd's and 5th's • Frequent cadences in minor mode • Clarity favored • Contrasts favored, plucked sections vs. strumming, different genres • Instruments and genres not tied to specific contexts • Presentational

Participatory Form & Repetition

• Open form • Typically short • Cyclical forms - ostinato, short replaced melodic/harmonic/rhythmic unit • Sectional forms - built out of short sections strung together and repeated • Repeated as long as required • Feathered beginning and ending • Intensive variations - only slight changes in a section or melody that can be easily followed by beginners Security in constancy

Participatory musical values

• Participation prioritized over quality • For many societies, participatory performance is center of social life and is not viewed as an amateur event • Prized in egalitarian cultures • Enhances social bonding Result of participatory values and practices

Pitch

• Perception of pitch depends on frequency of vibrations per second • How fast or slow it vibrates determines pitch • Higher pitch = shorter vibrating element; more vibrations per second • Lower pitch = longer vibrating element; fewer vibrations per second • Pitch determined by the length of the period • Period is one whole wavelength

Migrant Highlanders Internalize Urban-Cosmopolitan Aesthetics

• Situational identity ○ For Limenos, all highlanders (whether indigenous or mestizo) were "indios" ○ Waynos became indexes of region to both indigenous and mestizo highlanders ○ Signs of both regional highland identity and urban living - both are experienced as authentic signs combing past-rural and present-urban experiences • Another comparison - Siku ensemble in Conima ○ Quantati Ururi (Conima) ○ Siku ensemble in Lima by migrant Conimenos • What changes? ○ Imitate recordings of Qhantati Ururui and other groups at home. Listen and imitate recordings rather than learn the indigenous way. Leaders act strongly, making decisions, and cutting poor performers. ○ Tighter, more controled, stiffer ○ Heterophonic edges are gone ○ Built on imitation of recordings rather than creation, hierarchical rather than egalitarian, strict order and arranging as opposed to spontaneous • What about the next generation? ○ Music articulates new, complex social identities ○ Second-generation urban migrants suffered identity crisis ○ Different musical signs combined into a single coherent whole - a single song ○Different aspects of second generation's identity combine highland background, urban residence, lower-class standing, and youth

Yaravi

• Slow, lyrical songs • Sad, romantic topics • Sesquialtera - alternation between 6/8 and 3/4 meters 1,2,3,4,5,6 becomes 1,+, 2,+, 3,+

The Marienera

• Song-dance genre • Faster sesquialtera rhythm • More emphasis on major mode • Paired with wayno

Genre

• Types of musical composition • Similarities in ○ Instrumentation - instruments and voices commonly used ○ Form ○ Texture ○ Style - an artist or group's particular manner of using specific musical elements • Commonalities among artists of the same genre Ex.) use of vocal timbre - raspy vocal timbre in sub-genres of rock

Participatory Music Virtuosity and Soloing

• Virtuosity and soloing not common • Can have some situations like a call and response where one person leads • Leader often a rotating position • Simultaneous participation - everyone is participating equally and at the same time • Sequential participation - everyone takes turns performing alone or in smaller groups (but everyone still participates)

Nationalist movements in Peru

• Wayno became a genre that indexed the highland/indigenous musical traditions • Nationalist movement (indigenismo) in early-mid 20th century helped establish siku, charango, and wayno as "national" instruments and genre • Limenos presentational music grew out of and indexed regional styles Highland migrants in Lima experience both a highland identity and urban identity

Chicha and Tecnocumbia

• Wayno-influenced melodies index highland heritage • Cumbia rhythm and Caribbean percussion indexes urban, cosmopolitan, experience, and identity • Rock influenced electric guitars, bass, keyboards, index youth culture • Chicha = Cumbia Peruana, related to Technocumbia

Andean Charango

○ 10-15 strings, small guitar type, double or triple courses ○ Peru and Bolivia ○ Variant of the guitar that emerges around 1700's

Heterophony

○ 2 or more voices/instruments performing slight variations of the same melody at the same time ○ Related to monophony and homophony in that there is one melody, but the melody is distinct for each voice/instrument ○ Not common in classical or pop music but very common in folk music Ex.) Devil in the Details, Old Time Music or

5 conditions of flow

○ Balance of challenge and skill level ○ Continually expanding ceiling for challenge ○ Potential immediate feedback ○ Activities bounded by time and space ○ Clear, well-established goals that are reachable within bounded time and place

Sikus (panpipes)

○ End-blown flute (aerophone) ○ Row of circular pipes ○ 1 instrument = 2 sets of panpipes (Arca & ira) ○ Accompanied by bombos or wankaras ○ Hocket - interlocking melodies played by alternating between arca and ira

June 24 - Dia del Indio (1921)

○ Established by government of President Augusto Leguia ○ "Our Inca music", "Our folklore" ○ Raised up indigenous culture but not its people

(1968-1975) President Juan A. Velasco (by coup d'etat)

○ Land distribution ○ Rural school-building reforms ○ Nationalized many natural resources ○ Made Quechua official language ○ Mandatory time for Peruvian music on radio: Wayno becomes preferred genre

Frame

○ Mental framework for interpreting an experience ○ Ex.) joking frame, theatrical frame, science fiction frame, etc. ○ All interpretation is framed in some way ○ Genre as a frame ○ Inform interpretation of signs in a piece of music Includes performance aspects (appearance, movements, body language, etc.)

Melody and Accompaniment

○ One voice/instrument (usually high in pitch) plays a melody over an accompaniment which provides harmony ○ Similar to monophony, but the one voice/instrument is distinguished in sound and pitch ○ Accompaniment is not prominent enough to be considered a melody of equal importance ○ Most common in pop music Ex.) Pan in A minor (Steel Pan Band from Trinidad)

Melody and drone

○ One voice/instrument performs the melody while the other provides a drone on a single pitch ○ Drone - continuous sound on a single pitch that provides the accompaniment Ex.) Medium Gat in Raga Yaman; sitar (melody) and tambura (drone)

Rock recordings contain 3 distinct compositional layers

○ Song ○ Arrangement ○ Track

Pitus

○ Transverse (side blown) cane flute ○ Possibly of European origin ○ Played in consorts (groups of instruments tuned together) and accompanied by base snare drums ○ Associated with dance dramas ○ Typically overblown to produce high pitch