National Science Bee Part 1
One piece of evidence of these things was observed by Ohio State University's Jerry Ehman, who circled the string of characters "6, E, Q, U, J, 5" and wrote "Wow!" That data was collected by the "Big Ear" radio telescope. The Drake Equation tries to estimate the likelihood of these things existing. The various SETI projects search for evidence of, for the point, what hypothesized organisms that some conspiracy theorists believe have visited Earth in UFOs?
extraterrestrials (or aliens; accept ETs; accept elaborations, like alien civilizations
A type of noise that affects materials with this property is named for Heinrich Barkhausen. The Ising model represents this phenomenon, which affects materials that can undergo hysteresis. Cobalt displays this "permanent" phenomenon, which is lost above the Curie temperature, at which point it becomes paramagnetic instead. For the point, name this form of magnetism commonly shown by the element it is named after, iron.
ferromagnetism (prompt on magnetism before mentioned
5) The kinetic isotope effect is studied by replacing this element with deuterium. The donation of the charged form of this element characterize Bronsted-Lowry acids. The proton-proton chain converts this element to helium. The gas form of this element is used in zeppelins. For the point, name this most abundant and lightest element in the universe.
hydrogen (prompt on proton after "Bronsted Lowry"; prompt on H, H+, or H2)
2) Polygonal columns of this type of rock are found in the Giant's Causeway. Bowen's reaction series diagrams minerals that form this type of rock. Ultramafic, mafic, and felsic are classifications of these rocks based on their silicon dioxide content. Basalt and pumice are examples of this type of rock that form from magma or lava cooling. For the point, name this class of rocks contrasted with sedimentary and metamorphic.
igneous rock (accept basalt before mentioned, accept extrusive)
In any triangle, this term refers to line segments that meet at the centroid and have endpoints on a vertex and the opposite side's midpoint. This name is shared by a quantity that is equivalent to the 50th percentile and has separate calculations for data sets with odd or even numbers of values. For the point, give this term for this measure of central tendency that lies between the two halves of an ordered set of values.
median
14) Within molecules, these regions can be bonding or anti-bonding. The Bohr radius refers to the smallest radius of one of these regions. Mixing of these regions is called hybridization, and the Aufbau principle governs how they are filled. These regions are classified as s, p, d or f. For the point, name this term for the region where electrons are likely to be found around an atom.
orbitals
The coat of these objects contains the tegmen and the testa. These objects can contain a triploid endosperm and usually one or two cotyledons. The ovule develops into these objects. Gymnosperms and angiosperms are named for having a "naked" or "enclosed" variety of these things. Nuts are hard shells surrounding, for the point, what objects that contain plant embryos and are thus sown by farmers?
seeds
18) Members of the Variola genus were the origin of this disease. British soldiers once used blankets infected with this disease as weapons. The first treatment for this disease involved inoculation with a similar disease affecting cows. Edward Jenner created the first vaccine for this disease. For the point, name this deadly pox disease eradicated in 1980.
smallpox
20. An enzyme named for these structures was discovered in Tetrahymena. When rich in guanine, these structures can form G-Quadruplexes, which can stabilize T-loops in these structures. These structures are thought to be a cause for cellular aging and cancer. The Hayflick limit is explained when these structures shorten after repeated DNA replication. In humans, these structures have a sequence of TTAGGG. For the point, name these structures that protect the ends of chromosomes.
telomeres
A 1960s study analyzed the effects of this form of precipitation on the Hubbard Brook ecosystem. Cap and trade programs have attempted to lessen this form of precipitation, which, in oceans, contributes to the dissolving of the limestone skeleton of coral. This precipitation arises when atmospheric water mixes with nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide. For the point, name this type of harmful, low pH rain.
acid rain
9) A type of these materials called "shape-memory" returns to their original shape after being deformed and heated. One of these materials is created in the Bessemer process, which combines pig iron with carbon. For the point, what materials are a mixture of two or more metals and include brass, bronze and steel?
alloys (accept solid solutions; prompt on metals)
15) Drugs to treat this condition include cisplatin. Multiple myeloma is the name of this condition when it affects plasma cells, and if it occurs in bone marrow, it is called leukemia. This condition spreads by metastasis from malignant tumors. For the point, name this condition of uncontrolled cell division that is commonly treated with radiation and chemotherapy.
cancer
26) Along with chromium, this is the only period four element to violate the Aufbau principle. This element sits to the right of the ferromagnetic elements. The sulfate salt of this element is usually attached to five water molecules and is a deep blue color. When combined with tin, this element forms the alloy bronze. For the point, name this transition metal with atomic twenty-nine and chemical symbol Cu.
copper (prompt on Cu before mentioned)
10) This structure is above the Moho discontinuity. Cratons are the strongest portions of this layer. The outer part of the lithosphere is made up of this layer, which comes in oceanic and continental forms. It is generated at mid-ocean ridges and destroyed at subduction zones. It is primarily composed of silica and oxygen. Resting atop the mantle, For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth's surface.
crust
14) Users of these systems search for "nonces" in a proof-of-work protocol to earn value in a process called "mining." One of these systems called Ethereum uses a decentralized virtual machine and the ticker symbol ETH. The first of these systems was invented under the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto, and uses a public "blockchain" ledger to track transactions between virtual wallets. Bitcoin is a type of, for the point, what digital "money" systems?
cryptocurrency (or cryptocurrencies; accept "Bitcoin" before Ethereum is mentioned; prompt on "currency" or "money")
17) Miller indices are used in the study of these substances, which were studied by Auguste Bravais. Triclinic, orthorhombic, and tetragonal are classifications of these substances, which can be primitive or facecentered. These materials are contrasted with amorphous materials because they have long-range order. For the point, name these solid materials that have repeated units in a lattice structure, such as diamond.
crystal (accept crystal system or unit cell before mention)
31. A power series solution can be constructed for this kind of equation using the Frobenius method. The Wronskian can help find the final solution to this type of equation while other approaches to solving them include the method of undetermined coefficients. Many times the solution to this sort of equation has an e to the x term due to the namesake operation being idempotent on e to the x. The two principal kinds of this equation are partial and ordinary. For the point, name this type of equation that contains a namesake calculus operation more commonly used than integral equations.
differential equation
This project spent two months carrying out the CANDELS project between 2010 and 2013. STS-61 updated this object by installing the COSTAR system to repair its spherical aberration. The Columbia disaster delayed another service mission to this instrument, which will be replaced by one named for James Webb in 2018. The Deep Field images were produced by, for the point, what telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990?
Hubble Space Telescope
27) This macromolecule is replicated in a process that involves topoisomerase and helicase. This material is formed from nucleotides like thymine and adenine. Watson and Crick won their Nobel prize for describing the shape of this molecule. For the point, name this material that contains the genetic code and is shaped like a double helix.
DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid)
The wife of general Nathanael Greene claimed responsibility for improving this device by adding a series of brushes to clear away lint. This instrument works by using a series of hooks to pull material through "teeth" that removed seeds from the important fibers. For the point, name this invention, created by Eli Whitney, that bolstered the production of Southern cotton plantations.
cotton gin
3) Bernice Eddy discovered that millions of people were injected with cancer-causing monkey cells from vaccines that targeted this disease. Vaccines for this disease were created by Albert Sabin and Jonas Salk. Franklin Delano Roosevelt suffered from, for the point, what disease that causes infantile paralysis?
polio (accept poliomyelitis, prompt on infantile paralysis)
10) WIMPs and MACHOs are two proposed bodies to explain the presence of this entity. This entity was first suggested by Dutch astronomers Jacobus Kapteyn and Jan Oort. Galaxies that are thought to contain this substance have faster rotation than what is calculated by just their visible mass. For the point, name this mysterious form of matter, named because it does not emit any detectable light.
dark matter
19. This object has bright spots possibly made up of brine in its Occator crater. Cryovolcanic activity may have formed the Ahuna Mons on this object. The Dawn spacecraft is currently orbiting this object after it visited a neighbour, Vesta. This object was discovered by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801 and its orbit was correctly predicted by Carl Gauss. For the point, name this largest body in the asteroid belt and the largest dwarf planet.
Ceres
The company Myriad has been sued over their patents on these entities. Beadle and Tatum studied the "one [of these], one enzyme" hypothesis. Transposons are referred to as "jumping" types of these things, and BRCA1 [B-R-C-A one] is one of these things that normally protects against breast cancer. Different varieties of these things are known as alleles and can cause differing physical traits. For the point, name these regions of DNA, the units of heredity.
genes
26) Variations in this planet's celestial movement over time are the cause of the Milankovitch cycles. This planet is the densest in the solar system. Some believe that an object called Theia collided with this planet, forming this planet's only natural satellite. On this planet, the acceleration from gravity measures about 9.8 meters per second squared. This planet is the subject of a photo known as the Pale Blue Dot. For the point, name this planet, the only one known for sure to harbor life.
Earth
A mutant copy of the PAX6 gene in fruit flies causes the absence of these structures. This structure's outermost two layers are the fibrous and vascular tunics. Defects of a part of these structures can lead to astigmatism or myopia. Arthropods contain a compound variety of these structures, which contain the iris, cornea, retina, and pupil. For the point, name this primary visual organ.
eyes
13) Ferrocene contains two ligands with this many atoms coordinated to the central iron. A cyclic molecule with this many carbon atoms has twist and envelope confirmations, one less than a cyclic molecule with chair and boat conformations. This number is one more than the number of bonds carbon can form. For the point, name this atomic number of Boron and the number of carbons in pentane.
five
18) Phosphate groups are added to this compound by the enzyme hexokinase. Individual units of this molecule make up the branched polymers amylopectin [am-UH-lo-PECK-tuhn] and glycogen [GLY co ZHen]. Pyruvate is formed from the breakdown of this carbohydrate during glycolysis. Combining this molecule with fructose forms sucrose. For the point, name this simple sugar with formula C6H12O6 that is the main product of photosynthesis.
glucose (accept dextrose)
23) Sets described by this concept can be represented with aleph numbers. The least integer principle allows for a method of proof by this concept's descent. A series converges if it approaches a constant number at the series approaches this concept. John Wallis developed the symbol for this concept which looks like a sideways eight. For the point, name this concept that refers to a limitless quantity.
infinity (accept infinite)
18. In Griffith's experiment, this substance was why a mixture of a non-infecting "rough" strain and an infecting "smooth" strain killed mice, a fact later confirmed by the "transforming principle." Phoebus Levene's theory about this substance was corrected by Erwin Chargaff, whose namesake rules state that this substance has a 1 to 1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases. For the point, Watson and Crick discovered the double helical structure of what molecule that carries human genetic material?
deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA)
8) The gamma function is a generalization of this function. The terms in Taylor series involve this function in the denominator. This function applied to zero is defined to be one and this function describes the number of permutations of a given set of objects. For the point, multiplying a given integer with each positive integer below it - like 4 times 3 times 2 times 1 - defines what function symbolized by an exclamation point?
factorial
31) One type of this group is located just before the branch in the Bowen's reaction series. A potassium form of this group of minerals is microcline, and labradorite is an iridicent, calcic member of this group. Orthoclase and plagioclase classes make up this group of minerals that is defined as a six on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this group of tetrosilicate minerals that make up a majority of the Earth's crust.
feldspars (accept orhoclase; accept pagioclase before it is read prompt afterwards)
4) The first of these operations caused the deaths of Grissom, White, and Chafee due to a fire. These operations frequently made use the Saturn V ["five"]. Michael Collins was the third member of one of these seventeen operations; that operation included the quote "one small step for man." For the point, name these series of missions with astronauts like Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin going to the moon.
Apollo program
(8) Apache Ant is a packaging tool used to build files written in this language, the default graphics library of which is called Swing. Its namesake Virtual Machine enables this language to run across multiple (+) operating systems, and this language is augmented by the React framework and the (*) JQuery [[JAY-kweh-ree]] library. For the point, name this object-oriented programming language developed by Oracle, whose name refers to a cup of coffee.
Java (accept Java Virtual Machine; prompt on "JVM"; do not accept or prompt on "Javascript")
(15) Damage to this structure is responsible for causing MELAS [[ME-lahs]] syndromes such as Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and MERRF [[MERF]] syndrome. Along with the Y chromosome, this is the primary structure used to analyze haplogroups. This circular structure interacts with its nuclear counterpart as a consequence of endosymbiosis. For the point, name this genetic material that is named for being found in an organelle commonly called the powerhouse of the cell.
Mitochondrial DNA (or mtDNA or mDNA; or Mitochondrial genome; prompt on "DNA"; prompt on "Mitochondria" before "genetic" is mentioned)
16. This data structure is navigated via dead-reckoning which allows for constant time lookup. When using multiple dimensions, this data structure can be organized as major row order or major column order. Matlab indexes this data structure starting at one, but most languages index them from zero. In Java, this data structure can be declared by first declaring the type and following the variable name with square brackets. This data structure is similar to a vector, but with fixed size in a contiguous block of memory. For the point, name this simplest data structure that allows for the storage of multiple values into a single variable.
arrays
19) Problem 48 of the Rhind papyrus computes the area of a field in this shape, while Book 3 of Euclid's Elements and Plato's Seventh Letter explain the properties of this shape. The LindemannWeierstrass theorem made the task of squaring this shape impossible.The sagitta is a line segment drawn between the midpoint of a chord and arc of this shape. For the point, name this shape whose area is pi multiplied by its radius squared.
circles
11) If a number x has this relationship to integers a and b, then there exists a linear combination of a and b that equals x by Bezout's identity. This type of number for two coprime numbers is always one. The Euclidean algorithm is a simple way to compute this number given two integers. For the point, name this largest integer that divides each of two or more given integers.
greatest common divisor (or gcd; accept greatest common factor or gcf)
1) This material's pigment is determined by the agouti gene. Cells named for this material move with the basilar membrane in the inner ear. It's not nails, but the separation of disulfide bonds in cysteine-rich keratin is the reason burning this material smells bad. This material grows from follicles in the skin. For the point, name this material, unique to mammals, which typically grows on the head.
hair (accept fur)
18) In the Davisson-Germer experiment, electrons fired at this element displayed a diffraction pattern. This element is purified using synthetic gas in the Mond process. Raney names a catalyst of this metal that exists in the Earth's core with iron. This metal sits between cobalt and copper on the periodic table. For the point, name this metal with atomic number twenty-eight and chemical symbol Ni.
nickel (prompt on Ni before mentioned)
28) Tamarack and larch are common pioneer species in this ecosystem, where climate change can result in drunken trees. Most peat bogs are located within this biome. A well-documented predator-prey relationship in this biome involves lynx and snowshoe hares, and its largest mammals include the moose and Siberian tiger. Scandinavia, Russia and Canada are covered by, for the point, which biome marked by heavy snowfall and evergreen trees like pine and spruce?
taiga (accept boreal forest or northern coniferous forest)
14) These numbers have a closed-form solution known as Binet's Formula. The limit of the ratio of these numbers is equal to phi, the golden ratio. These numbers are defined recursively as the sum of the two previous terms. For the point, name this set of numbers which begins 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5.
Fibonacci numbers (accept Fibonacci sequence)
A mathematician from this country names a formula simplifying exponentiation of complex numbers, and another names a "law of signs" that predicts how many real solutions a polynomial will have. The binomial coefficients are arrayed in a pattern named for another mathematician from this country; that triangle has 1's down both sides. The rectangular coordinate system was developed by a mathematician from, for the point, what home country of Abraham de Moivre [mwahv], Blaise Pascal, and Ren´e Descartes [day-CARt]?
France (for reference, the clues refer to de Moivre, then Descartes, then Pascal, then Descartes again
(13) A thermal cutoff is a type of this object found in small electronic devices that activates at high temperatures. The unicode symbol for these devices is a straight line through a rectangle. In modern homes, these devices have been largely replaced by (+) circuit breakers, which unlike these devices, can be used (*) multiple times. For the point, name these devices used to protect circuits from surges, which "blow" under high currents.
Fuse
(31) The Faber-Jackson and Tully-Fisher equations relate the stellar velocity dispersion of these entities to their luminosity, and Hubble's tuning fork diagram is used to classify these entities. In approximately four billion years, two of these will collide, creating an entity named "Milkomeda" [["milk"-AH-meh-dah]]. Coming in irregular, spiral, and elliptical varieties, for the point, what are these large collections of dust, dark matter, and stars, of which Andromeda is one?
Galaxy (accept Galaxies; accept Milkomeda galaxy or Milkdromeda galaxy; accept Andromeda galaxy; accept Irregular, Spiral, or Elliptical galaxy)
1. This virus's regulatory elements include the TAR element and genes called env, pol, and gag. The type of cell that this virus affects is determined through the Trofile assay. This virus uses CXCR4 and CCR5 receptors to enter its target cells, which bind to this virus with the help of gp120. A drug that selectively inhibits reverse transcriptase, AZT, is used to treat this lentivirus. For the point, the amount of T cells expressing CD4 decreases upon infection with what virus that causes AIDS?
HIV or human immunodeficiency virus (do not accept or prompt on "AIDS")
(22) The presence of a three-body scatter spike on a radar map is indicative of the presence of these objects. These objects maintain a liquid core due to releasing latent heat during formation. These objects begin to form when supercooled water comes into contact with dust nucleation sites. These objects form after repeated passing through updrafts in cumulonimbus clouds during severe storms. For the point, name these icy objects that fall as precipitation.
Hail stones
In December 1783, a few months after the Montgolfier brothers used hot air to lift their balloon, this Frenchman used hydrogen to lift his manned balloon. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac verified this man's most famous chemical discovery, which explains the relationship between heat and gas expansion. For the point, name this Frenchman whose namesake law sets temperature directly proportional to volume.
Jacques Alexandre C´esar Charles (accept Charles's Law
32) One scientist from this country names a reaction that couples an organoboron with a halide. Two mathematicians from this country name an elliptic curve theorem used to prove Fermat's last theorem. An underground structure located in this country provided the first evidence for neutrinos originating from the sun, as well as their oscillations; that experiment is Super-Kamiokande. For the point, name this country of Taniyama, Shimura, and Akira Suzuki.
Japan
26. In this scientist's namesake problem, the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector is conserved. In an equation named for this scientist, the mean anomaly equals the eccentric anomaly minus eccentricity times the sine of the eccentric anomaly. Under this scientist's namesake orbit, astronomical bodies follow the vis-viva equation. This lab assistant of Tycho Brahe used Brahe's data to determine that ellipses more closely matched a heliocentric model of the planets. For the point, name this German astronomer who formulated three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
29) This man devised a model of the solar system using Platonic solids, an idea he wrote about in Mysterium Cosmographicum. One law formulated by this man has a proportionality of G times M over four pi squared, that law relates the cube of the semimajor axis to the orbital period. This man used observations by Tycho Brahe to formulate his law that all planetary orbits are ellipses. For the point, name this astronomer who devised three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
6) A characteristic named for this mathematician is determined by the number of vertices minus the number of edges plus the number of faces. This mathematician set the foundation for graph theory by observing the bridges of Seven Bridges of K¨onigsberg. His namesake constant is approximately 2.718 and is represented with an e. For the point, name this prolific Swiss mathematician and physicist.
Leonhard Euler
2) This planet was the focus of the Viking program which revealed the existence of "Chaos terrain." A volcano over two times as high as Mount Everest, the Olympus Mons, is located on this planet. In 2011, NASA landed the Curiosity rover on this planet to search for traces of ancient water. For the point, name this 4th planet from the sun, whose iron-rich soil gives its surface a red color.
Mars
(25) Western people may be more susceptible to the Sander type of these phenomena due to living in more regularly-shaped homes. One of these phenomena caused by lateral neural inhibition is named for Ernst Mach [[MOCK]]. Many of these phenomena originate from a confused figure-ground distinction. The autokinetic effect is one of these phenomena that suggests movement. For the point, name these phenomena, which trick the brain into processing visual data incorrectly.
Optical illusions (accept Visual illusions)
18) In 1992 the first exoplanets were discovered orbiting one of these objects. The Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft each have a map showing the location of our sun relative to several of these objects. Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discovered the first of these objects, and at first could not discount that they had detected an artificial radio broadcast. For the point, identify these objects, a type of neutron star which is believed to emit a beam of radiation along its magnetic poles which can be detected as these objects rotate.
Pulsars (prompt on neutron star(s) until the word map is read)
The diffraction of these things can be used to determine the structure of a crystal, as was used to discover the double helix of DNA. These things were discovered to cause fluorescence in a Crookes tube by Wilhelm R¨ontgen. This form of radiation is lower in energy than gamma radiation, but higher in energy than ultraviolet radiation. For the point, name this form of radiation used in medical imaging to visualize bones.
X-rays (prompt on "photons;" prompt on "light;" prompt on "electromagnetic radiation"
30) Because these structures aren't always breeding related, the Humphrey-Parkes terminology was developed. The barbs of these structures extend out of a central rachis. Proto like versions of these structures were found on genus fossils like Archaeopteryx. Plumology is the study of the development and use of these structures. For the point, name these epidermal bird structures which function similarly to hair in mammals.
feathers (accept plumage until "plumology" prompt afterwards)
17) These structures can contain alternating light and dark areas called ogives which are formed as part of their seasonal movement. Fjords are created by these objects when they cut through bedrock. Icebergs break off of these larger masses in a process called calving. For the point, name these large, moving bodies of ice.
glaciers
7. A constant associated with this force was experimentally determined by Henry Cavendish. Describing this force in quantum mechanics is key to providing a theory of everything for the universe. In classical physics, this force for two objects is inversely proportional to the square of their separation distance and directly proportional to the product of their masses. For the point, name this weakest of the fundamental forces that at the earth's surface causes acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared.
gravity
This phenomenon is distinct from graupel, which is less stable, less uniform, and which falls in wintry conditions. This phenomenon begins when cloud condensation nuclei make contact with supercooled water vapor, which are then blown upwards in cumulonimbus clouds until they become too heavy to float. For the point, name this type of precipitation whose size is often given as a comparison with tennis balls and golf balls after it falls to the ground as solid ice.
hailstones (do not prompt on "precipitation" or other general terms
19) Angiotensin converting enzyme is found in endothelial and kidney epithelial tissue, but it primarily operates in this organ's capillaries. DPPA is a surfactant in this organ that helps maintain compliance. Gas exchange occurs in this organ's alveoli. This organ's expansion and contraction is controlled by the diaphragm muscle. For the point, name this organ that filters in oxygen from the air.
lungs
16) This phenomena is related to a field denoted with an uppercase B. The change in the magnitude of this phenomenon can be used to create potential by Faraday's law. Ampere's Law describes how current can produce a non-zero value for this phenomenon. This phenomena is typically measured in Teslas. For the point, name this phenomena present in objects with a north and south pole.
magnetism (accept magnetic field; accept magnetic force; accept magnets; bar magnets; accept geomagnetic field; prompt on "B-field")
29) A Canon on this field of science proposes eight varieties of equipoise and divides cosmology into earth, water, air, and fire; that text was composed by Avicenna. Imhotep was deified as a god of this field of science. Hippocrates, often considered the founder of the modern form of this science, wrote an oath which states to "first do no harm." For the point, name this field of science associated with diagnosis and treatment.
medicine (prompt on healing)
One mole of this molecule can undergo steam reforming to produce one mole of carbon monoxide and pure hydrogen gas. This compound is "trapped" within clathrates in permafrost and the seafloor; climate change thus threatens the release of this gas, which, like carbon dioxide, is a significant greenhouse gas. This compound is the simplest alkane and has chemical formula CH4. For the point, name this compound, the central component of natural gas, which has one fewer carbon than ethane.
methane (accept CH4 before read
20) NMDA and AMPA receptors in these cells help them undergo long-term potentiation. Multiple sclerosis disrupts the ability of these cells to send action potentials. Grey matter is mainly composed of the bodies of these cells, while the color of white matter comes from the myelin sheath that surrounds their axons. Electrical signals cross the synapses of, for the point, what cells that make up the spinal cord and brain?
neurons (or nerve cells)
This particle can accept a positron in one form of beta decay. Fission is caused by bombarding nuclei with these particles, causing more to be released in a chain reaction. James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize for his discovery of these particles, which are made up of one up and two down quarks. The presence of one of these particles differentiates deuterium from the more common form of hydrogen. For the point, name this chargeless particle found in atomic nuclei with protons.
neutrons
This rock surrounds a layer of dolomite as the upper and lower layers of the Bakken Formation. A fossil-rich formation of this rock was found in British Columbia near Mount Burgess. This muddy, flaky rock often includes bits of quartz and calcite, as well as kerogen, a mix of organic materials that can be processed into fuel. For the point, name this common sedimentary rock that is commonly processed for oil, and which metamorphoses into slate.
oil shale
9) This organ's stellate cells can cause scarring upon activation, but typically store Vitamin A droplets. The sinusoids of this organ are lined with a special type of macrophage called Kupffer cells. This organ receives blood through the portal vein and helps with digestion by producing bile, which is stored in the gallblader beneath this organ. For the point, name this large internal organ damaged in cirrhosis, which can be a result of hepatitis or alcoholism.
the liver
1) Dark spots on this object usually appear in pairs with opposite magnetic polarity. Winds from this object are deflected by Earth's magnetosphere. Within about 5.4 billion years, this object will turn into a Red Giant and engulf Mercury and Venus. For the point, name this yellow dwarf star that the Earth orbits, which sits at the center of the solar system.
the sun (prompt on "the star in the center of the solar system" or similar answers)
4) A fractal made of this shape is named after Sierpinski, and one of these shapes named after Blaise Pascal. The ratio of the length of different sides of these shapes defines the sine, cosine, and tangent functions used in trigonometry. Its internal angles sum to 180 degrees and it can be acute, obtuse, or right. For the point, name this shape that has three angles and three sides.
triangle
24) This biome is the primary home of the rock ptarmigan [tar-me-gan] whose Svalbard variety is a terrestrial bird unique to the archipelago. The treeline is the point at which this biome and the Taiga meet. This biome's vegetation includes lichen and moss, but not trees due to high elevation, permafrost subsoil, and low temperatures. For the point, name this cold biome that makes up most of the Arctic circle.
tundra
(6) In Selenomonas [[seh-lee-no-MOH-nuss]], these structures can wrap around each other to form a fascicle [[FASS-ih-kul]]. In other bacteria, these structures are anchored with a thin, helical "hook" and a basal body. Unlike those found in bacteria and archaea [[ar-KAY-uh]], examples of these structures in eukaryotes [[yoo-KEH-ree-"oats"]] contain dynein [["DIE"-neen]] or microtubules. The "whip-like" motion of these structures allows bacteria to move toward food. For the point, name these locomotive cell components, which are larger than cilia [[SIH-lee-uh]].
Flagella [[flah-JEH-lah]] (or Flagellum)
30) The "giant impact hypothesis" holds this body may have been created in the aftermath of a collision with the planet Theia. This body is home to dark, basalt plains which tricked ancient astronomers into believing they were made of water. The Sea of Tranquility, the landing point of Apollo 11, is on this body. For the point, name this body, Earth's only natural satellite.
Moon (accept Luna)
2) Urbain Le Verrier computed the orbit of this object, but it was discovered by Johann Galle [galuh] in 1846. Discovered in 1989, the Great Dark Spot discovered on this planet had disappeared by 1994. One moon which orbits this planet is noted for its cryo-volcanoes and retrograde orbit, indicating it might have been a Kuiper [ky-per] Belt object, that moon being Triton. The reclassification of Pluto resulted in, for the point, what planet becoming the outermost planet in the solar system?
Neptune
31) The Cassini probe was sent to study this planet and its storms are often called Great White Spots. Its moons include Enceladus, Iapetus, and one that has liquid on its surface and a nitrogen atmosphere. That moon named Titan orbits this second largest gas giant. For the point, name this sixth planet from the sun that is surrounded by a large icy ring system.
Saturn
10) Material is rapidly added or removed from one of these structures in a Slug test. Darcy's Law, in combination with the conservation of mass, can determine the flow rate within these structures. The artesian variety of these formations undergo positive pressure and are often made into wells. For the point, name these layers of underground porous rocks which store water.
aquifers
24) Geneticists studying the pathology of this class of diseases split mutations into passengers and drivers for it. One subclass of these diseases can be divided into Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin varieties. Two subtypes of these diseases are leukemias and lymphomas. Cells implicated in these diseases become dangerous when they metastasize. For the point, name this general class of diseases characterized by malignant invasive tumors.
cancer
7) The GMFCS is a system for measuring the impact of this condition on motor function. This condition's athetoid subtype is thought to be related to hypoxia or the accumulation of bilirubin in the basal ganglia. Botulinum toxin can be used to reduce spasms in this condition's most common spastic type. For the point, name this neuromuscular condition in which damage to the white or grey matter can cause problems with movement and muscle development, named for the part of the brain usually affected.
cerebral palsy (accept CP)
26) An effect named for these species causes a decrease in the solubility of a solid. The energy needed to remove an electron is named for these species. When salt is added to water, it dissociates into two examples of this type of species. For the point, name these atoms and molecules with a positive or negative charge due to loss or gain of electrons.
ions
23) Frederick Soddy suggested the existence of this classification of elements to explain the difficulty in placing them in the periodic table. Replacing an element with an atom with this classification slows down the rate of a reaction in a kinetic effect named for this classification. Deuterium and tritium have this classification with respect to hydrogen. The existence of elements with this classification allows for carbon-dating. For the point, name these variants of an element which contain more neutrons but the same number of protons.
isotopes (accept nuclide)
13. Differentiation of this material can occur through fractional crystallization, where this substance becomes more felsic in accordance with Bowen's reaction series. Flow banding results when viscous forms of this material come into contact with solid interfaces. Rhyolitic and andesitic types of this material have high silicon dioxide contents, while this substance's basaltic form has the fastest flow. For the point, name this molten rock that collects in namesake chambers beneath Earth's surface.
magma (do not accept or prompt on "lava")
7) These three letters begin the last word in an astronomy term for high luminosity regions whose other two words are "active" and "galactic." Scientific names beginning with these three letters typically derive from the latin word for a pit or seeds inside a fruit. For the point, name these three letters that begin the name of a central organelle ending with "leus" [lee-us].
nuc
11) Placing several of this type of circuit on a single chip gives the chip "multiple-cores." Assembly language instructions tell this type of circuit how to behave which it receives from the compilation of code written in a high-level programming language. For the point, name these computer chips commonly abbreviated CPU, which carry out instructions on the computer.
processor (accept microprocessor; accept Central Processing Unit; accept CPU before mentioned)
14) Holes in this structure are referred to as fenestrae in anatomy. Trepanning is a method of relieving internal pressure by putting a "burr hole" into this structure. The bones of this structure are joined together by fibrous sutures. This structure includes the frontal bones, occipital bones, and temporal bones. For the point, name this bone structure made up of eight cranial bones and fourteen facial bones.
skull (accept skulls; accept cranium until "cranial" prompt afterwards)
20. Vaska's complex has this geometry as does another iridium catalyst which is an air-stable orange solid homogeneous catalyst used for hydrogenation reactions. Crabtree's catalyst has this geometry which is the theorized geometry of d8 metal complexes. Alfred Werner used the cis- and trans- isomers of cisplatin to determine it had this geometry. In the AXE method of determining molecular geometry, this geometry corresponds to X equals 4 and E equals 2. For the point, name this flat geometry where the central atom has four bonds to its four corners at approximately 90 degrees.
square planar [prompt on planar]
26) An acidic type of soil in this biome is called podzol. Trees that grow diagonally or sideways in this biome are referred to as "drunken trees." This biome meets the tundra at its northern boundary, the point at which permafrost prevents the growth of trees. This is the largest land biome on the planet. For the point, name this cold biome which contains lots of evergreen trees.
taiga
11. A modern day institute that pays homage to this location founded the International School of Information Science which promotes and carries out efforts to digitize documents and information. Once the head of this location, Aristarchus of Samothrace resigned his position and exiled himself to Cyprus after Ptolemy VIII Physcon purged several intellectuals from the city where it is located. Julius Caesar accidentally burnt part of this building during the Great Roman Civil War. For the point, name this library established in the Ptolemaic kingdom which attracted many Greek scholars to a certain Egyptian city.
the Great Library of Alexandria [accept answers indicating Library in or at Alexandria including Alexandrian Library and similar answers]
14. The propagator can be used to find this object at all future times given an initial value. For the hydrogen atom this object is proportional to an associated Laguerre polynomial. For rotationally symmetric configurations, this quantity depends on a spherical harmonic. i hbar times the time derivative of this object equals the Hamiltonian acting on this object according to Schrödinger's equation. The probability of a particle can be found by integrating the square of the absolute value of this function, which collapses when a system is observed. For the point, name this function from quantum mechanics, symbolized psi, that encodes the quantum state of the system.
wavefunction
(9) An ion in its lowest possible energy state is produced in a type of ionization process with this property. The heat capacity ratio is often known as this property's index. This property is usually only possible in insulated systems, because it only occurs when the change in internal energy equals work. Along with reversibility, isentropic processes possess this property. For the point, name this property of processes that have zero heat transfer.
Adiabatic (accept Adiabatic index)
(30) Stars named for this element are classified with the R-N and Morgan-Keenan methods. Those stars named for this element are characterized by a bright red color and a "sooty" atmosphere. With oxygen and nitrogen, this element is used as a catalyst in the CNO cycle. For the point, name this element whose allotropes on Earth include graphite and diamond.
Carbon (accept C)
25. David Kirzhnits worked with one of the discoverers of this process on its predecessor which proposed "cosmological phase transitions." This process underwent damped oscillations which decayed into radiation equilibrating to the reheat temperature. Alan Guth and Andrei Linde proposed this process as an explanation to the horizon and flatness problems, describing it as a sort-of gravitational repulsion. This process started occurring about 10 to the negative 36 seconds after the principal event that started the universe. For the point, name this process of rapid expansion that occurred shortly after the Big Bang.
Cosmic Inflation
4. The superclusters and voids that permeate this phenomenon were elucidated by Martin Rees and Dennis Sciamma, giving an explanation for how photons are affected by this phenomenon in the Sachs-Wolfe effect. The polarization patterns of this phenomenon can be divided into E and B modes, and satellite missions to collect data from this phenomenon include COBE, WMAP and Planck. Bell Labs astronomers Robert Pensiaz and Arno Wilson won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of this "radiation noise." For the point, name this radiation that permeates the universe whose wavelength is the same radiation range as that used to quickly reheat food.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation [or simply CMBR] AFTER "radiation (noise)" IS READ ACCEPT: Cosmic Microwave Background [or CMB]
6) An increase in this quantity equals the product of ebullioscopic constant and molality. The Leidenfrost effect occurs when a liquid encounters a region with a value above this quantity, which is the temperature at which vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure. For the point, name this temperature at which liquid transitions into a vapor.
Boiling point
8. Complex numbers whose modulus is a squared prime number are known as this man's prime numbers. Wilhelm Jordan and this man co-name a variant of elimination used on systems of equations whose coefficients are entered into an augmented matrix. The normal distribution in statistics is named for this man, who proved the fundamental theorem of algebra. A childhood stunt of adding the numbers from 1 to 100 is among the legends attributed to, for the point, what 19th century German mathematician and polymath?
Carl Friedrich Gauss
18) In this structure's inner membrane, electrons are passed from ubiquinone to cytochrome c to power oxidative phosphorylation. This organelle contains a circular maternally-inherited genome. Oxaloacetate combines with acetyl-CoA to begin the citric acid cycle in this organelle, which has folds called cristae. FtP, name this eukaryotic organelle that generates ATP, the "powerhouse of the cell."
mitochondria (accept mitochondrion)
10) This phylum has a cartilaginous odontophore which supports their characteristic "ribbon of teeth." Members of this phylum eat using a chitinous structure called a radula and move using their foot muscle. The mantle of members of this phylum secretes their characteristic shell. Bivalves and gastropods are members of, for the point, what marine phylum of invertebrates that includes snails and clams?
mollusca (or molluscs)
7) Electrons diffract around this group of elements in the Ramsauer-Townsend effect. Neil Bartlett created a hexafluoroplatinate compound made with an element from this group. The only currently living person with an element named after him is Yuri Oganessian, who helped synthesize a member of this group named oganesson. For the point, name this group of elements, such as radon and xenon, that are on the far right of the periodic table and are named for being relatively inert.
noble gases (accept group 18)
10) Henri Becquerel [BECK-uh-RELL] and two people with this surname shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. This is the last name of a physicist who won two Nobel Prizes for advancing the study of radioactivity and discovering Radium and Polonium. For the point, name this last name of Polish and French scientists Marie and Pierre.
Curie (accept Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, Jacques Curie)
29. A displacement field related to this vector quantity is equal to the polarization plus this vector quantity times a constant. The curl of this vector field is equal to the negative partial derivative of the curl of magnetic vector potential. Gauss's law sets the divergence of this vector field equal to charge density over permittivity. In Lorentz's force law, this field is multiplied by charge, as its strength at any point is calculated as force divided by charge. For the point, name this field that influences the movement of charges, contrasted with the magnetic field.
Electric field [or E-field]
(32) An iridescent example of these minerals first found in Canada is called labradorite [[LAB-rah-dor-ite]]. A common intrusive example of these minerals is anorthite [[AN-or-thite]]. Triclinic [["try"-KLIH-nik]] crystals characterize the (+) plagioclase [[PLAH-jee-oh-klase]] subclass of these minerals. The continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series is made up of one subclass of these minerals. These aluminum tectosilicate (*) minerals have a Mohs hardness rating of 6. For the point, name these most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust.
Feldspar
7. The precursor to the NGC, the General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, was published by an astronomer with this last name. The first female astronomer to discover a comet bore this maiden last name. An astronomer with this last name discovered the moons Oberon and Titania as well as the planet that they orbit. For the point, give this surname of the astronomer siblings Caroline and William, the latter of which discovered Uranus.
Herschel
(34) The mass of this particle requires that it decay into a bottom and anti-bottom quark a majority of the time. The existence of these particles causes spontaneous electroweak symmetry breaking. Because this particle has a spin of zero, it is scalar rather than gauge. A 1993 book by Leon Lederman is the origin of this particle's popular nickname, the "God particle." For the point, name this particle discovered in 2012 at CERN, the carrier particle of mass.
Higgs Boson (or Higgs Particle; prompt on "God Particle" before mentioned)
11) The first part of this structure to be put into place is called Zarya. Peggy Whitson spent more time living in this structure than any other American. Unity and Destiny are the names of other parts of this structure, and occupants of this structure might use some of their mandatory exercise time on a piece of equipment called the COLBERT [kol-bair]. The CSA, JAXA, and the ESA are three of the organizations which oversee this structure. Crewed continuously since 2000, identify this orbital laboratory.
International Space Station (accept ISS; prompt on partial answers)
(31) This scientist controversially refused to give her subjects numbers, instead opting for names like "Goliath." This scientist observed one animal population using twigs and grass to "fish" for termites. This scientist observed a nonhuman "war" between the Kasakela and Kahama communities of Gombe [[GOHM-beh]] National Park. For the point, name this English anthropologist and primatologist, a woman best known for studying Tanzanian chimpanzees.
Jane Goodall (or Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall; or Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall)
(1) For a perfect black body, this quantity equals sigma times area times temperature raised to the fourth power according to the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. The maximum value for this quantity is proportional to stellar mass due to the Eddington limit. This quantity is the vertical axis of the HR diagram, plotting it against color. For the point, name this measure of the total amount of light emitted by a star.
Luminosity (accept Absolute Magnitude; prompt on "magnitude")
(32) These materials are characterized by possessing small but finite band gaps. These materials are divided based on their affinity for holes or electrons into P and N subtypes. These materials can have impurities introduced in a process called doping. The most common types of these materials used in circuits are made from silicon and gallium compounds. For the point, name these materials with properties between an insulator and a conductor.
Semi-conductors
12. A 2017 NASA study described how dust around this object can result in different effects on different wavelengths of the spectrum. One hypothesis related to this object is that since the 1890s, a Dyson Sphere was being built around this object. In the 2010s, dimming events of about 15 to 20 percent were observed around this star. For the point, name this star known for its extreme sporadic brightness fluctuations.
Tabby's Star [or KIC 8642852
24. A related, but rotated, version of this test will determine one-to-one behavior. Every input value must be checked in this test for the relation to pass, though in practice, most students simply visually check for a place where this test will fail by intersecting multiple points. For the point, name this test used on a graph to check if a relation is a function, performed by drawing a certain type of line.
Vertical Line test
23. This compound's active form is used as a coenzyme in the Krebs cycle's pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. A deficiency of this compound causes a disease manifested by a triad of ataxia, mental confusion, and paralysis of eye movements in alcoholics. Low levels of this compound result in a "wet" form of a disease that weakens capillary walls and a "dry" form characterized by neuropathy. For the point, over-consuming white rice is a risk factor for beriberi, a disease caused by a deficiency of what vitamin?
Vitamin B1 or thiamine
10) Frontal wedging describes how a less dense, warmer pocket of this substance is forced over a more dense, cooler pocket. Thermals are rising parcels of this substance. This substance is forced from low to high altitude in orographic lifting. This substance is approximately made up of 21% oxygen, and 1% argon. For the point, name this substance whose bulk movement causes winds.
air mass (prompt on "wind" before mentioned; prompt on "gas"es)
19) Family types of these objects include clusters, clumps and tribes. The Canadian Space Agency launched the microsatellite NEOSSat to detect these objects. The Kirkwood Gaps are so named for gaps in the distribution of these objects. Large examples of these objects include ones named Pallas and Ceres. For the point, name these planetoid objects that form a namesake belt between Mars and Jupiter.
asteroids
18) The main resource of this technology is moved around in a circle in the center pivot application. Wheel line systems are a manual method in this technological discipline. Historically, this technology made use of aqueducts, but in the modern age, drippers and sprinklers are employed. For the point, name this method of controlling water and applying it to crops for agriculture.
irrigation (prompt on answers describing "water," "water movement," or "water control")
18) If one of these constructs is drawn through the largest angle of a right triangle, its length equals half of the hypotenuse. These constructs are divided in a 2:1 ratio by a concurrence point called the centroid. For the point, name this line connecting the vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side.
median
24. To measure the stiffness of compounds of this type, Hans Kuhn developed a namesake length. An equation modelling the formation of this type of compound sets X bar sub n equal to one divided by quantity one minus the extent of reaction. The production of this type of compound can be modelled by Carothers equation and can be sped up by use of a Ziegler-Natta catalyst. This type of compound is formed by step-growth or a chain-growth mechanism. For the point, name these compounds made up of chains of monomers.
polymers
4) Every natural number greater than 1 can be factored into these numbers according to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. If two numbers have a greatest common factor of 1, they are said to be "co-" this property. 2 is the only even number with this property, and they are contrasted with composite numbers. For the point, name these numbers whose only factors are one and themselves.
prime numbers
With Gustav Kirchhoff, this scientist was a pioneer in the investigation of the spectra of heated elements, which he used to discover cesium and rubidium. This man asked Peter Desaga to construct him a device with a needle valve to control the intake of gas and throat holes that control the amount of air that would enter; both of those features control the heat of the flame that formed. For the point, name this German chemist who invented a namesake "burner" used in the laboratory.
Robert Bunsen (accept Bunsen burner
4. A function has this property if the limit as you approach an x value equals the actual value of the function at that x value. The absolute value function has this property everywhere, despite not being differentiable at the sharp turn at the origin. Examples of locations where this property breaks are holes and asymptotes. For the point, name this property of functions whose graphs can be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper.
continuity (accept word forms like continuous)
This tissue contains the first protein where X-ray crystallography was used to determine its structure. This tissue performs an action that can be explained through the sliding filament theory involving actin and myosin. Duchenne names a disorder in which this tissue wastes away; sufferers of that dystrophy may require physical therapy. Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac are types of, for the point, what soft tissues that include the hamstrings and biceps?
muscles
(33) The cold molding method of making these objects involves binding thin pieces of wood together with epoxy to produce rigidity. The transom supports of these devices connect to the sterndrive. These devices are divided into inboard and outboard motor varieties based on the placement of their propeller. These devices can be steered by redirecting fluid with a rudder. For the point, name these vehicles, examples of which include canoes.
Boat (or Ship; accept Motor Boat before "canoe" is mentioned)
(2) When subjected to nonzero values of this quantity, piezoelectric [[pee-EH-zoh-"electric"]] materials experience electric polarization and release electricity. When forces are applied parallel to the plane of the cross-sectional area, this quantity's sheer form arises. When this quantity exceeds the strength factor, permanent deformations can occur. For the point, name this measure of internal forces, which can lead to strain.
Stress
2) The first MASER was created by Charles H. Townes using this compound. This compound is converted to nitric acid in the Ostwald process. One process for synthesizing this compound typically uses an iron catalyst and is the Bosch-Haber process. This simple 4 element compound is used as a fertilizer. FTP name this compound with formula NH3.
ammonia (accept NH3 before mention)
24) One queen in this modern-day country died due to an abscess after an early attempt at tooth extraction. The wheel was introduced to this country during its Second Intermediate Period by the Hyksos people. The engineering prowess of civilization in this modern-day country resulted in the Temple of Amun at Karnak and the Colossi of Memnon. For the point, name this country that produced the Great Pyramid of Giza.
ancient Egypt (accept Egyptians)
17) TrkA's absence and L-N-G-F-R's presence can induce this process. In this process, the death-inducing signalling complex is formed. A cascade of caspases is triggered in this process by the release of Cytochrome C into the cytosol, which is characterized by blebbing and fragmentation of the cell. This cellular process is contrasted with necrosis, which is unprogrammed. For the point, name this process of programmed cell death.
apoptosis
29) This tissue begins forming in early development when aggrecan and Type 2 collagen are secreted to form an extracellular matrix. Because the cells which produce these tissues are bound to particular locations, this tissue is difficult to repair when damaged. Chondrocytes [kon-droh-sights] are found in, for the point, what tissue that makes up inter-vertebral disks as well as human ears and noses?
cartilage
8) In these structures, fast flowing deposits of calcite is often affectionately referred to as these structures' "bacon." Troglobites dwell in these Karst topographical structures which are formed from dissolution of rocks. Stalactites hang from the ceiling of these structures. For the point, name these structures underground networks with surface entrances that serve as a hibernation spot for bats and bears.
caves (accept sinkholes until mentioned; prompt on "hole"s)
30) Being able to only use four of these without having two nodes have the same one names a planar graph theorem that was the first computer-assisted proof. The brain only uses three types of cone cells to perceive this phenomenon. A dispersive prism splits a monochromatic beam of light into these phenomena. For the point, name this quality of a substance which is encoded by the wavelength of visible light, such as red or blue.
colors (accept chromatism or chromatic until "monochromatic" prompt afterwards)
19) A close neighbor to this organism is teosinte [tee-oh-SIN-tay]. Barbara McClintock won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering transposons, or "jumping genes," in this model organism. The primary production of renewable ethanol fuel comes from this plant. For the point, name this crop whose fructose is extracted to make a "high fructose" syrup.
corn (or zea mays)
This value can be defined as the sum of 1 over n factorial for all positive integers n. After one year, a dollar gaining 100% annual interest compounded continuously throughout the year will be worth this many dollars. While 10 is the base of the common logarithm, this value is the base of the natural logarithm. For the point, name this mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.71828, named for a Swiss mathematician and symbolized by a vowel.
e (accept Euler's number
(2) Two important points on this shape are the perihelion and aphelion. Johannes Kepler used these shapes to improve upon astronomical predictions of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. These shapes proved more accurate than circles for the orbits of the planets. For the point, name this shape, a regular oval with equal distance to two points.
ellipses (prompt on oval; prompt on "orbit"s with "an orbit that traces out what shape?")
17) Organisms in this kingdom form an often mutualistic relationship with plants in mycorrhizae [my KUH rize ay]. Members of this kingdom have hyphae that make up their mycelium. Algae form a symbiotic relationship with them in lichen ["lye ken"]. The death cap is a highly poisonous organism in this kingdom. For the point, name this kingdom of organisms that are primarily decomposers, like molds, yeasts, and mushrooms.
fungi or fungus
6) By studying the rotation curves of these systems, Vera Rubin developed their rotation problem. SBc and E3 are classifications of these systems which lie on a "tuning fork" created by Edwin Hubble. "Barred" and "unbarred" are classifications of the "spiral" type of these systems. Examples of these systems include Triangulum and Andromeda. For the point, name these systems of stars exemplified by the Milky Way.
galaxies (or galaxy)
5) The Brinnell test can be used to determine the value of this property using a ball, while the more accurate Vickers test uses a pyramid. CBN and some borides have very high levels of this property. A sclerometer is used to measure the 'scratch' version of this property from the width of the deformity left by a diamond under constant pressure. For the point, name this property of a mineral which can be ranked on the Mohs scale and which is a measure of the resistance of a material to being deformed.
hardness (accept indentation hardness until "sclerometer")
1) Complications with this organ are typically seen in patients presenting Levine's sign. Bachman's bundles and Purkinje fibers depolarize this organ. This organ produces the signal for the QRS complex on an EKG. This organ is divided into four chambers known as atria and ventricles. For the point, name this cardiovascular organ that pumps blood through the body.
heart
25) This shape is the trajectory of an object moving greater than the escape velocity. This shape names a class of functions that include sinh ["sinch"] and cosh ["cawsh"]. This is the shape of equations of the form [read slowly] x squared over "a" squared minus y squared over b squared equals one. For the point, give this conic section of a plane and double cone with two bows that are mirror images of each other.
hyperbola
15) The floor function returns the greatest element of this set of numbers less than the input. Diophantine equations always have solutions in this set of numbers. The symbol for this set of numbers is a blackboard bold Z. For the point, name this set of numbers that includes the whole numbers as well as the negative numbers.
integers
27) In mass spectrometry, molecules described by this term are formed by breaking apart larger molecules. Names for molecules described by this term typically end with the suffix "-ate" or "-ite" such as carbonate or sulfate. Molecules described by this term form bonds held with electrostatic forces. For the point, name these atoms or molecules with a net charge.
ions (accept charged atoms/molecules before charge is read; accept ionic bond; prompt on "acid")
12) Many messenger RNAs contain a sequence of nucleotides known as the "response element" of this metal. Deficiency in this element is the most common nutritional deficiency in the world and can lead to its namesake form of anemia. This element is found in heme, and gives hemoglobin its affinity for oxygen. For the point, name this element with atomic number 26 and atomic symbol Fe.
iron (accept Fe before it is read)
13) A disulfide compound containing this element is known as pyrite or "fool's gold." Porphyrins [POR-fur-ins] that contain this element are sometimes called hemes [heems]. This element names the type of permanent magnetism in the standard bar magnet. This element and carbon alloy to form steel. For the point, name this metal that lends its name to ferromagnetism and has atomic symbol Fe.
iron (prompt on Fe)
6) People without the Duffy antigen are immune to a form of this disease. The parasites that cause this disease can enter a dormant hypnozoite state before invading red blood cells. Artemisinins have outpaced the use of quinine in treating this disease, which is primarily caused by the vivax and falciparum species of Plasmodium parasites. For ten points, name this infectious disease spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes.
malaria
1. This operation may be defined by summing n-fold products over the symmetric group of order n weighted by the sign of the permutation. The Leibniz formula defining this operation may also be written in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol. This operation is applied to the Jacobian when changing coordinates of multivariable integrals. This operation can be used to solve systems of linear equations by Cramer's Rule. A matrix is invertible if and only if this operation is nonzero. This operation is only defined on square matrices. For the point, name this matrix operation which when applied to a two by two matrix returns (read as letters) 'a' 'd' minus 'b' 'c'.
matrix determinant
4) Alfred Nobel's blasting caps used a fulminate of this element. Amalgams are alloys containing this metal, whose height fluctuations inside a tube were used to measure air pressure in the first barometer. The FDA recommends that young children and pregnant women avoid eating swordfish due to high levels of this toxic metal. Name this liquid metal with symbol Hg.
mercury (accept Hg before it is read)
These substances are described as having a "sea of electrons". A set of elements named for being similar to these occupies a staircase shaped region on the periodic table; that set includes boron and silicon. These substances are typically malleable, ductile, and are usually good conductors of heat and electricity. A block of elements in the middle of the periodic table are called the transition type of these compounds. Mixtures of these materials are called alloys. For the point, name these often-shiny materials such as iron and gold.
metals
17) While improving radar during World War II, John Randall made common use of this device possible with improvements to the cavity magnetron. The "Radarange" was the first modern one of these devices invented by Percy Spencer after noticing the magnetron had melted a chocolate bar in his pocket. These things generally operate in the range of 700 watts to 1200 watts. For the point, name this device used to heat up food with a part of the spectrum between radio and infrared.
microwave oven (do not accept or prompt on "oven")
4) These cells are supported by glial cells, and use messenger molecules like GABA and serotonin. These cells can be surrounded by a myelin sheath and their dendrites connect to other cells through synapses. These cells send electrical signals down their axons. For the point, name these cells that make up the nervous system and relay messages in the brain.
neurons
30) The interior composition of these stars is explored by NASA's NICER mission. When these stars maintain their angular momentum, they blink beams of radiation at their poles; an effect first noticed by Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell who dubbed them "little green men." Examples of this class of stars include pulsars and magnetars. For the point, name these dense stars made up and named for nonpositively charged nucleons.
neutron stars (accept pulsars before mentioned)
This process fuels the proton-proton chain and the CNO cycle. Performing this process with elements heavier than iron requires energy, which is why it only happens in supernovas. Electrolysis of heavy water was once thought to achieve the "cold" form of this process. This process releases energy when performed on lighter elements, as when done with hydrogen to make helium. For the point, name this type of nuclear reaction in which atomic nuclei combine.
nuclear fusion (do not accept "fission"
4) These objects are subject to the void coefficient of reactivity. Fast neutrons can be produced by fission via these objects. These objects produce energy through a thorium fuel cycle or other methods of radioactive decay. For the point, name these devices that can suffer meltdowns that release radiation.
nuclear reactors
21. The separation of primary and secondary components was a major breakthrough in the Teller-Ulam design of these devices. The two main designs of this device are the guntype that impacts into a subcritical load or the implosion type where the outer shell collapses and compresses the core. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are radioactive materials used in these devices. For the point, name these explosive devices of war that operate via fission and fusion reactions.
nuclear weapons [accept thermonuclear weapons; accept hydrogen bomb; accept atomic bomb; accept H bomb; accept A bomb; accept fusion weapon; prompt on warhead; prompt on nukes which are informal terms for the actual device; prompt on weapons]
28. Henry Fox Talbot's Calotype was a version of this process that made use of gallic acid. Thomas Wedgwood was an early pioneer in this process whose work does not survive due to not having a fixing agent to add to the silver nitrate. Charge coupled devices are commonly used in astronomy for this process because of their high quantum efficiency and taking advantage of auto-guiding as well as dark frame subtraction to create a less noisy result. An early form of this process worked by taking advantage of how light oxidises silver grains and used sheets of metal copper coated with silver iodide and is known today as the Daguerreotype. For the point, name this technique of creating images from captured film.
photography [accept equivalents like taking photos]
13) According to the solution to the Basel problem, summing one over n squared over every positive integer returns this number squared over six. e to the power of i times this number is equal to negative one according to Euler's identity and the area of a circle is given by this number times the radius squared. For the point, name this value, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter which is approximately 3.14.
pi
19. This letter sub one is used to represent a group formed of homotopic loops of a given base point in the topological space referred to as the fundamental group. Rabinowitz and Wagon developed a spigot algorithm for calculating a number represented with this letter. Parallel strips of wood of even width t are required for a set-up used to approximate a number related to this letter with a needle of length l; a problem first formulated by the Comte de Buffon. The integral from negative one to one of dx over the square root of quantity one minus x squared, is equal to a transcendental number represented by this symbol. For the point, name this symbol used to represent a number equal to one half of tau or the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.
pi
22. Ferdinand Lindemann showed that a square with this area could not be constructed with compass and straightedge because this number is transcendental. The probability that a random point in a square is within a side length of a given corner is one-fourth of this number. This period of the tangent function is equal to half of tau. The area of the unit circle is, for the point, what number equal to the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter?
pi
12. The Nice model concerns the migration history of these objects. A 2016 paper led by astronomer Mike Brown hypothesized the existence of one of these objects. In 2006, the IAU stated that these objects must be nearly spherical in shape and also have "cleared their neighbourhood". Ancient Greek astronomers called these objects "wanderers". For the point, name this class of objects that, within our solar system, no longer includes Pluto.
planets [prompt on "gas giants"]
23) ECMA can add functional groups to one member of this class of compounds. Wallace Carothers names an equation that describes the degree to which the formation of this class of compounds occurs. Cross-links can form between chains of this class of compounds which include plastics like Teflon. Nylon is a synthetic member of, for the point, what class of compounds made up of repeating monomers?
polymers (accept acrylics or acrylic polymers; accept synthetic polymers; accept plastics until mentioned) (
7) Though these particles are theorized to decay, this has not been confirmed by any observations yet. Two of these particles form a chain reaction responsible for fusion in stars. This particle is composed of two up quarks and one down quark. This particle is equivalent to the H+ ion, which is formed when acids are added to water. For the point, name this positively-charged particle contrasted with the neutron and electron.
proton
28) In 1900, the founding principles of this theory were established by Max Planck with his solution to the ultraviolet catastrophe. A critical idea to this theory is that wave functions will "collapse" upon measurement. Schrodinger's cat is a thought experiment about this theory. For the point, name this microscale theory which utilizes wave-particle duality and restricts systems to discrete quantized values.
quantum mechanics (or QM)
16) The first person to discover evidence for this process was Henri Becquerel. The occurrence of this process in different isotopes of carbon is central to its use in dating. The electromagnetic form of this phenomenon is represented by a spectrum and comes in radio, ultraviolet, and infrared varieties. For the point, name this general term for the transmission of energy.
radioactive decay (accept nuclear decay, radioactivity, or radiation; prompt on decay)
24. Variation in this phenomenon defines the seasons along the intertropical convergence zone. Anabatic winds cause this phenomenon to be more common on the windward side of mountains. Virga is a type of this phenomenon in the atmosphere. Petrichor is the scent produced by this phenomenon on the soil or rocks. Particularly dangerous tornadoes may be "wrapped" by this phenomenon. For the point, name this atmospheric phenomenon which can result in flash flooding if too much of it happens in a short time period.
rain [accept precipitation]
24) This quantity can be calculated by multiplying rho times length over cross-sectional area. Power is equal to the product of this quantity and current squared. This quantity is the reciprocal of conductance. Voltage divided by current gives, for the point, what electrical quantity measured in ohms?
resistance
27) Cycloheximide can inhibit this structure's translocation responsibility. This structure is confusingly referred to as an organelle in some scientific literature despite being present in prokaryotes and not possessing a membrane. This structure gives the rough endoplasmic reticulum its namesake characteristic. For the point, name this RNA-protein structure responsible for carrying out translation.
ribosomes
This structure is home to several zygomatic processes. The presence of two openings in this structure separates diapsids from other amniotes. At birth, this structure contains many fontanelles, or soft spots, which fuse early in life. This structure contains the parietal, frontal, and occipital bones and contain holes through which the optical nerves pass. For the point, name this bony structure that protects the brain.
skull (or cranium, prompt on "head"
7) Dominik Koll led a team that collected 500 kilograms of this substance to study interstellar dust. Uchiro Nakaya developed a crystal morphological diagram to classify "flakes" of this substance based on temperature. This substance doesn't have time to accumulate during a flurry. For the point, name this substance swept around at high speeds during blizzards.
snow (or snowflakes)
9. In a branch of trigonometry named for this shape, edge lengths are measured as angles. A coordinate system named for this shape locates points using two angles and the distance to the origin. Archimedes showed that a cylinder with a cone removed had an equal volume to this shape. This shape, which consists of all points at a fixed distance from the center, has a volume of "four-thirds pi r-cubed". For the point, name this 3-dimensional analog of a circle.
sphere
23. Events that helped bolster this theory and carry out its predictions include the OPAL experiment at LEP, alongside ALEPH, DELPHI and L3. Those experiments of this theory took place under the European Organization for Nuclear Research. Limitations to this theory include the inability to account for neutrino oscillators or baryon asymmetry. This theory overarches quantum chromodynamics, and was bolstered by the finding of the Higgs boson in 2012. For the point, name this physics "model" that encodes three of the four fundamental forces of physics while classifying the known elementary particles.
standard model [accept standard after "model"]
17) Enlarged blood vessels in this organ characterize GAVE which gives this organ a watermelon appearance. Chief cells in this organ release a precursor to pepsin which helps break down proteins. This organ is divided into four specialized compartments in ruminants. For the point, name this organ that secretes gastric juice to break down food received from the esophagus.
stomach
20) A type of erosion caused by this substance is called wedging. N´ev´e [NAY-VAY] is younger than another type of substance called firn. Bubbles trapped in "cores" of this substance allow scientists to determine past atmospheric composition. The ablation of this substance is called calving and can happen from crevasses. This substance forms structures that leave eskers and moraines. For the point, name this cold substance that forms glaciers.
water ice [accept frost, snow, icebergs, or glacier before mention]
13) An experiment using this organism compared the ratio of nitrogen 14 and nitrogen 15 in DNA. This organism was used by Meselson and Stahl to show that DNA replication was semi-conservative. This organism is infected by lambda phage. Outbreaks of this bacteria are usually caused by the O157:H7 strain. For the point, name this rod-shaped gut-residing bacteria from the Escherichia [ES-cah-REE-chee-uh] genus.
E. coli (accept Escherichia coli; accept just coli at the end) (
Meteor impacts and these events can result in the discharge of lapilli. Steam is given off in the phreatic type of this event, while high-altitude gas columns are created in the Plinian type, named for an ancient historian who experienced one of these events in Italy. Pahoehoe flows out of the surface of the Earth after some types of, for the point, what fiery events in which ash and lava are released, often explosively?
volcanic eruptions
8) Ernst Hartwig observed the only known Supernova to have occurred in this body. This body was originally classified as a nebula before Edwin Hubble discovered Cepheid variable stars inside of it in 1925. This largest member of the Local Group is predicted to collide with our galaxy in several billion years. For the point, name this closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way.
Andromeda galaxy (accept Messier 31)
In German papers, this number is sometimes named after Johann Josef Loschmidt. This number is multiplied by elementary charge to give the Faraday constant. Its namesake also names a law relating the volume of a given sample of gas to the number of molecules in that gas. For the point, name this number, roughly equal to 6.02 times 10 to the 23rd and thus celebrated on October 23rd, "Mole Day," a number named for an Italian scientist.
Avogadro's constant (or Avogadro's number; prompt on approximations of the actual number before said
10) This constant was once measured using a sphere of ultrapure silicon-28. This constant is equal to Faraday's constant divided by the elementary charge. This number can be defined as the gas constant divided by Boltzmann's constant. This constant was once defined as the number of atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12. For the point, name this constant that is the number of particles in a mole, approximately 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd.
Avogadro's number
25. The first step of this process is catalyzed by an enzyme that is activated when a magnesium ion binds to carbamate. Malate breaks down in bundle-sheath cells to produce a molecule that begins this process, where 3GP molecules are reduced by NAPH and ATP. This process occurs in the daytime for CAM plants so that they can reduce water loss. For the point, RuBisCO is used in what light-independent cycle of reactions that occurs in the stroma and synthesizes sugars from carbon dioxide?
Calvin-Benson cycle (prompt on "photosynthesis")
(22) The formation of this material lends its name to the Carboniferous [[kar-boh-NIH-fer-us]] period, during which it was deposited in namesake seams and beds. This material is made from the deposition and compression of ancient plant matter, which eventually solidifies to become peat and this material. Varieties of this material include lignite, anthracite, and the bituminous variety. For the point, name this solid fossil fuel.
Coal (accept Black coal; accept Bituminous coal before mentioned; accept Lignite or Anthracite before mentioned)
(31) Linear independence of functions is shown by a type of this value called the Wronskian. The Jacobian type of this value is used when changing variables in a multiple integral. This value and the trace appear as coefficients of the characteristic polynomial. Cramer's rule solves systems of equations using ratios of these values, which must equal zero for a non-invertible matrix. For the point, name this value which equals "A D minus B C" for a two-by-two matrix.
Determinant
This technology uses continuous-wave and pulse systems to judge the frequency shift of a signal that has been reflected from a moving target. This technology, which was developed in World War II based on a 19th century Austrian's discovery, is also used in speed guns to identify speeding cars. For the point, name this type of radar, often used by weather forecasters, which employs a namesake physical effect to observe the motion of thunderstorm cells.
Doppler radar (prompt on "radar;" accept Doppler effect
This object's largest confirmed impact crater is the South Pole-Aitken basin, though if it were a crater, its Oceanus Procellarum would be bigger. This object was visited by 7 of NASA's Surveyor spacecrafts and will be visited by the Chang'e [chang-eh] craft. This object is tidally locked to the Earth, meaning that only one side ever faces it; that side includes the Sea of Tranquility. For the point, name this celestial body visited by the Luna spacecraft and Neil Armstrong.
Earth's Moon (or Luna before said
32) One supporter of this theory offered $100,000 for anyone who could find a triangle that could be drawn with three right angles, but "pushed the goal post" when presented with non-Euclidean geometry by youtuber Wolfie6020. Washington Irving popularized the myth that people believed in this theory until Christopher Columbus sailed the Pacific Ocean to get to the West Indies. For the point, name this conspiracy theory that alleges the world is not actually spherical.
Flat Earth theory (accept any description about the theory that the earth isn't round)
Ralph von Frese suggests that an impact at Wilkes Land in Antarctica may have contributed to this event. The acanthodian, a spiny shark, was a type of jawed fish affected by this event. The percentage of seafloor-suspended marine life and the biodiversity of insects greatly decreased after this event, which occurred roughly 250 million years ago. For the point, name this event that wiped out over 90% of species on Earth, the largest extinction event in history, which defines the beginning of the Triassic Period.
Great Permian Extinction (accept the Great Dying; accept the P-Tr extinction; prompt on P extinction; accept descriptions of the extinction between the Permian and Triassic periods and equivalents thereof
17) This planet's two wide gossamer rings are mainly composed of debris from Amalthea and Thebe. Some scientists have proposed this planet acts like an "asteroid sponge" after observations of Shoemaker-Levy 9's collision with this planet. Galileo names the four largest moons of this planet, including Ganymede and Io. For the point, name this gas giant with a Great Red Spot, the fifth planet from the Sun.
Jupiter
16) This mathematician names a constant defined as the limiting difference between the harmonic series and natural logarithm with Masceroni. This mathematician is often credited with discovering graph theory to solve the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem. This man discovered the number which serves as the base of the natural logarithm. For the point, name this Swiss mathematician from the 18th century who names the transcendental number e.
Leonhard Euler
(18) The citrate of this element can be used to prevent kidney stones and is used as a laxative to prepare for colonoscopies. Calcined dolomite can be used to purify this element. Grignard [[green-YARD]] reagents are characterized by containing this element. This element's sulfate is often used for anti-inflammatory soaks and is called epsom salt. In a flame test, this element emits bright white light. For the point, name this alkali earth metal with number 12.
Magnesium (accept Mg; accept Magnesium citrate)
(21) This element was first isolated by Hennig Brand, who boiled down gallons of his own urine. This element names a type of photoluminescence often contrasted with fluorescence. This element's allotropes include a tetrahedral white variety and an amorphous red variety. The primary ingredient in match heads, for the point, what is this element which is located below nitrogen on the periodic table, with atomic number 15 and symbol "P"?
Phosphorus (accept P before mentioned; accept White phosphorus or Tetraphosphorus; accept Red phosphorus)
(33) In a book whose title references his opposition to this concept, Paul Feyerabend [["fire"-AH-bend]] proposed the idea of epistemological anarchism. Karl Popper refuted verificationism by arguing that ideas examined with this concept can be falsified. The Novum Organum of Francis Bacon is often credited with formalizing this concept, which he referred to as "true induction." For the point, name this concept, which involves testing hypotheses with experiments.
Scientific method
30) This biome is home to bogs known as muskeg. This biome experiences unequal temperature distributions called thermokarst. Trees like the Douglas fir are adapted to this biome's high moisture levels. The tree line marks the end of this biome and the start of tundra. For the point, name this largest terrestrial biome known as boreal forest.
Taiga (accept boreal forest before it is read)
13. In this type of cell, apelin produces a positive feedback loop to increase insulin production. These cells are separated into three tissue types: WAT, MAT, and BAT. The large amount of mitochondria in one type of these cells give them a brown color and assist in thermogenesis. Enterocytes and these cells secrete leptin to help suppress the hunger response which regulates their size and storage. For the point, name these cells that specialize in storing lipid fat droplets.
adipocytes [accept adipose tissue; prompt on fat cells or fat tissues]
A primary component of antifreeze, ethylene glycol, is this type of compound "twice over," since it has two of this type these compounds' characteristic functional group. These compounds are characterized by a hydroxyl functional group, consisting of a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen bonded to the base hydrocarbon. One of these compounds is formed when yeast process sugar in fermentation. For the point, name this class of organic compounds that includes methanol, ethanol, and a "rubbing" type.
alcohol (accept diol; accept ethanol; accept rubbing alcohol
20. Shor and Grover name quantum types of these things. Edgar Dijkstra [[dike-stra]] names a greedy example of one of these things for a graph. Big O notation calculates the time and space requirements for these things. One named for Euclid calculates the greatest common factor of two integers. For the point, name these sets of computer instructions to do specific tasks like searching, which are implemented in computer programming.
algorithm [prompt on computer "program" or descriptions before mentioned]
21) The name for this sort of process is thought to be from an Anglicization of an Arab mathematician who invented a form of algebra. These processes typically have their asymptotic performance expressed using "big O" notation. Djikstra [DIKE-struh] names one of these instructions that finds the shortest path between two vertices of a graph. Quicksort is an example of one for sorting. For the point, name this set of cookie-cutter instructions given to a computer to solve a problem.
algorithms (al-Kwarizmi is the Arab mathematician) (
18) A supercooled element of this group was used to create the first Bose-Einstein condensate. The cation of one element of this group is found in the mineral halite. Hydrogen is usually not considered part of this group due to differing chemical properties. Rubidium and Francium are members of, for the point, what group on the far left of the periodic table?
alkali metals (accept group 1; do NOT accept or prompt on Alkali Earth Metals)
21) These three letters are paired with "op" for the abbreviated name of an "operational" circuit device. A cyclic molecule containing adenosine is commonly referred to by "c" and these three letters. These three letters begin the SI unit for current and name a device used by electric guitars. For the point, name these three letters that begin a word that measures the distance from peak to trough [troff] of a wave.
amps (accept spelling a-m-p; accept amplitude or Amperes or amplifiers; accept cyclic AMP)
30. Due to a higher relative amount of elastin fibers, this structure has the highest compliance, as accounted for in the Windkessel effect. The ventricular septal defect lies directly under this structure in a congenital condition affecting it known as "overriding," which is noted in the tetralogy of Fallot. The sinus of Valsalva is part of the namesake root of this structure, whose ascending portion branches off into the coronary arteries. For the point, name this largest blood vessel in the body that distributes oxygenated blood from the heart.
aorta
6) Due to properties of 4f orbitals, lanthanides exhibit contraction of this quantity. Bohr names a value of this quantity for ground-state hydrogen. Bond length is typically defined as the sum of two values of this quantity. Francium has the largest value for this quantity, and helium has the smallest value. For the point, name this distance from an atom's nucleus to its electrons.
atomic radius (accept radius at the end; prompt on "atomic distance")
18) A large prehistoric remnant of one of these events in the San Bernardino Mountains is named for Blackhawk Mountain. This form of mass wasting is divided into a starting zone, a track, and a run out zone. Earthquakes in Nepal can cause these events on Mount Everest. For the point, name these events, which pose a serious threat to mountain climbers, where snow and other debris hurtles down at high velocities.
avalanches (accept rock avalanche; accept landslide; prompt on "mass wasting" before read)
17) This substance emulsifies fat droplets when it is released into the duodenum of the small intestine from its namesake duct. This substance, which contains 0.2% bilirubin, is stored in the gallbladder. Bilirubin is partially responsible for the yellow-brown color of this digestive fluid. For the point, name this fluid produced by the liver that aids in the digestion of lipids.
bile (accept gall before gallbladder is read)
18. Detection of this property in quinine at 8 micromolars is used as a reference index when measuring the concentration at which a compound gains this property. Arthur L. Fox realized a minority of people who took phenylthiocarbamide couldn't detect this property. Today, people who react strongly to this property in "propylthiouracil" are referred to as supertasters. In the debunked "taste areas" of the tongue, this flavor was considered to be localized to the back of the tongue. This flavor is associated with compounds like caffeine which is why unsweetened dark chocolate primarily has this flavor. For the point, name this flavor of coffee and most dark greens.
bitterness
14) A structure consisting of four of these things was first synthesized in the compound chromium(II) acetate [chromium two ass-ih-tate]. The induction effect causes polarization by drawing charge through these things. When three of these things form a triangle, they bend; that "banana"-named variety of these things can be seen in cyclopropane. The sigma type of these is stronger than the pi type. For the point, name these things which come in covalent and ionic types, tying up electrons between atoms.
bonds (accept specific types like pi bond; sigma bond; banana bond; delta bond)
26. Britton and Robinson name a "universal" type of these substances, which can be created by combining solutions with slightly different pKa values. Norman Good famously developed twenty biologically-useful types of these substances. One of these substances works in the blood and uses both carbonic acid and bicarbonate. The Henderson-Hasselbach equation is used to determine ranges when these substances are most useful. For the point, name these substances that resist changes in pH.
buffer solutions
21) Francois Magendie first illustrated one form of this unit by running an experiment on a three-year-old dog. This unit of energy is equal to 4.184 Joules as it is defined using the specific heat of water. This unit is described as "empty" when providing little additional nutrition to the body. A gram of fat has a value of nine for this unit. Grams of protein and carbohydrates both have a value of four for this unit. For the point, name this unit used to count energy intake by food.
calories (accept empty calories)
31) The premise of these things as a fundamental unit was first proposed by Matthias Schleiden [muh-TIE-us shly-dun] and Theodor Schwann. The theory of miasma prevailed until the discovery of this fundamental unit. Spontaneous generation proposed these fundamental units could form from dead matter. Robert Hooke observed these units in cork and named these things after the rooms monks live in. For the point, name these fundamental building blocks of life.
cells (prompt on germs or microbes until "cork" with "what fundamental unit makes up germs?")
27) Cotton fibers are almost exclusively made of this molecule. This molecule is the necessary chemical to act as the stationary phase in thin layer chromatography. Humans cannot digest this polysaccharide, but with the help of gut bacteria, cows and termites can. For the point, identify this polysaccharide, the most common naturally occurring organic polymer on Earth, known for being the main component of the cell walls of terrestrial plants.
cellulose
15. This substance's "f" form is naturally made in some types of cyanobacteria. This substance includes both a phytol tail of hydrocarbons and a tetrapyrrole ring. Two "special pairs" that involve this substance are called P700 and P680. This substance, which passes on excited electrons to primary acceptors like pheophytin, is protected by carotenoids. Its porphyrin ring contains a magnesium atom. For the point, name this substance that is embedded in the thylakoid membrane, a green pigment found in plants.
chlorophyll
15. Dr. William Farr was the leading proponent of the "Miasma" theory of this disease, which claimed it was caused by decomposing matter being released into the air around a river. An outbreak of this disease was traced back to the Broad Street pump by John Snow; that 1854 outbreak occurred in the Soho district of London. Diarrhea and vomiting are symptoms of, for the point, what disease that can be caused by drinking contaminated water?
cholera
The lengths of line segments intersecting one of these shapes are related by the Power of a Point Theorem. The equation for these shapes is that the sum of the squares of the quantities "x minus h" and "y minus k" is equal to r squared. Trigonometric functions are defined using a unit example of this shape, which has a circumference of 2 pi. For the point, name these shapes in which the distance from each point to the center is equal to the radius.
circles
3) Argillaceous minerals are defined as containing this material whose minerals include chlorite and smectite. This material is on the bottom of the Wentworth scale as it is finer than all material including silt. Terracotta is made from refining this material. For the point, name this natural material that is often glazed and fired in a kiln in pottery making.
clay
1. This element was the largest concern for incorporation into fallout enhancing nuclear weapons known as "salted bombs." Catterite is structurally similar to pyrite but replaces iron with this element. This element's name comes from a German word which roughly translates to "mischievous goblin" since it either refused to smelt or would cause sickness by releasing arsenic fumes. The red-blood cell formation promoting Vitamin B12 uses this metal and gets its common name from it. This metal sits between the other two naturally ferromagnetic elements, iron and nickel. For the point, name this element with atomic number 27 and symbol Co.
cobalt [prompt on Co]
27) Astronaut Dan Burbank photographed one of these objects named Lovejoy. A famous example of one of these objects is also designated 1P and has an orbit of 75 years. An atmospheric effect gives these objects a coma, and they are sometimes accompanied with an icy tail. For the point, name these "cosmic snowballs" which include a famous one named for Halley [HAY-lee].
comets (accept Halley's comet)
12) A gas's value for this quantity is multiplied by total pressure to find the partial pressure of a gas according to Dalton's law. Colligative properties depend on this quantity, which can be found via a titration. For the point, name this quantity, often measured using molarity, which refers to how much solute is in an amount of solvent.
concentration
Walter Heitler co-wrote an article with Fritz London to create a mathematical model to predict this behavior. When one of these bonds forms between atoms of different elements, it is said to be the polar type. Particles experiencing this type of bond follow the octet rule. Sigma and pi bonds are types of, for the point, what bonds created by the overlapping of orbitals and sharing of electrons, usually contrasted with ionic bonding?
covalent bonds (prompt on (chemical) bonds before mentioned
27. This disease often occurs in conjunction with Aspergillus fungal infections. Measuring immunoreactive trypsinogen levels screens for this disease in babies. The Shwachman-Diamond syndrome is differentiated from this disease through normal result in a sweat test, which reports chloride ion levels. Most males affected by this disease are infertile due to a congenital absence of the vas deferens. For the point, name this genetic disorder where mucus accumulates in the pancreas and lungs.
cystic fibrosis or CF
1) An assumption of this theory is that differential fitness is heritable. The mechanism of this theory was independently discovered by Alfred Russel Wallace. Analogous structures are created in the convergent form of this process, and genetic variation is a prerequisite for this process to occur. For the point, name this theory about inherited changes in populations over time that was explained by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species.
evolution (accept natural selection)
These structures are supported by axonemes with microtubules in a nine-plus-two arrangement. Helicobacter pylori use these structures within mucus, and spermatazoa are equipped with one of these locomotive structures to traverse the reproductive tract. These structures may rotate like a screw or sway from side to side to accomplish their goal. For the point, name these whip-like appendages that allow single-celled organisms to move.
flagella (or flagellum
22) Some scientists originally hypothesized this class of planets could only form outside the frost line, a position disproved with the discovery of "hot" ones named after a planet in our Solar System. This class of planets is named for its abundance of hydrogen and helium, unlike a similar "ice giant" which have heavier elements. For the point, name this class of giants that includes Jupiter and Saturn named after their most abundant phase of matter.
gas giants (accept just gas after "giant" has been read; accept hot Jupiter until Jupiter is read; prompt on "giant"; do NOT accept or prompt on "Ice giant")
21) This molecule's blood levels are regulated by Insulin and glucagon. This molecule is chemically identical to dextrose. The disaccharide sucrose is made up of fructose and this other sugar molecule. This six-carbon sugar is the most common metabolic start point for cellular respiration. For the point, name this sugar broken down at the beginning of glycolysis.
glucose (prompt on "C6H12O6")
20) This adjective describes a rule about the transition states of a quantum system to a continuum named for Fermi. The Fibonacci numbers approach a ratio described by this adjective that can be expressed as the quantity one plus the square root of five all over 2. For the point, name this six letter adjective that describes objects that have been plated with an element with chemical symbol Au.
golden
31) Developing a fluorophore of this color won Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie, and Roger Y. Tsien the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. A porrin ring with a magnesium center is important to a molecule that gives off this pigmentation in sheet-like membranes embedded in stroma. A fluorescent protein from jellyfish A. Victoria shines this color as does chlorophyll. For the point, name this color of plant leaves.
green
15) This faculty is impacted in the birth defects atresia and microtia, which are commonly inherited together. This sense comes in conductive and sensorineural components. The basilar membrane divides this sense into its components by activating the Organ of Corti's appropriate hair cells. The electrical signals of this sense are transmitted by the cochlea. For this sense, the incus, malleus, and stapes provide amplification to vibrations picked up from the tympanic membrane. For the point, name this sense perceived by the ears.
hearing (or auditory perception; accept reasonable equivalents like listening)
31. As a means for taking measurements from this organ, Willem Einthoven invented a namesake Triangle that runs from the wrists to the left ankle. That breakthrough helped him win the 1924 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for a galvanometer instrument designed for this organ. The FrankStarling law describes how increase in volume leads to an increase in stroke volume from this organ. A namesake cycle of this organ can be measured from two consecutive R peaks, which makes up the largest spike on a QRS complex measured from this organ on an ECG. This organ cycles between filling diastolic phases and contracting systolic phases. For the point, name this organ that serves as a pump circulating blood throughout the body.
heart
17) The most common immortal cell line to study this species is known as HeLa. The existence of this species is the reasoning behind the anthropic principle. Impact from this species has led some geologists to suggest the Anthropocene epoch. Genomic evidence of skeletons has shown that this species interbred with Neanderthals. For the point, name this species scientifically referred to as Homo Sapiens.
humans (or Homo sapiens until mentioned, prompt afterwards; accept people or other synonyms; prompt on Henrietta Lacks)
27) This element is consumed in the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in stars. Interactions named for this element hold together DNA strands. Isotopes of this element include tritium and deuterium. Interactions between this element and elements like nitrogen and oxygen cause this element's namesake "bonds." pH stands for the "power of this element". For the point, name this lightest element with atomic number 1 and symbol H.
hydrogen (accept H before it is read)
22. This point is the location where a fault's strain energy is first released. One can calculate the location of this point using a series of equations based on observations made at monitoring stations, taking into account the velocity changes through different mediums of the P and S waves underground. This point is located directly underneath the epicenter of an earthquake. For the point, name this place under the Earth's surface where an earthquake begins, sometimes also called the focus.
hypocenter [accept focus before mentioned]
25) One statement of this kind was put forth by Georg Cantor and is named after the continuum. Type I and type II errors occur due to accidentally accepting or rejecting the "null" version of this type of statement. Riemann names a statement of this kind about his namesake Zeta function. For the point, name this proposition a scientist makes, which might be testable by experiment.
hypothesis (or hypotheses; accept null hypothesis; accept continuum hypothesis; accept Riemann hypothesis)
19) Four members of the Orthomyxoviridae family causes this disease. The hemagglutinin [heme-ah-glut-uh-nin] and neuraminidase [nur-ah-am-in-uh-dase] antigens on the surface of the virus that causes this disease undergo rapid mutation making vaccination difficult. Subtypes of this disease include H2N3 and H1N1. Spain named a major outbreak of this disease in 1918. For the point, name this viral disease which shares many symptoms with the common cold.
inFLUenza (accept swine flu or bird flu)
Compounds containing these bonds are typically referred to by their empirical formulas, and have lattice energies. These bonds tend to form between atoms with large differences in electronegativity. These bonds are stronger than bonds with polar character. Compounds formed by these bonds tend to be solid at room temperature, dissociate in water, and serve as electrolytes. For the point, name this kind of bond formed by the attraction between positively and negatively charged atoms, which is stronger than a covalent bond.
ionic bonds
32. Roger Apery proved the sum of 1 over n cubed from 1 to infinity has this property, equivalent to the Riemann Zeta function of 3. Thomae's function is continuous for this type of number which it outputs zero for. The continued fraction representation of these numbers are non-terminating. Legendarily, Hippasus was drowned for telling followers of Pythagoras that a number of this type existed. This type of number cannot be represented as a fraction with an integer in both the numerator and denominator. For the point, name this subset of the real numbers whose decimal form is non-terminating, such as pi and radical 2.
irrational
The only subspecies of these animals that can't undergo embryonic diapause, a delaying of pregnancy, is the "musky rat" type. The largest species of these mammals is its "red" type, which has a particularly elastic Achilles tendon. These animals belong to the Macropod family alongside wallabies. The females of this marsupial species raise joeys in their pouch. The Tasmanian forester is an example of, for the point, what hopping mammals found in Australia?
kangaroos (accept musky rat-kangaroos; accept red kangaroos; prompt on marsupials before mentioned
6) In this organ, vasopressin can stimulate reabsorption of water from collecting ducts. Fluid that enters this organ diffuses from the glomerulus to a surrounding Bowman's capsule. Ions are absorbed by this organ's Loops of Henle, which are found in thousands of functional units called nephrons. The ureters connect these organs to the bladder. For the point, identify these bean-shaped organs that filter blood to produce urine.
kidneys
This organ, which is the main site of Wilm's tumors, is the secondary organ of gluconeogenesis. A measure of this organ's performance is the glomerular filtration rate. Vasopressin, also known as ADH, causes this organ to retain more water. The individual functional unit of these organs is called the nephron. A hemodialysis machine is used to treat patients with disorders of this organ. For the point, name this pair of excretory organs that pass urine to the bladder and are shaped like beans.
kidneys
1) This molecule's metabolism was the focus of Jacques Monod and Francois Jacob's study of its namesake operon. This sugar molecule has a beta 1,4 glycosidic bond between glucose and a similarly named sugar, which is broken down by a namesake enzyme maintained by many people of Scandinavian descent. For the point, name this sugar molecule, found in milk, that a majority of people are "intolerant" to.
lactose (do not accept or prompt on "galactose")
12) Optical tweezers work by using these devices to exert radiation pressure on atoms. Q-switching and modelocking are ways to produce pulses on the order of femtoseconds with these devices. These devices work by inducing population inversion to create a stream of stimulated emission. For the point, name these devices that produce a concentrated beam of light.
lasers (or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
24) Just below the upper surface of this structure is the palisade layer, which typically lies above the spongy layer. A waxy cuticle minimizes water loss from this structure. This structure contains tiny holes for gas exchange called stomata. This plant organ is specialized for photosynthesis and contains chlorophyll, which makes it green. For the point, name this plant structure that changes color and falls off trees in autumn.
leaf (accept leaves or leafage; accept foliage)
Dividing Planck's constant by this quantity for a particle gives the de Broglie wavelength. If this quantity for a particle is exactly known, its position can not be known, according to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The change in this quantity is symbolized J and is known as impulse. For the point, name this quantity, found for an object by multiplying mass and velocity, that is conserved in all collisions.
linear momentum
31) This is the first word in the name of a crystal-like material that exists in either smectic or nematic phases. These substances exhibit capillary action, and this phase is bypassed by substances that undergo deposition and sublimation. Nitrogen turns from a gas to this phase at negative 196 degrees Celsius. For the point, name this state of matter formed when substances melt.
liquid (accept liquid crystals)
13) This element was central to the work done by the winners of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This element's salt is commonly used as a treatment for bipolar disorder. This is the lightest element that has core electrons. Ions of this element name a class of rechargeable batteries used in electronics. For the point, name this lightest alkali metal with atomic number three and chemical symbol Li.
lithium (prompt on Li before mentioned)
The gluconeogenesis phase of the Cori cycle takes place in this organ. Along with muscles, the body's supply of glycogen is found in this organ, which sits above the gallbladder. One type of damage of this bile-producing organ is known as cirrhosis, which can be caused by excess alcohol consumption or infection with hepatitis. For the point, name this large human organ found near the stomach in the upper abdomen.
liver
21) Lofti Zadeh introduced the "fuzzy" form of this discipline where variables can take on "degrees of truth." The Boolean form of this discipline uses 0s and 1s alongside operations like AND, OR, and XOR ["X" or]. This five-letter science was grounded by Aristotle in syllogisms such as "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal." For the point, name this five-letter science of reasoning and deduction.
logic (accept Boolean logic; accept fuzzy logic; accept fuzzy set theory; prompt on "set theory")
13. In one branch of this field, a hyperplane is placed with the maximum separation between support vectors. Neural networks exemplify the "deep" variant of this field. The two major categories in this field are supervised and unsupervised. Image classification and spam filtering are two tasks involving decision making in this field. For the point, name this new field of computer science where computers, on their own, improve on performing tasks.
machine learning [prompt on "deep learning", "reinforcement learning", "decision making", "classification", "regression"]
23) Ronald Ross's work identified the vector for this disease which Nobel laureate Tu Youyou discovered can be treated with artemisinin. This disease is caused by members of the plasmodium family. Those heterozygous for sickle cell anemia are resistance to this disease. For the point, name this mosquito-borne disease whose name comes from Italian for "bad air."
malaria
30) This quantity is generated for quarks and leptons by the Higgs-Boson. Gravity is an interaction between objects which possess this quantity. The gravitational potential energy stored for an object can be calculated by multiplying the object's height, the gravitational field constant, and this quantity. For the point, identify this quantity, equal to the amount of matter in an object, which is often measured in units of grams or kilograms.
mass
6) These constructs can be reduced to row-echelon form in a process named for Gauss and Jordan. The characteristic polynomial of these constructs can be solved to find their eigenvalues. The identity of these constructs has ones along the diagonal and zeros everywhere else. Cramer's rule can be used to find their determinant. For the point, name these constructs that arrange numbers into rows and columns.
matrix (accept matrices; prompt on arrays)
A member of this phylum was used by Hodgkin and Huxley to come up with the formula for action potential. Odontophores and radulae are feeding organs unique to this phylum, which includes the purple dye-producing murex and the extinct ammonite. This phylum contains the gastropods and cephalopods, the latter of which are able to produce ink. For the point, name this animal phylum that includes mussels, squids, and snails.
mollusca (or molluscs
A step in this cycle breaks a triple bond and is performed by rhizobia at nodules. An inflow in this cycle was drastically increased after the invention of the Haber-Bosch process. That process produces ammonia for use in explosives and, more crucially, fertilizer that directly affects this cycle. For the point, name this cyclical process in which an element is converted between molecular forms usable by plants and a diatomic gas that makes up the majority of the Earth's atmosphere.
nitrogen cycle
A shortcut in writing electron configurations puts the symbols of these elements in brackets. Alpha particles are identical to an atom of one of these elements. An 1898 experiment performed by William Ramsay discovered three of these elements in a filtered sample of dry air, once the nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide was gone. For the point, name this group of elements that includes argon, neon, and helium on the far right of the periodic table.
noble gases (or inert gases; accept Group 18 of the periodic table
Two "emergency planning zones" are found at each American location of this type. Iodine was released into the air after one of these on Three Mile Island experienced a meltdown. The Tohoku earthquake caused a level 7 event at one of these facilities in Fukushima. Fission is used to generate electricity in reactors in, for the point, what type of power plant that runs on subatomic interactions?
nuclear power plants (accept clear-knowledge equivalents that have nuclear
9. A gradient caused by this process is reversed by the hormone ADH. This process causes the swelling of a plant's central vacuole creating turgidity. In general, this process stabilizes solute concentrations, which can result in a cell becoming hyper- or hypotonic. Pressure is used to "reverse" this process in a desalination method. Water moves through a semipermeable membrane during, for the point, what diffusive process?
osmosis [or osmotic flow; prompt on water flow; prompt on water balance; prompt on diffusion]
12) In dynamic systems theory, a space described by this word represents the possible states a system can enter. Pressure changes the temperature required for transitions between these states as described by the Clausius-Clapeyron [clow see us clap uh ron] equation. Sublimation and deposition are transitions between two of these states. For the point, name these states such as solid, liquid, and gas.
phases (accept phase space)
30) Hennig Brand discovered this element while attempting to turn his urine into gold. Match factory workers developed jaw deformation due to prolonged exposure to this element's white allotrope. This element names a form of radiation that is not immediately re-emitted, contrasted with fluorescence. For the point, name this element with atomic number 15 and atomic symbol P.
phosphorus (accept white phosphorus; prompt on P until mentioned)
18. Polyamides are the basis for a wearable form of this material developed by Wallace Carothers. In the United States, the type of this material can be identified by a resin identification number between one and seven. Leo Baekeland coined the term for this material and invented the first fully synthetic example of one, bakelite. Because it is likely an endocrine disruptor, the use of BPA as an additive to this material has been called into question. Examples of this material include polypropylene and polystyrene. For the point, name these highly malleable synthetic polymers which make up water bottles and milk jugs.
plastics [prompt on polymers]
3) Carmichael numbers don't have this property but satisfy Fermat's test for it. Eratosthenes names a sieve to find numbers with this property. The "twin" variety of these numbers differ by two. The factorization of natural numbers into these kind of numbers is guaranteed by the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. For the point, name this kind of number that has exactly two divisors, itself and one.
prime numbers (or primes; accept twin primes or prime factorization)
32) Preserved footprints found on a namesake "beach" in France first showed these organisms could walk on land. On average, their fourth finger was ten times longer than the other digits. Quetzalcoatlus, the largest of these organisms, had a wingspan over forty feet, and they were the first vertebrates to evolve flight. For the point, name this group of flying reptiles that lived alongside the dinosaurs.
pterosaurs (accept pterodactyls)
25) Intense pressure, such as meteor impacts, can generate a "shocked" form of this mineral. This mineral is found at the base of the Goldich dissolution series and Bowen's reaction series. This mineral's piezoelectric properties make it important in clocks. Amethyst is a purple variety of this mineral. For the point, name this mineral with a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale, a silicate with overall formula SiO2.
quartz
A star of this color was revealed to have 7 extrasolar planets in a February 2017 NASA announcement. Exoplanet hosts Gilese 581 and TRAPPIST-1 are stars of this color, which is also the color of the 4th closest star to the Sun, Barnard's Star. This is the color of stars that are predicted to have the longest lifespan. The smallest main sequence stars are dwarfs of this color, which includes the nearby Proxima Centauri. For the point, name this color that gives Mars its nickname.
red
16. If an experiment has this property, repeated measurements of some measurand under identical conditions yields measurements that closely agree. Psychological experiments often fail to have this property, likely because further trials of the same psychological experiment cannot often be assumed to be parallel on the same subjects. For the point, name this property of an experiment where performing the experiment again achieves similar results.
reproducibility [accept word forms like reproducible or reproduction; accept repeatability and word forms like repeatable; accept verifiable or word forms like verifiability]
17) An isthmus made of this material is called a tombolo. Ergs are broad flat lands of this material that form into hill-like mounds which can be crescent or star-shaped. This material is finer than gravel but coarser than silt and can be heated to form glass. Wind forms this material into dunes. For the point, name this material found in the desert and on beaches.
sand (accept sand dunes; prompt on dunes)
19) Denial of the loss of this sense is known as Anton-Babinski syndrome. Arthropods use ommatidia for this sense. This sense is controlled by the second cranial nerve and can deteriorate due to macular degeneration. It is facilitated by rod and cone cells and can go cloudy for people with cataracts. For the point, name this sense processed by the retina in the back of the eye.
sight (accept synonyms and word forms)
26) A molecule with this many carbon atoms has 1,3 diaxial strain from its flagpole hydrogens that makes it less stable in its boat conformation than in its chair conformation. This many atoms surround the central atom in pentagonal pyramidal and octahedral geometry. This many total electrons are shared in the bonds of an alkyne [rhymes with fine]. Glucose contains this many carbons. This is the number of valence electrons in a single atom of oxygen. For the point, how many carbons are in cyclohexane?
six
15) This organ's Merkel cells are a type of oval-shaped mechanoreceptor. Keratinocytes are an important component of this organ. This largest organ of the body is the first line of defense of the immune system and is the main synthesis site of vitamin D due to a reaction with sunlight. For the point, name this organ made up of the dermis, that covers the human body.
skin
28) In the technique developed by Yamanaka, these cells can be induced using a cocktail of Sox2, Oct-4, and Nanog. Plants produce these cells in the apical meristem. In humans these cells are found in the umbilical cord and bone marrow, and they can be totipotent or pluripotent. For the point, name these cells that can differentiate into specialized cells that come in adult and embryonic types.
stem cells
Io's atmosphere is dominated by this element's dioxide gas. This element is added to a two-carbon chain to form ethanethiol [eth-ane-thigh-ol]. This element is bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a common odorizer for household natural gas; that explosive odorizer is responsible for the distinctive smell of rotten eggs. For the point, name this 16-proton nonmetal element with a yellow solid form whose atomic symbol is S.
sulfur (or S before mentioned
3) At the interior of many of these structures is a craton, while the edges consist of terranes that are more easily transferred between these structures. As one of these named Farallon has largely disappeared, its remnants include a smaller one of these named Juan de Fuca. The East African Rift lies at a boundary between these two places which is diverging, unlike the subduction occurring at the Andes. For the point, name these mobile sections of the lithosphere whose movements cause earthquakes and volcanic activity.
tectonic plates (prompt on plates; prompt on continents)
14) VLBI and aperture synthesis are techniques which simulate larger versions of these devices. The Newtonian version of these devices was the first to include a secondary mirror perpendicular to the objective. Chester Moore Hall was the first to use an achromatic lens in one of these devices, helping to correct for the lack of sharpness in previous versions. For the point, name these optical devices built to see distant objects, such as the Hubble and Webb ones in space.
telescopes (accept radio telescopes until "Newtonian")
13) On the Koppen climate classification, this climate is classified as BWh and BWk. The cold varities of these climates typically occur in the rain shadow of high mountains. This climate occupies about one-third of global land surface and is characterized by great aridity. For the point, name this hot, dry climate that receives little rainfall and is typically known for having vast amounts of sand.
the desert
28) When too much pressure is created by the aqueous humor found inside this organ, it can lead to glaucoma. When this organ's shape becomes over-elongated, a person may be diagnosed with myopia. A stage of sleep is named for the rapid movement of this body part. This structure's lens focuses light on the fovea which activates rods and cones in the retina. Parts of this structure include the iris and pupil. For the point, name this part of the body that is responsible for vision.
the eyes
20) This object's Reiner Gamma exemplifies its namesake swirls. Studies of this object by George Darwin led him to propose the Giant-impact hypothesis of its formation. Hot lava regions that cooled into flat dark spots created the mares on this object, such as the Sea of Tranquility. This object has waxing and waning gibbous phases. For the point, name this object which orbits the Earth in approximately 27 days.
the moon (or luna) (
The thermal form of this quantity is inversely proportional to the product of cross-sectional area and thermal conductivity in Fourier's law. The inverse of this quantity is measured in siemens and is known as conductance. This quantity is multiplied by current to give voltage, according to a law that shares its name with this quantity's unit. For the point, name this measure of the difficulty of passing current through a system, symbolized R and measured in Ohms.
thermal and/or electrical resistance (prompt on "R" before read
14) This process comes in "acid-base" and "redox" varieties. For poly-protic acids, the curve plotted from this process will have multiple inflection points. Phenolphthalein [fee-nahl-fay-leen] can be used as an indicator in this process. Burettes with stop cocks to control the flow into the flask are typically used in this process. For the point, name this process of slowly adding a titrant to a solution of unknown concentration.
titration
These phenomena are measured in Britain on a 0-to-11 scale that purely judges wind speed, in contrast with a common American scale that classifies these events based on their damage. That American scale runs from 0-to-5 and was "enhanced" in 2007. The Fujita scales measure the intensity of, for the point, what dangerous, swirling columns of air that commonly spawn from thunderstorms in an "Alley" in the Great Plains?
tornado
25) When these events form over a body of water they are known as "waterspouts," and the first visible stage of their formation is the presence of a mesocyclone. The intensity of these events is measured by the enhanced Fujita scale. Nebraska and Kansas are in the heart of these events' namesake "alley." For the point, name these columns of intensely spinning wind.
tornadoes (accept twister; prompt on cyclone; prompt on whirlwind; prompt on vortex)
A relation is an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and has this property. Bradley Efron invented a set of dice that lack this property, which is also lacked by the ruleset for Rock, Paper, Scissors, because two rules for dominance do not imply a third rule. The "less than" and "greater than" relations have this property. For the point, name this property that describes how a is related to c if it is known that a is less than b and b is less than c.
transitive property
A recent study counting beetles in this biome used helium balloons to dislodge them from their habitat and estimated 25,000 species in San Lorenzo. In this biome, liana vines form bridges for sloths to slowly move within the canopy. Over 25 percent of global oxygen turnover derives from these locations. Logging threatens, for the point, what highly diverse biome in regions like South America's Amazon, named for its high level of precipitation?
tropical rainforests (prompt on (tropical) forests)
5) Alkenes are characterized by having a carbon with this many bonds to another carbon. Pi bonds are formed between atoms with at least this many bonds. A molecule of nitrogen gas contains this many nitrogen atoms, and table salt contains this many unique elements. Helium has this atomic number. A molecule of water contains, for the point, how many hydrogen atoms?
two
Steam causes the weak "phreatic" type of these events, though those may be precursors to the stronger Plinian type, in which the stratosphere is pierced. These events cause the ejection of tephra, which can be classified by size into lapilli, bombs, or ash. Pyroclastic flows from these events are particularly deadly. For the point, name these often-disastrous events in which lava is often expelled from an active volcano.
volcanic eruption
(25) Practitioners of this field who reject scientific induction in favor of vitalist dogma are called "straights," as contrasted with "mixers." This field was founded and developed by the father-son pair D.D. and B.J. Palmer. This field was founded on pseudo-scientific claims of the existence of lesions not visible on X-rays, termed vertebral subluxations [[sub-luk-SAY-shuns]]. For the point, name this field of alternative medicine based around performing spinal "alignments."
Chiropractic (accept word forms like Chiropractor)
30. The MEP pathway synthesizes this hormone's precursors, such as xanthonin. This hormone prevents a-amylase synthesis and in doing so, counteracts the effects of gibberellins, which promote germination. Levels of this hormone are elevated during droughts because this hormone induces stomatal closure. Like auxin, this inhibitory hormone plays a role in root elongation. For the point, name this plant hormone responsible for seed dormancy and that despite its name, does not directly cause leaves to fall off.
abscisic acid (or ABA)
(11) Modern measurements of this value use X-ray diffraction to quantify unit cell volumes in a silicon crystal lattice. Faraday's constant equals the charge of an electron times this quantity, which is also multiplied by Boltzmann's constant to give the ideal gas constant. This constant equals the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, which is approximately 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd power. For the point, name this constant that defines the number of particles in a mole, named for an Italian scientist.
Avogadro's number (or Avogadro's constant)
21) Organisms in the root nodules of legumes break down the strong triple bond holding this molecule together. This compound is broken down using an iron catalyst in the Haber process, which produces two molecules of ammonia. For the point, name this gas "fixed" by some plants, the most abundant in the atmosphere.
Dinitrogen gas (accept N2)
(25) The time to fixation of an allele [[uh-LEEL]] experiencing only this phenomenon is four times the population size according to the Wright-Fisher model. Motoo [[moh-TOH-oh]] Kimura's neutral theory attributes most molecular evolution to (+) this phenomenon, whose effects are corrected for by assuming an infinite population size under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Due to the founder effect, a population undergoing a (*) bottleneck is especially sensitive to this phenomenon. For the point, name this change in allele frequencies due to random sampling.
Genetic Drift (accept Allelic drift; accept Sewall-Wright effect)
6) Nathaniel Hodges recounts being one of the only physicians to stay in this city during a 17th-century plague in Loimologia. Henry Whitehead assisted John Snow in mapping the outbreak of cholera to a contaminated pump on Broad Street in this city. The royal court of Charles II fled this city for Oxford during this city's "Great Plague." For the point, name this English capital, home of the Royal Observatory.
London
(6) The total momentum of these particles is conserved in Umklapp scattering. In non-condensate matter, second sound phenomena occur due to vibrations in these particles. Electron interactions with these particles produce Cooper pairs in (+) superconductors according to BCS theory. The contribution of these particles to a solid's specific heat is estimated with the (*) Debye [[deh-"BY"]] model. For the point, name these quasiparticles representing lattice vibration.
Phonons
3. This language has database manipulation packages like pandas and an integrated development environment IDLE for writing source code. This duck-typed language was used to write the web building framework Django. This interpreter language, which is now on version 3.7, still provides some backwards compatibility for version 2.7 which was sunsetted in 2020. This language was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991 and provides ample readability by requiring tabs to delimit bodies. For the point, name this programming language named for a comedy sketch crew and not after a snake.
Python
5. This function evaluated at three equals Apery's constant. This function of x equals the infinite product over each prime number p of one minus one over p to the power x. Euler solved the Basel problem by showing that this function evaluated at two gives pi squared over six. This function of s can be defined as the infinite sum over n using terms of the form 1 over n to the s. This function evaluated at negative even integers returns its "trivial zeros." Nontrivial zeros of this function lie on the critical strip. For the point, name this function, the subject of Riemann's hypothesis.
Riemann zeta function [prompt on zeta function before "Riemann," accept afterwards]
14) One type of this rock is classified based on the size of its gravel clasts and is called conglomerate. These rocks are often deposited in layers called strata. Examples of this rock type include limestone and sandstone. For the point, name this type of rock formed from accumulation of settled particles, contrasted with metamorphic and igneous.
Sedimentary rock
(28) The production of this molecule in plant seeds is the primary mechanism for removing ammonia. This molecule's receptors are activated by a class of hallucinogenic drugs that includes psilocin [["SIGH"-loh-sin]] and LSD. When prepared for gastrointestinal use, this molecule is synthesized and secreted by enterochromaffin [[en-teh-roh-KROH-mah-fin]] cells, which synthesize it from tryptophan [[TRIP-toh-fan]]. Lexapro, Zoloft, and Prozac are name brand examples of this neurotransmitter's selective re-uptake inhibitors. For the point, name this appetite and mood-regulating neurotransmitter.
Serotonin [[seh-roh-TOH-nin]] (accept 5-hydroxytryptamine; or 5-HT)
(10) An autoimmune disease impacting this organ is the most common cause of pernicious anemia. This organ's intrinsic factor is required to absorb vitamin B12. Infections with H. pylori bacteria and misuse of NSAID [[EN-sed]] painkillers are the most common causes of ulcers in this organ. This organ releases chyme [[KIME]] into the duodenum [[doo-AH-deh-num]] of the small intestine. For the point, name this organ that digests food with its namesake acid.
Stomach (accept Stomach acid)
(21) Enzyme inhibitors that mimic these configurations include the antiviral drug Tamiflu. The structures of these entities resemble intermediates of similar energy according to Hammond's postulate. These entities are symbolized by a "double (+) dagger" symbol and represent saddle points on a potential energy surface. The activation energy is the difference between the reactants and (*) this state on a reaction coordinate. For the point, name these temporary states of high potential energy along a reaction's path.
Transition States (accept Activated Complexes; prompt on "intermediate")
(27) At the time of its launch, the Unity Engine was exclusively used for making these programs on macOS [[MAK-O-S]]. BlueMaxima's Flashpoint is a project dedicated to saving these programs made on Adobe Flash. One of the most popular frameworks for making 3D types of these programs is the Unreal Engine owned by Epic. For the point, name these computer entertainment programs, early examples of which include Pong and Pac-Man.
Video Games (accept Computer Games; prompt on "Game(s)")
16) Dactyl is a sattelite of one of these bodies named 243 Ida. They make up the Jovian Trojans, which orbit in Jupiter's Lagrange points. Gaps where these objects are not found are named after Kirkwood. One of the largest of these bodies is called Vesta which is found in a region between Mars and Jupiter. For the point, name these astronomical bodies that make up a namesake "belt" in the solar system.
asteroids
29) Electrolysis of water forms oxygen gas and this element's gas, and a type of bond named for this element causes compounds to have a higher boiling point because of intermolecular forces. One of its isotopes is deuterium, and this element's ion is equivalent to a proton. For the point, name this first and lightest element on the periodic table with symbol H.
hydrogen (accept H before it is read)
31) This device was made possible with the invention of cavity magnetrons and was first marketed as the Radarange. According to legend, Percy Spencer invented this device after realizing the magnetron had melted a candy bar in his pocket and was able to later use it to pop popcorn. For the point, name this type of electric oven that uses the namesake form of radiation to heat up food.
microwave oven (accept microwaves; prompt on "oven")
1) When this phenomenon is present at different frequencies, the difference is detected as a beat. Because this phenomenon cannot travel in a vacuum, it is absent in outer space. Mach 1 is the speed of this phenomenon, a longitudinal wave whose strength is measured in decibels. For the point, name this phenomenon that causes sonic booms.
sound
13) A section of this surface known as the Endeavor Ridge is home to 150 feet tall black smokers named Mothra and Godzilla. The measurement "mbsf" refers to "meters below" this location. This general surface is where Benthivores feed and it is home to the creation of new crust due to its namesake spreading. For the point, name this surface whose largest trench is named Mariana and is where groundfish live.
Earth's seabed (accept indications of ocean floor or sea floor)
This statement resulted from Ken Ribet's proving of the epsilon conjecture, combined with work on the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture. This concept is named for a man who claimed he understood it, but simply couldn't fit his proof in the margin of his textbook; this theorem was finally proven centuries later by Sir Andrew Wiles. For the point, name this theorem, which states that changing the exponent in the Pythagorean Theorem from 2 to any larger integer would not work for positive integer bases.
Fermat's Last Theorem (prompt on "Fermat's Theorem"
4) This equation can be used to plot a Pourbaix [por-bay] diagram. In biology when modelling a cell membrane, the Goldman equation replaces this equation to take into account multiple ions. This equation features the term: negative R, T over z, F times the natural log of Q, where Q is the reaction quotient, F is the Faraday constant, and z is the number of electrons transferred in the cell reaction. A galvanic cell's reduction potential is given by, for the point, what electrochemical equation named for a German chemist?
Nernst equation
6) Black Mamba venom is known to contain dendrotoxins which interact with the potassium channels of these cells. A famous autoimmune disease associated with these cells results from damage to their myelin sheath lining. These cells have inspired namesake networks that are now commonly implemented in machine learning and artificial intelligence. For the point, name these electrically excitable cells composed of a cell body and an axon, which make up the nervous system.
Neurons (accept nerve cell; accept neurone)
16. An "arrowhead curve" that can be drawn through this shape will take the form of this shape with sufficiently many iterations. Coloring Pascal's triangle on an even/odd split will generate this image, whose area approaches zero as it is progressively drawn. Successively removing the central quarters of an original shape will create, for the point, what fractal named for a Polish mathematician that takes the form of an equilateral triangle with infinitely many holes?
Sierpinski triangle (or Sierpinski sieve or Sierpinski gasket; prompt on "Sierpinski fractal")
(1) The impulse type of these devices cause changed velocities of the substances pushed through them. The ratio of input energy to outputs in these devices is the blade efficiency. One type of these devices named for James Francis are commonly used in hydroelectric dams. Examples of these devices mounted on tall poles are used to generate electricity from wind. For the point, name these devices that convert energy from the motion of fluids such as water or steam.
Turbine (accept Impulse turbine; accept Francis turbine; accept Wind turbine; accept Turbine generator; do not accept or prompt on "generator")
to make tyrosine. Pictures of patients with this condition may show higher degrees of red eye. Plants that exhibit this condition may lack chlorophyll, while humans with this condition cannot express melanin content and are more sensitive to UV rays. For the point, name this condition that causes a lack of pigment in hair and skin.
albinism (accept achromia, achromastia, acchromatosis; accept word forms like albino
17) A mixture of 96% of one of this type of compound and 4% water is notable because it cannot be distilled. This class of compounds is characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl group. The ethyl variety of this class of compounds is used as an additive in fuel and serves as the active ingredient in many hand sanitizers. For the point, name this class of compounds whose "drinking" variety is ethanol.
alcohols (prompt on "hydroxyl" before mentioned)
1) A severe reaction to this condition is known as anaphylaxis and can be treated with an epinephrine injection. This condition is caused by increased histamine levels which can lead to hives, runny nose, and in severe cases, an inability to breathe. For the point, name this condition triggered by the immune system's response to a foreign substance - such as peanuts, dust, or pollen.
allergies (or allergy; accept specific types)
21) These objects are classified as C-type, S-type or M-type based on their spectral lines, and their astronomical symbol is a generic numbered disc. Large examples of these objects include Pallas and Vesta. These objects get their name from the Greek for "star-like." For the point, name these rocks that make up a namesake belt between Mars and Jupiter.
asteroids (accept asteroid belt)
Albert Ladenburg discovered an isomer of this compound with a triangular shape named prismane. A hydroxylated form of this compound called phenol is produced from petroleum and is a known carcinogen. August Kekul´e's dream of a snake chasing its own tail is thought to have led to this discovery of this aromatic compound's shape. For the point, name this cyclic compound with chemical formula C6H6.
benzene (prompt on C6H6 before mentioned
11. Lewis acids are responsible for the dative type of this interaction. The inductive effect occurs through these interactions. The bent variety of these interactions cause high ring strain, occur in molecules like cyclopropane, and are alternatively named for resembling bananas. These types of structures form when electrons are shared between two atoms or when one atom rips the electron off another. For the point, name this structure formed between two atoms which include covalent and ionic variants.
bonds [accept covalent bonds; accept double bonds]
26) This molecule is extracted from plants by using supercritical carbon dioxide. It's not adenine or guanine, but this purine has the scientific name 1,3,7-Tri-methyl-xanthine. Adenosine receptors in the brain recognize this molecule which gives this molecule its central nervous stimulating property. For the point, name this molecule found in chocolate, tea, and coffee.
caffeine
32) 60 atoms of this element make up the soccer ball-shaped buckyballs. Because this element can make up to four bonds, it can form a variety of complex structures. When this element is subjected to high pressures it can form diamonds. For the point, name this element with symbol C, the basis of life.
carbon (accept C before it is read)
3) In many desert species, the CAM pathway assimilates this compound at night. The most abundant enzyme on Earth, rubisco, binds to this compound in the first step of the Calvin cycle. Stomata open to let this gas enter leaves, while its storage by ancient plants is reversed when coal is burned. For the point, name this three-atom gas taken in by plants during photosynthesis that is converted to the sugar glucose.
carbon dioxide (accept CO2)
Ethanol is produced along with this gas in the fermentation of glucose. John Haldane described how blood that is low in oxygen has an increased capacity to carry this compound. The blood maintains its pH level with a buffer system that balances this gas, carbonic acid, and bicarbonate. Heavy exposure to this triatomic compound can cause drowsiness, though not as dangerously as a diatomic relative. For the point, name this gas that is exhaled by humans and whose chemical formula is CO2.
carbon dioxide (or CO2 before it is read
27) This molecule reacts with Nickel in the Mond process. This molecule is mixed with hydrogen gas to form synthetic gas. Concentrations of this molecule in the body can severely limit oxygen transport by binding tightly to hemoglobin. This diatomic molecule contains a triple bond between elements with atomic number 6 and 8 on the periodic table. For the point, name this toxic molecule with chemical formula CO.
carbon monoxide (accept CO before it is read)
The growth of this structure in bacteria is inhibited by beta-lactam antibiotics. The presence of peptidoglycan in this structure distinguishes Gram-positive from Gram-negative bacteria. In fungi, this structure is made out of chitin, while in plants, this structure contains pectin and cellulose. Animal cells do not have, for the point, what structure surrounding the cell membrane, a hard protective outer layer of some cells?
cell wall
8) A "Blue Norther" is one of these phenomena, common in places like Texas, caused by the lack of a boundary that could stop the incursion of polar air. These fronts are the fastest-moving, and they become occluded if they catch up to another type of front. These fronts form where warmer air is lifted by the incursion of denser air, which can cause rain or storms if the lifted air is moist enough. For the point, name this type of weather front often symbolized by a line of blue triangles.
cold fronts (prompt on "fronts" until mentioned)
10) Two charged particles undergoing this sort of event can cause a form of radiation called bremsstrahlung. Kinetic energy isn't conserved in inelastic examples of this event between two carts. Momentum is conserved for the two cart system under both elastic and inelastic examples of this event. For the point, name this event where two objects come in contact and exchange force.
collisions (or colliding)
15) Ada Lovelace is credited with the first one of these instructions for calculating Bernoulli numbers. The Halting problem proves it is impossible for one to determine whether one of these sets of instructions will always halt. They typically use for loops and if statements. For the point, give this term for instructions used to execute computer computations.
computer algorithm (accept computer program; accept computer code)
17) The Frasch process is used to produce an allotrope with this many sulfur atoms, known as a "puckered ring." There are this many hydrogen atoms in propane. With the exception of helium, noble gases usually have this many valence electrons. For the point, identify the number of carbons in octane.
eight
3. The symbol representing this operation appears next to the right side vector in a material derivative. Lagrangian multipliers are derived by setting this operation on a function equal to lambda times this operator on a constraint function. The nabla symbol is used to define this operation which when squared represents the Laplacian. Divergence is a dot product of a vector with this operator while the curl is the cross product of a vector with this operator. For the point, name this mathematical operator which encodes the partial derivatives with respect to each dimension at a point and is symbolized by Del, an upside down triangle.
gradient operator (or vector field) [accept gradient descent; prompt on Del; prompt on Nabla]
20) Dijkstra's algorithm is used on weighted examples of these objects. If one of these mathematical objects has no cycles of odd length, it is called bipartite and can be colored with two colors. If a connected one of these objects has no cycles it is called a tree. For the point, name these objects made up of vertices connected by edges.
graphs
22) This thing is accidentally rejected in a type I error, while accidentally accepted in a type II error. In statistical testing, one of these statements is "alternative" to the "null" one. The scientific method requires that this statement be testable. For the point, name this conjecture weaker than a theory that proposes a possible explanation for a phenomenon.
hypothesis (accept hypotheses; accept null hypothesis; do not accept or prompt on theory)
10) Excess synovial fluid in this structure is colloquially termed "water on" this joint. The medical collateral and anterior cruciate ligaments of this joint are difficult to heal if torn. This largest joint in the human body has its surface protected by the patella. This joint connects the tibia and fibula to the femur bone. For the point, name this joint that bends the leg.
knee
22) Erta Ale in Ethiopia is home to a lake filled with this substance. Domes named for this substance occur when it piles up near the vent due to slow movement through the conduit. This substance comes in pahoehoe [pah-ho-ay ho-ay] and aa [ah ah] varieties. This substance cools to form extrusive rocks like pumice and is emitted along with tephra. If this substance cools fast enough, it forms the glassy rock obsidian. For the point, name this hot fluid ejected from a volcano.
lava (accept lava lakes; accept lava domes) (
4) Ptolemy's book on an aspect of this phenomenon describes within it seven tonoi. This phenomenon in the West is centered around sets like Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian. This phenomenon is vertically divided into harmony and horizontally divided into melody. For the point, name this art form transmitted via sound.
music (accept harmonics before "harmony")
26) This particle, which comes in "thermal" and "fast" varieties, is the only particle to date observed to undergo beta decay. This particle can be slowed down using moderators in a reactor. Two down quarks and one up quark makeup this particle. Adding this particle to an element creates an isotope of that element. For the point, name this particle that makes up the atomic nucleus with protons.
neutrons
28) Transport across this organelle's basket shaped pore complexes is facilitated by exportins and importins which move proteins with an NLS signal to the inside of this organelle. This organelle has a double-membrane and is broken down at the beginning of mitosis. DNA polymerases are found in this organelle. For the point, name this organelle that contains the nucleolus and houses the cell's DNA.
nucleus
The cirrate [SEE-rayt] suborder of these animals have internal shells and a pair of head fins. These animals push copper-rich blood past their gills with two of their three hearts. The striped "mimic" one of these animals can imitate over a dozen other species, and the Australian "blue-ringed" one is deadly to humans. Others of these animals detach their arms, which can move independently, when frightened, or repel attackers with ink. For the point, name these cephalopods, named for their eight arms.
octopuses (accept octopi; accept octopoda or octopodes
31) The concentration of an allotrope of this element is measured in Dobson units. Cyanobacteria contribute to a rapid increase in levels of this element in a namesake "great event." This element was called "dephlogisticated air" by Joseph Priestley. For the point, name this element present in ozone.
oxygen
26) Zeno formulated one of these constructs involving the movement of an arrow. Considering the set of all sets that do not contain themselves leads to one of these statements named for Russell. The liar's version of this construct involves the declaration "this sentence is a lie." For the point, name these apparently self-contradictory statements.
paradoxes
28) Monochlamydeous plants typically lack these structures, Lying above the calyx, the corolla is made up of these structures, and it may surround a brighter corona, such as in the Narcissus. When these structures are indistinguishable from sepals, they are called tepals. Located above the sepals are, for the point, what colorful and often fragrant parts of a flowering plant which attract pollinators?
petals
22) The solution to the Basel problem is this number squared divided by 6. The number e raised to the power of the product of this number and i equals negative 1, according to Euler's identity. Lambert proved that this number was irrational and sketched a proof of its transcendence. In geometry, 360 degrees is exactly twice this number of radians. This number is the exact ratio between the circumference and diameter of a circle. For the point, name this number which is approximately 3.14159.
pi
Within this type of substance, an electric field created by one particle can interact with other particles that are within a distance called the Debye length. A tokamak can confine this type of substance using a magnetic field; using solid material wouldn't work, as this type of substance exists at too high a temperature for a solid to remain stable. For the point, name this highly ionized state of matter that makes up stars, often considered the "fourth" state after solids, liquids, and gases.
plasma
29) Assuming the cord is weightless and using two masses produces an Atwood Machine, which is in this class of machines that also includes block and tackle systems. This machine consists of a wheel on a fixed axle with a groove to support a sliding rope. For the point, name this simple machine whose name comes from the action performed on the rope to lift up an object.
pulleys
29) At 573 degrees Celsius, this mineral abruptly increases in volume as it changes into its beta form. When mixed with its polymorph moganite, this mineral forms the rock chalcedony. This mineral occupies the lowest positions in both Goldich's dissolution series and Bowen's reaction series, This naturally-transparent material has specific colored variants such as citrine and amethyst. Made of a tetrahedral structure of silicon and oxygen, for the point, name this common mineral whose crystals are often used in clocks and watches.
quartz
1) Cells named after this color are called erythrocytes. For humans, the longest wavelength cone primarily sees this color. Although they can vary greatly, algal blooms are sometimes called "tides" of this color. Litmus paper turns this color in acidic conditions. Rashes caused by chickenpox are this color. Iron causes hemoglobin to take, for the point, what color of blood cells contrasted with white blood cells?
red
In hyperbolic geometry, a Lambert quadrilateral possesses exactly three of these features. According to Thales' [thay-lees'] theorem, if the diameter of a circle is part of an inscribed triangle, one of these features is opposite the diameter in that triangle. This feature is created by the intersection of orthogonal lines, as seen with lines with slopes 1 and negative 1. A rhombus need not have any, but a rectangle must have four of, for the point, what type of angle that measures 90 degrees?
right angle (accept 90 degree angle before it is aread
25) Jelly-filled canals in these animals serve as electric field sensors and are called the Ampullae of Lorenzini. These animals have a cartilaginous skeleton, and they must continue to swim due to a lack of swim bladder to keep them afloat. These animals, noted for regenerating teeth, include the extinct Megalodon. For the point, name these animals whose varieties include tiger, hammerhead, and great white.
sharks (accept selachimorpha)
20) The nitrate of this element was used to develop early photographs. This element has the highest thermal and electrical conductivity of any metal and is the lighter of the two elements in electrum. The adjective "sterling" denotes an alloy that is composed of 92.5% of this metal. For the point, give this element with atomic number forty-seven and chemical symbol Ag.
silver (prompt on Ag before mention)
24) The theoretical maximum efficiency of an object using this type of energy is given by the Shockley-Queisser [KAY-ser] limit. Semiconductors can be used to create a p-n junction that harnesses the power of this type of energy from the photovoltaic effect. This non-biological source of energy has a lower percentage of consumption than wind or hydropower. For the point, name this form of energy from the sun.
solar energy (accept energy from a solar cell/panel; prompt on light or photons or sun energy and other equivalents)
22. Taleyarkhan claimed bubbles created using this phenomenon in a tank of deuterated acetone could cause bubble-induced nuclear fusion to occur. The compressible pressure coefficient due to movement of this phenomenon can be calculated using the Prandtl-Glauert transformation which was predicted to reach a singularity at around 340 meters per second. The Newton-Laplace equation can be used to calculate that speed of this phenomenon. The difference in frequency between two waves of this phenomenon can cause beats. An object travelling faster than the speed of this phenomenon surpasses Mach 1 and is "supersonic." For the point, name these wave phenomena that are biologically perceived by ears.
sound waves [or sounds]
24) Two opposite points on this shape are called antipodal points, and its graph is given by "x-squared plus y-squared plus z-squared equals r." The surface area of this shape is equal to "4 pi r squared." Made up of all points that are the same distance from a given center, for the point, name this 3D analogue of a circle and the shape of a globe.
sphere
1) This adjective describes the symmetry breaking that occurs in the Higgs mechanism. A reaction can be described by this adjective if the Gibbs free energy is negative, indicating that the conditions favor the formation of products and, thus, occurs without need of outside energy. For the point, name this adjective which described the sudden "generation" of maggots on meat.
spontaneous
21. Francesco Redi used non-liquid samples and sealed jars to perform an experiment similar to Needham's, which when done properly, resulted in rejection of this hypothesis. Attempts to revise this hypothesis after an 1859 experiment include classifying different processes under which it can occur such as heterogenesis and archebiosis. An experiment involving broth placed in a swan-necked glass was developed and carried out in 1859 by Louis Pasteur resulted in this hypothesis being disfavored in place of the idea of biogenesis. For the point, name this debunked process by which life is formed, thought to be evidenced by maggots growing out of seemingly nowhere on rotten meat.
spontaneous generation
This theory originated from Aristotle's claims about combining water and vital heat. This theory was challenged by Francesco Redi, who used open and clothed containers in an experiment that looked for worms. This theory was dispelled by Louis Pasteur, who used a swan-necked bottle to prevent bacterial growth in broth. For the point, name this theory stating that life arises out of inanimate materials, like maggots forming from dead meat.
spontaneous generation (accept anomalous generation, prompt on "abiogenesis"
18) It's not "potential," but an "infinite well" described by this word is the particle in a box model. This is the first word in the molecular geometry of xenon tetrafluoride. To predict genotypes, biologists use the "Punnett" type of this diagram. The numbers described by this word can be expressed as the sum of consecutive triangular numbers. For the point, name this shape that describes numbers like nine and sixteen.
squares (accept infinite square well; accept square planar; accept Punnett square; accept square numbers)
26) The coral population in the Indo-Pacific region is harmed by the crown-of-thorns variety of this group. These inverterbrates make up the class Asteroidea and use suction from their tube feet to pull apart mollusk shells. The five limbs of these creatures can regenerate when cut off. For the point, name these spiny creatures that live on ocean floors and whose five outspread arms cause them to resemble items found in the night sky.
starfish (or sea stars; prompt on Echinoderms; prompt on Echinodermata)
During this process, sediment can form an accretionary prism. Slab pull occurs during this process, which, in oceans, can lead to the creation of a trench. This process occurs in a Wadati-Benioff zone and may cause a megathrust earthquake. This process takes place at convergent boundaries between two tectonic plates. For the point, name this geologic process in which one tectonic plate is forced under another.
subduction
4) Haworth projections and Fischer projections are used as a 2-dimensional representation of these compounds. Amylose and amylopectin are types of these compounds. Biological polymerization of these compounds is accomplished with glycosidic bonds. The lac operon allows bacteria to metabolize lactose, one of these compounds. For the point, name this group of compounds that includes fructose and glucose.
sugars (or carbohydrates or (poly/mono)saccharides)
21) The outbursts of luminous blue variables are sometimes mistaken for these events. One version of this event creates zombie stars. White dwarves that surpass the Chandrasekhar limit will undergo this event. One of these events created the Crab Nebula. For the point, name these events, in which huge stars explode.
supernovae (accept specific types of supernovae)
7) Examples of these objects include Juan de Fuca and Nazca. Vine, Matthews, and Morley predicted these objects contributed to seafloor spreading. Transform, divergent, and convergent are three types of boundaries between these objects which can form mountains and cause earthquakes. Continental drift is caused by, for the point, what large sections of the Earth's crust?
tectonic plates (or plate tectonics; prompt on "tectonic"s)
32) The father of modern taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, was also known for inverting a scale used to measure this quantity. This quantity was measured in units by William Thomson, who was the 1st Baron Kelvin. For 10 points, what quantity was also measured by Anders Celsius and Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit?
temperature (prompt on heat)
13) A paper describing the nucleosynthesis occurring after this event was amusingly credited to scientists Alpher, Bethe [BAY-tuh], and Gamow. The Planck time describes the boundary around this event. Fred Hoyle coined the name for this event even though he supported the steady-state model over it. Alan Guth developed the theory of inflation that followed this event to help explain why the universe is so isotropic. For the point, name this event that occurred 13.7 billion years ago, widely believed to have started the universe.
the Big Bang
7) Early developments of a theory of this structure include Democritus's concept of them as geometric shapes with attributes. Some Greek thinkers believed a "swerve" of these things gave rise to free will. J.J. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of this structure after his discovery of one of its components. For the point, name this structure once believed to be "indivisible," consisting of electrons orbiting a proton-neutron nucleus.
the atom (accept hydrogen; prompt on the "electron" with "apart of what larger structure?")
19. One competitor to this theory developed by Mordehai Milgrom is being called into question by data from DF2; that theory is called MOND. This theory allows for a metric solution that satisfies field equations involving the Ricci tensor and the Stress-energy tensor. Key evidence for this theory comes from LIGO's detection of gravitational waves and measurements of the precession of Mercury's perihelion. This theory derived from the equivalence principle describes the weakest fundamental force as curvature in spacetime. For the point, name this theory developed by Albert Einstein to explain the force of gravity, developed after his earlier theory of the speed of light.
theory of general relativity [accept GR; prompt on relativity]
7) The lowered activity of this gland is present in Hashimoto's disease. Parafollicular cells or C cells in this organ secrete calcitonin. The pituitary gland produces TSH to stimulate this other gland in its neuroendocrine axis. Overactivity of this gland can be caused by the autoimmune Graves' disease. Goiter is the swelling of this gland when the body is deficient in period iodine For the point, name this butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck.
thyroid gland (do not accept parathyroid gland)
18) These phenomena often weaken in a process called "roping out," which is the result of conservation of angular momentum. These phenomena are made possible by a rear-flank downdraft, as studied by Ted Fujita [foo-JEE-tuh] in his "recycling hypothesis" for the generation of these phenomena. Detection of these phenomena when rain-wrapped may be possible by looking for a hook echo on radar. For the point, name this type of natural disaster, a rotating column of air that may develop from a severe thunderstorm cell.
tornadoes
3) Rope, cone, and wedge are classifications of these weather phenomena. Waterspouts are these phenomena that can occur over lakes and oceans. Dust devils are types of these phenomena. These phenomena are rated 0 to 5 on the Enhanced Fujita scale, which uses damage indicators. An "alley" of these features is located in the Great Plains. For the point, name these rotating funnel-shaped columns of air.
tornadoes (accept twisters)
30. In quantum mechanics, this quantity is given by the Hamiltonian operator. The "lattice" type of this quantity is released when gaseous ions condense into a solid. The conservation of this quantity is stated in the first law of thermodynamics. For a falling object, this quantity is calculated as mass times little g times height plus one-half mass times velocity squared. For the point, name this quantity that has both potential and kinetic forms.
total energy (accept lattice energy; accept potential energy; accept kinetic energy)
9) Because it fixes actin, the mushroom compound phalloidin also has this dangerous property. LD50 is a commonly reported measurement of this property. The Fugu pufferfish is known for a powerful tetrodo- compound with this property. Because Arsenic naturally has this property, it is used in pesticides and herbicides. For the point, name this property of elements and compounds that are biologically hazardous to ingest.
toxicity (or poisonous; accept obvious equivalents; accept biological hazardous until mentioned)
30. For the discovery of how semiconductors could be used to create these devices, Brattain, Bardeen and Shockley were rewarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. This device is similar to a diode but has three layers either as NPN or PNP. The two main flavors of these devices are Bipolar Junction and Field Effect. Integrated circuits doubled the amount of these elements every year according to Moore's law prediction. For the point, name these elements named for behaving like a resistor that can transfer electrical signals.
transistors [accept MOS transistor; accept MOSFET transistor; accept (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) Field Effect transistor; accept Bipolar Junction transistor]
Marrobbio is an Italian term for these events when caused, unusually, by a quick change in pressure. The Soloviev-Imamura scale measures the intensity of these events, for which DART stations provide warnings. One of these events devastated Indonesia in 2004 after a massive submarine earthquake. A drawback of water from the beach usually precedes, for the point, what large waves commonly known by a Japanese name?
tsunamis (accept tidal wave; accept seismic sea wave; accept harbor wave; prompt on waves before read
8) For a parabola, this word names the only point lying on the axis of symmetry, and on a curve, this word can name any place where the first derivative is zero. The 'two ears theorem' states that at least two of these points can be removed from a polygon without introducing a crossing. The Euler characteristic of a polyhedron is the number of these points, minus the number of edges, plus the number of faces. For the point, name these points in geometry where two lines meet, such as at an angle.
vertex (accept vertices or vertexes)
7) The heavy form of this compound is used in nuclear power plant cooling towers. This compound's density is maximized at 4 degrees celsius. This compound is known as the universal solvent due to its high polarity. Aqueous solutions are made using this solvent. Along with acetone, the distilled form of this compound is used to clean glassware in labs. For the point, name this compound composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
water (accept H2O)
28) This phenomenon in rotating fluids is the planetary or Rossby type. Solitons are a mathematically modelled type of this phenomenon that maintain their shape as they propagate. The longitudinal variety of this phenomenon can propagate through a spring. For the point, name these phenomenon whose ocean variety can propagate themselves to beaches.
waves [accet solitary waves)
28) The speed of this phenomenon is described by the Beaufort scale and measured by an anemometer. An example of the prevailing easterly example of this phenomenon was crucial to early maritime transportation and are the "trade" example of this phenomenon. The presence of this phenomenon results in an apparent decrease in temperature, its namesake "chill." For the point, name this movement of air from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
wind
20) This non-greek letter is used to describe a "pinch" experienced during plasma confinement. A "score" denoted with this letter is an observed value minus the sample mean divided by the sample standard deviation. As opposed to the XY system of humans, male birds have two sex-determining chromosomes denoted by this letter. For the point, name this letter used to denote the third axis on a coordinate plane.
z
22) This is the only number to have infinite factors. This number may or may not be a natural number, depending on one's definition. Along with 1, this number's factorial is also equal to one. This number cannot be divided by itself. For the point, name this number that is neither positive nor negative.
zero
9) This property's indentation form is measured on the Rockwell scale and the Vickers scale, which presses into a material with a diamond indenter. Apatite has a value of 5 for this property while Talc has a value of 1. This property is defined as a mineral's resistance to scratching. Diamond has the highest natural value of, for the point, what property measured by the Mohs scale?
(Mohs) hardness (accept indentation hardness; accept Vickers hardness; accept Rockwell hardness) (
(32) Since 2019, Huawei [[HWAH-WAY]] has been banned from implementing this technology in the U.S. due to espionage claims. This technology is the most recent standard developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project. Protestors in the UK who believed this technology was responsible for Covid-19 set fire to cell towers. The Samsung Galaxy S20 was the first smartphone compatible with this technology. For the point, name this latest broadband cellular standard.
5G NR (or 5G New Radio]
20) Dangerously powerful storms on this landmass that can cut between mountain passes are locally known as "Herbies" and primarily impact the region surrounding McMurdo Sound. The largest known oceanic current flows clockwise around this landmass. Krill named for this landmass are probably the most abundant species on the planet. For the point, name this continent located at the South pole.
Antarctica
(28) Power transmitted by these devices is equal to the difference in tension times velocity. When notched to be able to track movement, these devices are known as their timing or toothed type. The "V" type of these devices lock into groves on the pulley, preventing slippage. These devices are used to provide the energy for a washer and dryer to rotate, as well as to transmit energy in a car from the crankshaft. For the point, name these continuous loops of material that link multiple rotating shafts, whose "conveyor" type are used to move objects in factories.
Belt (prompt on "chain" or "rope"; accept Timing belt; accept Toothed belt; accept V-belt; accept Conveyor belt)
28) This material's hachimoji variant has enhanced storage capability. This material can be cut using cas9. Topoisomerase corrects for supercoiling in this material. Its namesake polymerase attaches after helicase unzips it. This material is wrapped around histones in chromosomes. It is made up of four bases - adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. For the point, name this genetic material which is transcribed into RNA.
DNA (accept deoxyribonucleic acid) (
7) This bacteria metabolizes lactose and tryptophan using gene operons. A deadly strain of this bacteria is labelled O157:H7, and outbreaks of that strain have been linked to romaine lettuce. Normally, this bacteria is unharmful and even aids in digestion. For the point, name this bacterium that lives in intestines and like Salmonella, can cause food poisoning.
Escherichia coli
(1) One visual structure formed by this effect has its size defined by the Einstein radius. This effect, which causes Einstein rings, is caused by dark matter in the Bullet Cluster. In a proof of general relativity, this effect was observed via the change of a star's position during a solar eclipse. This effect can cause copies of quasars to appear in an Einstein Cross. For the point, name this effect in which the force of gravity bends light.
Gravitational lensing (accept micro, weak, or strong lensing)
(15) While working at St. Thomas's Abbey, this scientist was prevented from studying mouse reproduction by the local bishop. This scientist's paper "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" led to the introduction of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. This scientist's studies of Pisum sativum [[PEE-soom sah-TEE-voom]] led him to coin the terms "dominant" and "recessive." For the point, name this 19th-century friar who studied inheritance among pea plants.
Gregor Johann Mendel
(4) This equation is modified to give the Kassirer-Bleich [[kah-SEER-er BLYSH]] equation, which is used clinically to diagnose respiratory alkalosis [[al-kah-LOH-sis]]. The Hammett function must be used instead of this equation in highly concentrated solutions. The isoelectric point of an amino acid is calculated using this equation, which is derived by taking the log of the acid dissociation constant and rearranging. The pH of a buffer solution can be calculated using, for the point, what equation named for two scientists, one American and one Danish?
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation (accept names in either order)
(21) Swedish engineer Hannes Alfvén [[HAH-ness AL-fee-yen]] said that the prerequisites for carrying out this task include stable geological formations and governments over thousands of years. One controversial method for carrying out this task involves depositing a certain substance into a subduction zone. The primary method for carrying out this task is called deep geological repository. For the point, identify this task of safely dealing with the waste products of fusion and fission.
Radioactive waste disposal (accept any answer indicating the disposal, storage, or management of waste products from nuclear power plants or weapons)
23) This organelle binds to a Shine-Dalgarno sequence upstream of a sequence which codes for methionine. A, P, and E sites transport tRNA molecules through these organelles, which are found in the cytoplasm or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum. For the point, name these organelles which synthesize proteins.
Ribosomes
17) This planet's northern hemisphere exhibits storms called the Great White Spot. Gaps named for Maxwell and Huygens are present in a system nearby this planet. This planet's moon Enceladus is known for its high albedo. The probe Cassini explored this planet, whose largest moon is Titan. For the point, name his sixth planet from the sun, known for its large ring system.
Saturn
5) This man invented the phonograph and an early projector known as the kinetoscope. This man controversially organized the killing of the elephant Topsy. This rival of George Westinghouse once employed Nikola Tesla at his Machine Works company. This "Wizard of Menlo Park" found a practical use for carbon filament that would later be replaced with tungsten. For the point, name this American inventor of the lightbulb.
Thomas Alva Edison
(20) A technique developed in these organisms uses "Bait" and "Prey" domains to detect protein-protein interactions in a "two-hybrid assay." One of these organisms with both "a" and "alpha" mating types was the first eukaryote [[yoo-KAY-ree-oat]] to have its genome entirely sequenced. These organisms include Candida albicans and members of the genus Saccharomyces [[sah-kah-roh-"MY"-sees]], which can release carbon dioxide and ethanol during fermentation. For the point, name these single-celled fungi used during beer and bread making.
Yeasts (accept Saccharomyces before mentioned; accept Saccharomyces cerevisiae; prompt on "fungi")
12. Translational symmetry of this quantity leads to its conservation by Noether's theorem. According to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it is impossible to know both the exact position and this property of a particle. Newton's second law can be written using the time derivative of this quantity. It is conserved in elastic collisions, and impulse is equal to the change in it. For the point, name this quantity equal to mass times velocity.
(linear) momentum (do not accept or prompt on "angular momentum")
27) Paul Boyer developed the flip-flop mechanism of this molecule's production via gamma subunit rotation This molecule is primarily produced by establishing a proton concentration gradient followed by oxidative phosphorylation in its namesake synthase. This molecule is invested at the beginning of glycolysis. For the point, name this energy currency of the cell which has three phosphate groups.
ATP (accept adenosine triphosphate; accept ATP synthase)
25) A paradox formulated by this scientist, Podolsky, and Rosen showcased quantum entanglement. This man field equations led to the prediction of gravitational waves. This scientist names a low-temperature condensate with Satyendra Bose. The special and general relativity were theories of, for the point, what physicist who stated mass-energy equivalence as E equals m c squared?
Albert Einstein
12) For this disease, Merck announced an EPOCH study to test the beta-secretase 1 inhibitor Verubecestat; the study proved ineffective at lowering neurofibrillary tangles due to hyperphosphorylated tau proteins or at lowering beta-amyloid plaque levels - both of which are features present in the brains of patients suffering from, for the point, what neurodegenerative disease which accounts for around 70% of dementia cases?
Alzheimer's disease
26. This constellation, Puppis, and Vela were formerly considered together as part of the Argo constellation. This constellation is home to the second brightest star in the night sky, Canopus. This constellation's namesake nebula includes the keyhole nebula, "finger of god", and Homunculus nebulas. For the point, name this constellation named for being the keel of a ship, with a massive nearby luminous blue variable as its Eta star.
Carina
(1) The olm is a salamander species that is the only European vertebrate to exclusively live in these habitats. Unlike many insects living in these habitats, Leptodirus [[lep-toh-"DIE"-russ]] beetles retain their bright colors. Species that live in these habitats are referred to as troglobites. For the point, name these habitats inhabited by many depigmented and blind species, which are also a popular roosting spot for bats.
Cave (or Caverns)
This man introduced a coordinate system to maps in a work titled Geography, describing methods of projections later improved by Mercator. This man cataloged 48 known constellations and popularized the theory of epicycles describing planetary orbits in his book The Almagest. For the point, name this ancient Roman scientist from Alexandria whose geocentric model of the solar system was revolutionized by Copernicus.
Claudius Ptolemy
(23) This geological period's Bonarelli Event, a period of ocean anoxia, started this period's namesake "Thermal Maximum". This period saw Earth's last superchron and the formation of the Western Interior Seaway. The adaptive radiation of angiosperms began in this period, whose end is marked by a global layer of iridium in the crust. For the point, name this final period of the Mesozoic Era, whose end likely occurred due to a meteor impact off the Yucatan Peninsula.
Cretaceous period
26) In 2019, Steve Benner announced an analogue of this molecule that doubles the storage capacity described as "hachimoji." Linus Pauling believed that this molecule had neutral phosphate groups. Maurice Wilkins questionably won part of a 1962 Nobel Prize for his x-ray diffraction work on this molecule. Rosalind Franklin's Photo 51 of this molecule was used with Chargaff's rules to determine its structure by Watson and Crick. For the point, name this molecule which uses base pairs of GC and AT to store biological information.
DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid; accept hachimoji DNA; prompt on hachimoji before read)
1) This organelle is the site of O-linked glycosylation. COP I and COP II assist in the transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and this organelle. This organelle has flattened membranes called cisternae. For the point, name this organelle named after an Italian scientist responsible for packaging proteins and sending them to their destination.
Golgi Apparatus (or Golgi body)
5. This thinker's decades-long correspondence with Johann Bernoulli included discussions of integration by parts, which used this man's dx and dy [["d" "x" and "d" "y"]] notation for derivatives. This man, who also introduced the integral sign and the use of a dot for multiplication, published a "New Method for Maxima and Minima" after an English mathematician had worked on fluxions, triggering a controversy. For the point, name this German mathematician who discovered calculus independently of Isaac Newton.
Gottfried Leibniz
(21) This compound's H2 receptors are inhibited by drugs such as ranitidine [[rah-NIH-tih-deen]] and cimetidine [[sih-MEH-tih-deen]]. Like gastrin, this compound induces hydrochloric acid release from the stomach's parietal [[pah-"RYE"-eh-tull]] cells. Binding Immunoglobulin [[ih-myoo-noh-GLAH-byoo-lin]] E causes basophils [[BAH-soh-fils]] to release this compound. Allegra, Zyrtec, and Benadryl are name-brand drugs that inhibit the release of this compound. For the point, name this organic compound released during an allergic reaction and inflammatory responses.
Histamine
17) This object contains a large feature called the Tharsis bulge. The first spacecrafts to land on this object were Viking 1 and Viking 2. The tallest mountain in the Solar System, Olympus Mons, is located on this planet. This planet, explored by Curiosity, is circled by the two moons Phobos and Deimos. For the point, name this iron red planet, the fourth furthest from the sun.
Mars
11) This region is the outer limit of the sun's Hill sphere, where the sun's gravity can attract satellites. The inner part of this region is sometimes named for Jack G. Hills, and this region was first proposed by Ernst Opik. Long-period comets are thought to originate in this region, and the material in ¨ this region may have shifted outward from the scattered disc. For the point, name this region of space, named for a Dutch astronomer, where the furthest solar system objects lie.
Opik- ¨ Oort cloud
(19) This phenomenon allows Pluto's motion to remain stable despite crossing Neptune's path. The Laplace [[lah-PLAHSS]] variety of this phenomenon occurs with successive two-to-one ratios, yielding a four-to-two-to-one ratio. In the (+) asteroid belt, Kirkwood gaps are formed due to this phenomenon with (*) Jupiter. For the point, name this phenomenon in which orbiting bodies influence each other due to having orbital periods that are integer multiples of each other.
Orbital resonance
24. Kenneth Livak introduced a delta-delta-CT method for determining the number of cycles needed for fluorescence from dyes like SYBR fluorophores to be detectable. In this technique, an eight-tube strip contains the sample and a portion of the "master mix" of dNTPs, magnesium chloride and enzymes. Kary Mullis was recognized with the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for inventing this technique whose real time variant makes use of TaqMan probes. Temperature is cycled in this technique during Denaturing, Annealing, and Extension phases, and primers are used to extend nucleotide sequences. For the point, name this technique of amplifying a DNA sample.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
31. The second largest satellite galaxy of the Milky Way is found in this constellation. The extra-terrestrial "Wow" signal came from the direction of this constellation. This constellation is home to the Trifid, Omega, and Lagoon nebulae as well as the black hole at the center of the Milky Way. This constellation is found along the ecliptic between Scorpius and Capricorn. For the point, name this zodiac constellation that depicts an archer.
Sagittarius [prompt on "archer" before it is read]
28. The north pole of this astronomical object contains a prominent hexagonal pattern. Pioneer 11 was the first space probe to fly by this planet. This planet's moon Iapetus has two distinct colors while its moon Mimas includes a huge impact crater. This planet, which is the least dense planet of the solar system, was the target of the recent Cassini-Huygens spacecraft. For the point, name this outer solar system gas giant with prominent rings.
Saturn
4. Richard Taylor, a student of this thinker, assisted him in revising the paper "Modular Forms, Elliptic Curves, and Galois [[gal-wah]] Representations," which was found to have a serious error shortly after its 1993 publication. This man was knighted for his efforts on the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture, which resolved a centuries-old conjecture of number theory. For the point, name this British mathematician who solved Fermat's Last Theorem.
Sir Andrew Wiles
This constellation is home to the closest open star cluster to the Sun, the Hyades cluster. A remnant of a supernova that was observed in the year 1054 is found in this constellation. The brightest star in this constellation, Aldebaran, which is the Arabic for "follower," is so named because it appears to follow this constellation's Pleiades star cluster across the sky. For the point, name this constellation that resembles a bull.
Taurus (prompt on "bull" before mentioned
(14) This quantity increases with higher coefficients of performance for AC units. This quantity symbolized eta [[EH-tah]] is maximized when cold and hot reservoirs respectively have zero and unlimited temperature. A (+) Carnot [[kar-NOH]] cycle theoretically has the maximum value for this quantity, which is equal to the ratio of (*) work output to heat input. For the point, name this quantity which is 100 percent for ideal thermodynamic systems, the measure of the amount of heat loss in an engine.
Thermal Efficiency (or Thermodynamic Efficiency)
(17) The bites of these animals spread the malaria-like disease Babesiosis [[bah-bee-see-OH-sis]] to humans and those who are infected are unable to donate for blood transfusions. One disease spread by these animals can be diagnosed by a bullseye rash. These animals are the primary vector for human infections of Rickettsia rickettsii [[rih-KET-see-uh rih-KET-see-"eye"]], the causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. For the point, name these parasitic arachnids, the primary carriers of Lyme disease.
Ticks (or Ixodida; accept American dog ticks; accept Rocky Mountain Wood Ticks; accept Brown dog ticks; accept Black-legged ticks; accept Bear ticks; accept Deer ticks; prompt on "arachnids" before mentioned)
27) This planet may cause a hypothetical phenomenon known as the ashen light. Along with Uranus, this is the only planet in the solar system with a retrograde orbit. This planet's highest point is Maxwell Montes. Due to sulfuric acid in its atmosphere, this planet has the highest surface temperature in the solar system. With the naked-eye, this is the brightest planet in the sky. For the point, name this planet, the second closest to the Sun.
Venus
16) Biosynthesis of carnitine requires this organic molecule, which is used as a cofactor for the hydroxylation of lysine and proline residues during collagen synthesis. Linus Pauling advocated megadoses of this antioxidant to prevent the common cold. A disease caused by a lack of this vitamin is marked by anemia, gum bleeding, and tooth loss, and is called scurvy. For the point, name this vitamin found in high quantities in citrus fruits.
Vitamin C (accept ascorbic acid)
(9) This quantity is measured by the rate of cooling of extremely thin tungsten wires in a "hot-wire" device. This quantity is related to observed conditions by the Beaufort scale. A simple device used to measure this quantity consists of (+) cups on arms arranged in a radially symmetric manner around an axle. Like direction, this quantity can be measured with an (*) anemometer [[an-eh-MAH-meh-ter]]. For the point, name this quantity which can be over 200 miles per hour during a tornado.
Wind Speed (or Wind Flow Speed; prompt on "wind"; prompt on "speed")
6) This metal stabilizes two histidine and two cysteine residues. Gag knuckle is an example of a DNA-binding domain named for this element's "finger." A coat of this element is added to steel or iron to slow the process of rusting. Due to the value of this metal, the production cost of a penny, which is mostly this element, is greater than 1 cent. Brass is formed by combining copper with, for the point, what metal with atomic symbol Zn?
Zinc (accept Zn before it is read)
12) Duralumin is one of these substances which hardens with age. Based on the method of formation, these substances can be classified as interstitial or substitutional. A valuable, naturally occurring one of these is electrum, while a low-temperature, fusible one is solder. These substances are called amalgams when they include mercury, and one containing mostly tin is called pewter. For the point, identify this type of substance such as brass, bronze, or stainless steel, a mixture of two or more metals.
alloys
15) A powerful reducing agent contains lithium, three atoms of chlorine, and one atom of this element. This metal's oxide makes up corundum. The Hall-Heroult ["hall hero""] process is a common method for smelting this element. Bauxite is rich in this element which replaced tin as a household product in cans and foil. For the point, name this light metal with chemical symbol Al.
aluminum (or aluminium; prompt on "Al")
20. Aside from termites, these animals use tandem running to find new food sources. In one species of these animals, gamergates mutilate their sisters to reduce their sexual appeal. Their "Argentine" type, which are friendly to each other in non-native habitats, have created the world's largest supercolony. Some of these animals consume honeydew from aphids in a mutualistic relationship. For the point, myrmecologist E.O. Wilson studies what animals that come in "fire" and "leafcutter" varieties?
ants
32) The structure and distribution of a ecosystem formed by these species titles Charles Darwin's first monograph. Members of these so-called "stony flowers" are hermatypic and obtain their energy from zooxanthellae [zoo-ZAN-thuh-LAY-ee]. Their bleaching is occuring due to ocean acidification. For the point, name these marine invertebrates that are principal to namesake ecosystems known as reefs.
corals
6) A wier is a type of this structure which may contain a notch allowing for some passage past it. Those built for tailings may be partially built of the tailings themselves. These structures make pumped storage plants possible. Increased rates of sedimentation due to these structures can be mitigated by the use of a sluiceway that bypasses this structure. Jinping 1 is the tallest one of these structures in the world, while Three Gorges is capable of producing the most energy. For the point, name these structures which hold back the flow of water to create a reservoir, possibly for hydroelectric generation.
dams
6) Two candidates for this substance are termed WIMPs and MACHOs, neither of which is composed of baryons. A model of cosmology using a lambda parameter describes this substance as "cold." Vera Rubin provided evidence for this substance by showing measurements of angular motion of galaxies did not fit predictions, suggesting some missing form of matter. For the point, name this probable form of matter making up most of the universe, named for the fact that we cannot detect it with light.
dark matter (accept just dark after matter; accept cold dark matter)
This quantity remains constant in a fluid undergoing incompressible flow. The ratio of two of these quantities is given by the specific gravity, which can be measured by placing a hydrometer in a graduated cylinder. This value is lower for solid ice than it is for liquid water, explaining why ice cubes float. At four degrees Celsius, this value for water is equal to one gram per milliliter. For the point, name this physical quantity equal to an object's mass divided by its volume.
density
15. An attack related to the mailing of these offspring-like structures could have originated from flask RMR-1029. Accumulation of Spo0A leads to a sigma cascade promoting the formation of these structures; a pathway upregulated by enzymes kinA and kinB in response to nutrient starvation. Dipicolinic acid helps provide heat resistance to a structure of this name. F Bacteria of the firmicute family produce non-reproductive structures of this name that are only formed under environmental stress to help the bacteria survive. For the point, identify this word that describes those bacteria structures as well as asexual reproductive structures produced by many plants and fungi.
endospores [accept Anthrax endospores; prompt on anthrax first line]
18. Local operations and classical communication can be used to transform states exhibiting this phenomenon. The states exhibiting this phenomenon give rise to Bell pairs. This phenomenon is the subject of a debate where two particles with unstable spins head in opposite directions. The EPR paradox brought up that potential violation due to this phenomenon. Einstein criticized this phenomenon with that paradox calling it "spooky action at a distance." For the point, name this quantum phenomenon where two quantum states are bundled into one.
entanglement [accept answers like entangled states]
For a monatomic ideal gas, this quantity can be calculated by the Sackur-Tetrode equation. Two chambers separated by a door are central to a thought experiment showing that this quantity would decrease over time; that aforementioned "Maxwell's demon" concept violated the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that this quantity increases over time. For the point, name this quantity, symbolized S, the measure of the disorder of a system.
entropy (accept S before mentioned
1) Heat is produced by non-shivering thermogenesis in this bodily tissue. An abundance of mitochondria gives a signature "brown" color to one form of this tissue, whose mass in the body is regulated by the hormone leptin. Patients with a BMI score greater than 30 have amassed large amounts of this tissue, which can be surgically removed using liposuction. For the point, name this tissue that accumulates in people with obesity.
fat tissue (or adipose tissue)
28) The behavior of these substances are governed by a set of relations called the Navier-Stokes equations. In these substances a change in speed is caused by an opposite change in pressure according to Bernoulli's law. When one of these substances has a high viscosity, it tends to resist motion. Oobleck and and shampoo are two examples of the non-Newtonian form of this type of substance. For the point, name this type of substance with no fixed shape, exemplified by oil and water.
fluid
9) The rarest naturally occurring element in the Earth's crust is a member of this group of elements. One member of this group of elements is used to kill bacteria in swimming pools. Tennessine and Astatine are members of this group and other members of this group create strong acids with hydrogen - such as hydrochloric acid. Iodine, bromine and chlorine are members of, for the point, what group of elements that are to the left of the group 18 noble gases?
halogens (accept group 17; prompt on "chlorine"; prompt on "astatine")
Multiplying by this number is equivalent in an Argand diagram to making a simple, counter-clockwise 90 degree turn. In Euler's [oiler's] Formula, this value is multiplied by pi. This value is defined as one of the solutions to x squared plus 1 equals zero, thereby extending the real number system. This number cubed is negative itself, and raised to the fifth power is positive itself. For the point, name this imaginary unit, defined as the square root of negative one.
i (accept imaginary number or imaginary unit before it is read; accept square root of negative one until it is read
15) After revealing this product, the presenter on this product placed an order for 4,000 lattes to go. Earlier in that presentation on this product, a conference call was held between Jony Ive and Phil Schiller. The 10th version of this product removed touch ID in favor of a facial recognition system. The voice assistant Siri was added in this product's 4th generation. For the point, name this line of smartphones designed by Apple.
iPhone (accept specific models)
23) Patients with HNPCC have a higher risk of developing cancer in this organ. It is examined during a sigmoidoscopy, which is like another procedure that inspects this organ using a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube to detect polyps or ulcerative colitis. The first part of this organ contains the cecum and the appendix. For the point, name this part of the gastrointestinal tract that absorbs water from waste received from the small intestine.
large intestines (accept colon; prompt on rectum)
26) 109P/Swift Tuttle is the parent object for one of these events that occurs in August and takes its name from the constellation Perseus. The comet Temple-Tuttle is associated with some of these events that occur in the constellation Leo. The Perseids and Leonids are examples of, for the point, what events where meteors look like "shooting stars" radiating from a single source in space?
meteor shower (or meteor outbursts or meteor storms)
35. In rocket propellant, this compound's "red fuming" and "white fuming" varieties can be used as powerful oxidizing agents. This compound turns a solution dark yellow if aromatic amino acids like tryptophan are present during the xanthoproteic reaction. The most common way of manufacturing this compound is in a process that uses a platinum-rhodium catalyst; that process is named for Wilhelm Ostwald and is closely associated with the Haber process, which produces this compound's precursor, ammonia. For the point, name this strong acid with formula HNO3 .
nitric acid (accept HNO3 before mentioned)
28) The energy of one of these particles must surpass the work function to eject an electron. Albert Einstein won his Nobel Prize in physics for his use of this particle to explain an effect where electron emission occurred due to these particles hitting a metal. This particle mediates the electromagnetic force. For the point, name this massless particle which carries the phenomenon of light.
photons
A 96-sided polygon was used to prove that this value is greater than 223 over 71, as calculated by Archimedes. According to legend, the state of Indiana tried to legally round this number down to the nearest whole number. This constant is multiplied by four-thirds in the formula for volume of a sphere. For the point, name this mathematical constant defined as the ratio of any circle's circumference to its diameter, approximately equal to 3.14.
pi
Mixing borax and glue forms slime because the borax cross-links this type of molecule in the glue. These macromolecules make up materials like teflon, nylon, and rubber. PVC is one of these compounds, whose general name refers to the fact that they are made up of smaller subunits. These compounds are made up of repeating subunits, and are larger than oligomers. For the point, name these molecules made up of many monomers.
polymers
23) They're not integers, but an early example of Cantor's pairing function was used to prove the countability of this set of numbers. Using a proof by contradiction, Hippasus proved that the square root of two was not a member of this set. This subset of the reals are represented by a capital Q. For the point, name this set of numbers that can be expressed as the ratio of two integers, unlike irrationals.
rational numbers (accept Q before mention)
5. Every complete ordered field is isomorphic to this set of numbers. According to the Heine-Borel theorem, any closed, bounded subset of this set of numbers is compact. According to the continuum hypothesis, there is no set with cardinality between this set of numbers and the natural numbers. Dedekind cuts are used to construct this set of numbers whose uncountability was proved by Georg Cantor's diagonalization argument. This type of number between 0 and 1 is uncountably infinite. The union of irrational and rational numbers produces this set of numbers. For the point, name these noncomplex numbers which do not contain an imaginary component.
real numbers [prompt on R]
2) Using only a heat source, one type of this device without movable parts was invented by Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein. This device uses a vapor compression cycle that runs through condensing, evaporating, and compressing phases. Working fluids that helped expand the use of these devices include chlorofluorocarbons like Freon. The icebox was replaced by, for the point, what household appliance that keeps food cold?
refrigerators (or fridges)
14) For this sort of machine, Tsiolokovsky [TSol-oh-KOV-skee] developed an equation modifying Newton's second law that relates the mass flow rate and velocity of the exhaust and thrust. The multistage variants of this vehicle are capable of surpassing Earth's escape velocity. For the point, name this vehicle that can be used for fireworks, missiles, and launches into outer space.
rockets
The basement membrane separates two layers of this organ, the most prominent part of the integumentary system. In mammals, the erector pili muscles are embedded in this organ and are used to regulate temperature. Keratinocytes make up most of the outer layer of this organ, which includes a layer of subcutaneous fat. For the point, name this largest organ of the human body which holds moisture in and includes the epidermis.
skin
31) In the yellow range of light, this element's spectroscopic signature has a doublet separated by less than a nanometer. To create a potential along an animal cell membrane, three ions of this element are pumped out for two potassium ions. This element's anion pairs with bicarbonate in baking soda. For the point, name this lightest alkali metal that makes table salt with chloride.
sodium (accept natrium; prompt on Na)
11) The Jazz Singer was the earliest feature to take advantage of this phenomenon which it did through the Vitaphone, giving rise to the genre of "Talkies." Alexander Graham Bell is credited with a transmitter that allowed for sending and receiving this phenomenon. For the point, name this phenomenon that is perceived as thunder when lightning strikes and picked up by a microphone.
sound (accept audio recording)
18) The first of these utilities to be launched into space by NASA in 1973 was unsuccessful in re-entry, scattering debris over Western Australia. Another of these utilities named Freedom was approved by Ronald Reagan, but never built. Skylab and Mir are two examples of these satellites. For the point, name these satellites in orbit that can support a team of astronauts, including the international one - the ISS.
space stations (accept international space station; accept SkyLab until mentioned; prompt on "satellite" until mentioned)
6) By chemical mass, this is the heaviest element in the only diprotic strong acid. When bonded to six fluorine atoms, this element forms a potent greenhouse gas. Two atoms of this element form a covalent "bridge" in proteins. This element sits below oxygen on the periodic table. For the point, name this element, associated with brimstone and bad smells, with chemical symbol S.
sulfur (accept sulfuric acid; accept disulfide bonds; prompt on S)
16. In 1987, the American Physical Society presented 51 presentations on this material during the "Woodstock of physics." This material's magnetic flux is quantized as h times c over two times e according to the Deaver-Fairbank experiment. The coherence length and penetration depth parameterize these materials in Ginzburg-Landau theory. This material is separated by an insulator at a Josephson junction, which gives rise to the Josephson effect where Cooper pairs are able to tunnel across the barrier. John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer developed the accurate BCS theory of this material. This material expels magnetic fields in the Meissner effect. For the point, name these materials that at low temperatures have no electrical resistance.
superconductors [accept Type I superconductors or Type II superconductors]
8. Griffin and Davies name different HLB methods for classifying these substances, whose pulmonary type is made up of DPPC and secreted by alveolar cells. Proteins can be denatured with SDS, one of these substances, which remain in their crystalline forms below the Krafft temperature. Surface tension of these substances steadies at the CMC, beyond which micelles form. For the point, name these substances that have hydrophobic heads and hydrophilic tails and are often used in detergents like soap.
surfactants
20. Containers allow for this task to be done on the heap using pointers in a single operation. Bubble sort works by checking two items and performing this task if the larger item is more to the left in the series. The simplest algorithm for performing this task requires moving one of the two values into a temporary address while assigning the other to the previously assigned address. For the point, name this process of switching two items in memory.
swapping
13) Fyodorov proved that a type of this structure with translational symmetry has only 17 possible different patterns called wallpaper groups. The Conway criterion describes whether a certain prototile can create one of these structures. Rep-tiles can be used to create a pinwheel, which is an aperiodic type of this structure. Only three shapes can create the regular type of these structures: triangles, squares, and hexagons. For the point, name these structures, sometimes called tilings, which cover the surface of a plane with a pattern of repeated smaller shapes.
tessellations (accept tilings until "prototile")
21) Precursors to this technology were developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the United States Department of Defense. The IETF is responsible for maintaining the standards of this technology. ISPs provide this technology that Al Gore once called an "information super highway." For the point, name this system of interconnected computer networks that allows people to browse the web.
the Internet (accept interconnected network; prompt on world wide web; prompt on web)
29) The most common source of this element is cassiterite, which contains its oxide. The alloy pewter is around 90% this element and 5 to 10% antimony. Lead and this element make up the fusible metal alloy solder. Aluminum cans are often erroneously referred to as containing this element. For the point, name this element with atomic number fifty and chemical symbol Sn.
tin (prompt on Sn before mentioned)
An example of this technique conducted on colloids is known as its "zeta potential" type. The redox type of this process sometimes looks for the presence of iodine to mark the endpoint, which is an approximation of the equivalence point. Phenolphthalein [fee-nol-thay-leen] is a common indicator in this process, which uses a buret to add drops of a solution to a flask. For the point, name this chemistry technique that finds the concentration of a solution.
titration
5. The change in this quantity with respect to internal energy defines the reciprocal of temperature. The basic definition of this property is that it is equal to the Boltzmann's constant multiplied by the natural log of the total available microstates. This quantity is zero for a reversible process, but can never be negative by the second law of thermodynamics. For the point, name this property that is typically associated with the amount of disorder in the universe.
total entropy
Frost crack can damage this structure, causing vertical grooves to split in it. This structure protects the vascular cambium and xylem, and its innermost layer is phloem. The cork cambium produces the outermost layer of this material, a dead tissue that peels off and is replaced by new tissue as the stem or root that it protects grows in circumference. For the point, name this protective plant structure, the outermost layer of trees and other woody plants.
tree bark
15. The principle offense that triggered this event came from a text whose two main logical interlocutors Salviati and Sagredo are at argument with a consistently refuted Aristotelian named Simplicio. Shortly after this event, its target apocryphally said "Eppur si muove" or "and yet it moves" in defense of writing the Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems. For the point, name this event where the discoverer of four moons of Jupiter was found guilty of heresy for defending heliocentrism and placed under house arrest until his death.
trial of galileo [accept reasonable equivalent answers indicating Galileo]
31) This layer contains most of the mass of the atmosphere, including most of its water vapor. Hadley cells and Ferrel cells lie within this region of the atmosphere, and their tops are defined by the inversion layer lying above this layer of the atmosphere. At the bottom of this layer is the planetary boundary layer, where absorbed heat is radiated back into this layer, making it warmest near the bottom. For the point, name this layer of the atmosphere in which weather takes place nearest to the Earth's surface.
troposphere
21) Ebonite is the result of this process when prolonged over an extended time and was originally used in bowling balls and some clarinets. Allylic hydrogen bonds are replaced in this process, often at around 130 degrees Celsius using an accelerator. Lower temperatures often create polysulfide links of around 6 atoms, with shorter links appearing at higher temperatures. For the point, name this process of heating and adding sulfur to rubber in order to strengthen and harden it, such as for making car tires.
vulcanization (accept word forms)
One type of this phenomenon is called a Foehn. This phenomenon creates regions called ergs, including the Chech in Algeria, and is also responsible for aeolian processes such as abrasive erosion. This meteorological phenomenon is measured by anemometers and is classified on the Beaufort scale, which tracks the motion of smoke, leaves, and objects. For the point, name this weather phenomenon consisting of moving air.
wind
21) Thermally dimorphic fungi can exist as both mold and this other member of the fungi kingdom, which instead grow pseudo-hyphae [HI-fee]. Saccharomyces [SAC-car-O-MY-sees] cerevisiae [SAYR-uh-VEE-see-AY] is a commonly studied model organism in this member of the fungus kingdom. This member of the fungi kingdom forms carbon dioxide bubbles which helps brew beer and causes dough to expand. For the point, name this type of fungi whose baker's variety helps bread rise.
yeast
13) One protein that regulates the cell cycle called Cdk1 was first studied in S. pombe, or the "fission" species of these microorganisms. One species of these organisms exchanges "a" and "alpha" factors while mating, though most of them reproduce asexually through budding. The genus Saccharomyces [sah-CAR-oh-MY-sees] includes these organisms that may release ethanol and carbon dioxide during fermentation. For the point, name these unicellular fungi used to make bread.
yeasts (prompt on fungi)
1) Panama disease is characterized by the borders of leaves turning this color. This is the color of the pigments lead iodide and cadmium sulfide. The Aedes aegypti mosquito spreads fever named for this color. Instability or reactivity is denoted by this color on an NFPA diagram. In a flame test, sodium burns this color and Urania is also called [this color]-cake. For the point, name this color of ripe bananas.
yellow
20. Artephius and Nicholas Flamel are widely known to studiers of this practice; both of whom appear in documents written by Isaac Newton who argued in favor of this practice since Diana's Tree showcases that silver is capable of forming dendrites that seem to give the metal some "lively properties." Women scientists in this practice include Mary the Jewess and the 3rd century Greek Cleopatra; Cleopatra's contributions to this practice include her book on Chrysopoeia which discusses the transmutations of metal. This practice's goals include discovery of an alkahest that could dissolve anything and a panacea that could cure any disease. For the point, name this early form of chemistry that largely experimented with trying to turn various substances into gold or elixirs of immortality.
Alchemy
16) Organisms in this class are dying off from infection by chytrid fungus. Caecilians in this class have two tentacles on their heads and resemble snakes, while the other orders of this class are Urodela and Anura. Members of this class may lose their gills after undergoing metamorphosis and may start life as a tadpole. For the point, name this class of larva staged water breathers that transition to land which includes salamanders and frogs.
Amphibia (or amphibians)
(29) This quantity is conserved due to rotational invariance according to Noether's [[NOH-thers]] theorem. The rate of change in this quantity is equal to torque. The conservation of this quantity is illustrated by a spinning skater pulling in their arms to rotate faster. Spin is the intrinsic form of this quantity in a particle. For the point, name this physical quantity equal to mass times radius times velocity.
Angular Momentum (accept Moment of momentum or Rotational momentum; prompt on "momentum"; do not accept or prompt on "Linear Momentum")
1) The Fields Medal in Mathematics depicts an image of this man and a description of his sphere and cylinder proof. This man used a primitive precursor of integral calculus to estimate pi, and in this man's On the Equilibrium of Planes, heagrave the earliest explanation of levers. The second volume of his On Floating Bodies proposed his eponymous principle. For the point, identify this man, who according to Vitruvius used that namesake principle to determine the metal composition of a crown by using water displacement.
Archimedes
14) The "singularity" is a hypothesis that the invention of the "super" form of this technology will trigger growth that may lead to human extinction. Advances in this technology include the creation of AlphaZero, by DeepMind, that defeated Stockfish in a match of one thousand rounds of chess. Elon Musk frequently warns about the danger of this technology. IBM's Watson is an example of, for the point, what technology of "thinking machines?"
Artificial Intelligence (accept AI; accept ASI; accept artificial superintelligence; prompt on intelligence)
7) These organisms were labeled with Sulfur-35 and Phosphorus-32 to show that DNA contains the information for inheritance in the Hershey-Chase experiment. These organisms, which can undergo the lytic or lysogenic cycle, include the lambda and T-4 types, which often infect E. coli. For the point, name these viruses that infect bacteria.
Bacteriophage (prompt on viruses)
19) The main competitor to this event was known as steady state theory. Fred Hoyle coined the name for this event. Observations of the cosmic microwave background provide evidence for this event, shortly after which occurred a period of rapid inflation. Marking time zero of the universe, for the point, name this event, a large explosion of matter that expanded out into the rest of the universe.
Big Bang
10) The IEEE 802.15.1 was the last standardization of this technology. Jim Kardach developed this technology to allow mobile phones to communicate with computers. This technology works via short-linked radio wave pairing and had its symbol taken from stones at Jelling. For the point, name this technology standard whose name is taken from the Viking Harald's runes referring to the color of a dental feature.
Bluetooth
This law is sometimes co-named after the priest Edme Mariotte, and its usual namesake wrote a book arguing against the Aristotelian theory of the elements titled The Skeptical Chymist ["chemist"]. The number of moles and temperature are held constant in this law, which thus involves the other two variables in the ideal gas law. For the point, name this law of chemistry, named for an Anglo-Irishman, that describes the inverse relationship between pressure and volume.
Boyle's Law (accept Boyle-Mariotte law
(31) This phylum contains the myxozoans [[miks-oh-ZO-uns]], the only known animals to lack mitochondria and to have single-celled species. When considered to be the sister taxon to bilateria [["by"-lah-TEE-ree-uh]], this phylum is placed within Planulozoa [[plah-noo-loh-ZO-ah]]. (+) Some members of this phylum can cause the sometimes deadly Irukandji [[ee-roo-KAHN-jee]] syndrome in people. Most members of this radially symmetric phylum have either medusae [[meh-DOO-say]] or polyp body forms. This phylum is defined by the presence of (*) stinging cells called nematocysts [[nee-MAH-toh-sists]]. For the point, name this animal phylum that includes anemones [[ah-NEH-moh-nees]], corals, and jellyfish.
Cnidaria [["nigh"-"DARE"-ee-uh]] (or Cnidarians; be lenient on pronunciation)
29) Carl Hilt theorized that at lower depths the quality of this material goes up. The anthracite variety of this substance has the highest amount of carbon resulting in it also providing the most amount of energy. Workers extracting this material can suffer from Black Lung. For the point, name this black rock commonly used as an energy source.
Coal
(1) In some structures, this process is managed by the Automatic Depressurization System. High pressure injection systems are used for this process in nuclear reactors. In most nuclear power plants, this process occurs in (+) hyperboloid [["high"-PER-boh-loyd]] structures commonly known as this process's "towers." Discharging the material used for this process into local (*) lakes and streams can cause local temperatures to rise, creating anoxic [[an-OKS-ik]] environments. For the point, name this process achieved in power plants with flowing water.
Cooling (accept word forms and equivalents; accept Cooling towers)
(5) On the moon, this region possesses the body's magnetic field, making it irregular. Subduction zones occur when parts of this region are forced below the Moho Discontinuity, melting and becoming part of a lower layer. This layer, which moves along the asthenosphere [[as-THEH-noh-"sphere"]], is divided into several tectonic plates. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth, which sits on top of the mantle.
Crust (prompt on "lithosphere")
One form of this effect was verified in the M¨ossbauer rotor experiments. In astronomy, this effect is used to explain redshift and blueshift, in which stars change color as their distance from Earth changes. This effect explains the change in pitch when a police car's siren approaches, then passes, an observer. For the point, name this effect that explains the changes in wave frequency relative to motion, used in weather radar imaging.
Doppler effect
19. This species's catabolite activator protein is controlled by cyclic AMP concentration levels which is useful for controlling its production of L-arabinose. François Jacob (Yah cohb) and Jacques Monod (Mo noh) received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the Lac operon in this model organism. It isn't S. dysenteriae but Shiga-like toxins are produced by serotypes of this organism, including the enterohemorrhagic strain O157:H7. For the point, name this rod-shaped bacteria whose pathological strains in recent years have caused food poisoning with romaine lettuce.
E. Coli [or escherichia coli]
(23) This species's O157:H7 [[OH-157-H-7]] and O104:H4 [[OH-104-H-4]] serotypes [[SEE-roh-"types"]] are the most common cause of hemolytic-uremic [[hee-moh-LIH-tik-yoo-REE-mik]] syndrome by releasing Shiga [[SHEE-gah]] toxins. Lenski et al.'s ongoing evolution experiment with this species observed them spontaneously developing the ability to metabolize citrate [[SIT-"rate"]]. In humans, beneficial strains of this species are involved in producing vitamin K in the intestines. For the point, name this rod-shaped gram negative gut bacteria, a common model organism.
E. coli (or Escherichia coli)
29. A displacement field related to this vector quantity is equal to the polarization plus this vector quantity times a constant. The curl of this vector field is equal to the negative partial derivative of the curl of magnetic vector potential. Gauss's law sets the divergence of this vector field equal to charge density over permittivity. In Lorentz's force law, this field is multiplied by charge, as its strength at any point is calculated as force divided by charge. For the point, name this field that influences the movement of charges, contrasted with the magnetic field.
Electric field [or E-field]
(20) In systems with mass addition, this law is modified to include "U naught equals Usub1 plus Usub2." This law is extended to the enthalpy of a chemical reaction by Hess's law. This law, which is often notated as "delta U equals Q minus W," is equivalent to stating that first kind perpetual motion machines are impossible. For the point, name this law that states that the total amount of mass-energy in a system is constant.
First Law of Thermodynamics (prompt on "Conservation of Energy"; prompt on partial answers)
(6) For some metal alloys, exposure to hydrogen can cause the environmental stress type of this process. In the fatigue form of this process, repeated application of force causes the spread of striations. For ductile materials, this process occurs after strain hardening and necking at the end point of a stress-strain curve. In highly brittle materials, this process occurs without plastic deformation. This process occurs with the propagation of cracks. For the point, name this process that occurs when stress causes solid objects to break in two.
Fracture (accept word forms; accept Environmental Stress Fracture; accept Cracking or Fatigue Crack before mentioned)
(25) The Darcy-Weisbach [["WISE"-bahk]] equation gives the head or pressure loss caused by this force. This force is directly proportional to the applied load according to Amontons's [[ah-mohn-TOHNS]] First Law. Newton's formula can determine the quantity of this force by multiplying a material's namesake coefficient by its normal force. According to Coulomb's law of [this force], this force's kinetic form is independent of sliding velocity. For the point, name this force that resists movement.
Friction (accept Coefficient of friction)
10) Quasars may be highly energetic parts of these objects. The Hubble Ultra-Deep Field image captured a picture with roughly 10,000 of these objects. Lenticular [len-tik-yu-ler] types of these objects have properties intermediate between elliptical and spiral types of these objects. For the point, identify these objects which include the dwarf Magellanic Clouds, the large Andromeda, and our own Milky Way.
Galaxy (accept galaxies)
(10) Plasma torch gasification may be applied to this general type of material to prevent it from producing leachate [[LEE-chate]] or generating methane pollution, while also producing syngas for generating electricity. The company Bigbelly produces a (+) solar-powered machine that compacts this material. This material's accumulation in (*) oceanic gyres creates namesake patches, including one named the "Great Pacific." For the point, name this material stored in landfills.
Garbage (or trash, or waste, or refuse, or rubbish, accept word forms and other equivalent answers: accept Great Pacific Garbage Patch; prompt on "pollution")
5) On the twelfth space mission named for this constellation, Buzz Aldrin made a five and a half hour space walk tethered to the Agena Target Vehicle. The Eskimo and Medusa nebulas are found within this constellation, whose symbol resembles the Roman numeral for two. The two brightest stars in this constellation are collectively known as the Dioscuri and are associated with the myth of Castor and Pollux. For the point, name this constellation whose name is Latin for "twins."
Gemini (accept Gemini 12)
Information about higher-order systems is predicted by analyzing this quantity for lower order systems in the CALPHAD method. A similar quantity to this one that holds volume constant is named for Hermann von Helmholtz. The formula for this quantity involves the product of temperature and entropy, subtracted from the enthalpy. For the point, name this measure of a reaction's spontaneity, a type of free energy symbolized G and named for an Englishman.
Gibbs free energy (accept Gibbs alone after "free energy" is read; before then, prompt on energy; prompt on free energy; accept free enthalpy, but do not accept or prompt on enthalpy
4) The lysosome receives products from this organelle that are tagged with mannose-6-phosphate. This organelle receives proteins from the ER on its cis face and it is made of stacks called cisternae. Its main function is processing proteins into vesicles for transport. For the point, name this organelle that is named after an Italian scientist.
Golgi body (accept Golgi apparatus)
(13) Sodium content in this rock is the basis of the S-I [["S"-"EYE"]] classification. This rock, the intrusive counterpart of rhyolite, is the most common material found in Bornhardts. This rock forms its namesake domes at landmarks such as Sugarloaf Mountain and Yosemite's Half Dome. This rock contains crystals of feldspar and quartz and predominantly makes up the continental crust. For the point, name this coarse grained igneous rock commonly used to make high end countertops.
Granite
(26) With Maurice Koechlin [[KEH-klin]], this engineer built the Garabit [[gah-rah-BEE]] Viaduct. This engineer designed the interior supports for the Statue of Liberty. One of this engineer's projects, which at the time was the world's tallest manmade structure, relied on an exponential shape and latticework to withstand high wind speeds. For the point, name this French civil engineer, who names a triangular tower in Paris.
Gustave Eiffel (or Alexandre Gustave Eiffel; or Bönickhausen dit Eiffel; accept Eiffel Tower or Tour Eiffel)
(9) A saturable reactor type of these devices may be used to increase maximum alternating current. The number of turns in these devices divided by length is directly proportional to their magnetic flux density. These devices are typically constructed out of an insulated wire coil and store energy in the magnetic field when passing an electric current through it. For the point, name these circuit components whose namesake quantity is measured in Henrys.
Inductors (accept Coil, Choke, or Reactor)
(20) This scientist's concept of "fitness" was applied to society in the book Social Statics. This scientist replaced Carl Linnaeus's category of "Vermes" [[VEHR-mess]] by coining the term "invertebrate." This scientist wrote the Philosophie zoologique [[fee-loh-soh-FEE zoh-oh-loh-ZHEEK]] and (+) illustrated one of his ideas by citing a giraffe acquiring a long neck through multiple (*) generations of stretching. For the point, name this biologist, who proposed a discredited theory of evolution that involved inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (or Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck)
26) These statements were refined by the measurements of Tycho Brahe [tike-oh bra-hee]. The second of these statements can be derived by conservation of angular momentum. The third of these statements, published ten years later, sets the square of the orbital period directly proportional to the the cube of the semi-major axis. The first of these laws states that all planets move around in ellipses with the sun as one focus. For the point, name these laws of planetary motion put forward by a contemporary of Copernicus.
Kepler's three laws of planetary motion (accept Kepler after "laws" is read; prompt on "laws of planetary motion" by asking "As stated by whom?")
29) Of this island's three original volcanic cones, only Rakata partially survives. A fourth cone that emerged from the remains of this island partially collapsed in December 2018 and triggered a tsunami in the Sunda Strait. One eruption from this volcanic island killed over 35,000 people, and altered global climate for the next two years. For the point, identify this Indonesian island which lost two-thirds of its landmass in the explosive eruption of August 1883.
Krakatau (accept Krakatoa)
(1) This disease's drug-induced variant can be caused by the arrhythmia drug procainamide [[pro-KAY-nih-mide]] and the anti-convulsant phenytoin [[feh-nih-"TOE"-in]]. This disease is the most common cause of Libman-Sacks endocarditis [[en-doh-kar-"DIE"-tis]]. This disease, which causes a malar [[MAY-lar]] rash, is worsened by sunlight exposure. This disease is characterized by the appearance of a "butterfly" mark on the face. For the point, name this autoimmune disorder which gets its name from a mark resembling a wolf bite.
Lupus (or System Lupus Erythematosus; or SLE)
On this celestial body, Aeolis Mons rises within the Gale Crater. Acidalia Planitia dominates one of the 30 quadrangles that are used in a mapping of this planet. The tallest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on this planet. A probe landing site on this planet was honorarily named Bradbury Landing shortly after the Curiosity rover began exploring it. For the point, name this planet orbited by Phobos and Deimos, the fourth planet from the Sun.
Mars
27. This is the most iron-rich object in the solar system. Unusually, this planet's year is almost exactly 1.5 times the length of its day. The planet Vulcan was hypothesized to account for orbital anomalies of this planet, which was later explained using Einstein's theory of general relativity. This planet has the highest difference of any planet between its average daytime and nighttime temperatures. For the point, name this first planet from the sun.
Mercury
The largest globular cluster of this galaxy is Omega Centauri. The zone of avoidance is the region in the sky obscured by this object. This galaxy's centre is home to the radio source Sagittarius A-star, which is likely a supermassive black hole. This galaxy was shown to have a central bar in 2005, to go with its 4 main spiral arms. The nearest galaxy to this galaxy is Andromeda. For the point, name this galaxy of the Local Group that is home to our Solar System.
Milky Way
9. Jeffrey Bada improved upon this experiment by including iron and carbonate minerals. Following the death of one of the namesakes of this experiment, it was found that more products were produced than expected. The starting molecules of this experiment were water, methane, hydrogen, and ammonia, which were reacted via sparks, a simulation of lightning. For the point, name this experiment that supported the theory of abiogenesis by showing that amino acids could be produced by the hypothetical early atmosphere of Earth.
Miller-Urey experiment (accept names in either order)
24) This is the one-letter abbreviation of the amino acid glutamine. The end of a polypeptide opposite the carboxy-terminus is denoted by this letter. Diploid and haploid sets of chromosomes are most commonly written as multiples of this letter. An element symbolized by this letter undergoes "fixation" by rhizobia and is found in amine groups. For the point, name this letter, the chemical symbol for nitrogen.
N
27) James Challis blundered the chance to find this object using John Couch Adams's calculations. Johann Gottfried Galle discovered this planet based on calculations done by Urbain Le Verrier [luh VARE-ee-AY]. This planet is orbited by the largest retrograde moon in the Solar System, Triton. Methane in this planet's atmosphere reflects gives it its namesake blue color. For the point, name farthest planet in our Solar System, the eighth from the Sun.
Neptune (
24) J.P. Morgan withdrew funding from this man's Wardenclyffe Tower after this man offered to provide free energy to humanity. This man names a company led by Elon Musk. The SI unit for magnetic flux density is named after, for the point, what Serbian-American scientist who studied electricity with his namesake coil?
Nikola Tesla
30) In Shoreham, New York, this engineer designed the Wardenclyffe Tower, intended to transmit messages across the Atlantic to England. Alfred Brown and Charles Peck started a company with this scientist which got off the ground with a patent for a polyphase induction motor that was licensed to George Westinghouse. This man replaced the insulator in a Ruhmkorff coil with an air gap to create his namesake coil, known for discharging violet-colored light. For the point, name this Serbian-American inventor and engineer, honored with the SI Unit of magnetic flux.
Nikola Tesla
(7) The potential energy of these devices can be approximated with the second-order cosine approximation. The momentum of a bullet can be found by firing a gun into the ballistic variety of these devices. A classical example of a chaotic system is the double variety of these devices. The ideal form of these devices consists of a weighted bob at the end of a massless rod. For the point, name these devices that swing to keep time in grandfather clocks.
Pendulums
(29) A basis of unit vectors with this property is generated by the Gram-Schmidt process. The transpose of a matrix with this property always equals its inverse. A triangle's circumcenter lies at the intersection of lines named for this property, which is also possessed by two vectors whose dot product equals zero. Two lines with opposite reciprocal slopes have this relative property. For the point, name this property of lines that meet at 90 degree angles.
Perpendicularity (accept Orthogonality; accept Normal; accept Orthonormal; accept Right angles or 90 degree angles before mentioned; prompt on "bisector" or "bisecting")
(3) The third book of this text, On the system of the world, expands on the scientific method in its four "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy." The essay General Scholium [[SKO-lee-oom]] was added to this text and includes the statement "Hypotheses non fingo." This text contains mathematical derivations of Kepler's laws and a statement that a change in motion is proportional to the net force. For the point, in what text does Isaac Newton describe his three laws of motion?
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (prompt on "PM")
This second lightest pnictogen [NICK-tah-jin] forms bonds that are chemically similar to arsenic, which is below this element on the periodic table. This element's white allotrope combusts in the air, and was replaced by its red allotrope for use in matches. Nitrogen, potassium, and this element are the most typical nutrients found in fertilizers. Sugars and an ion with an atom of this element form the backbone of DNA. FTP name this element found below nitrogen on the periodic table, with symbol P.
Phosphorus (accept P before mentioned
Geological features on this body include five dark spots referred to as the "Brass Knuckles" and a dark region that resembles a whale. Trying to discover this object was the goal of a series of mid-1910s observations by Percival Lowell, but this object was not officially discovered until Clyde Tombaugh did so in 1930. In 2006, this object was controversially reclassified as a dwarf planet. For the point, name this former ninth planet from the sun.
Pluto
(3) In some programming languages, including C, the array data type is actually one of these objects due to the language's memory structure. This type is returned by a successful call to the "malloc" function, and aliasing is used when two or more of these objects have the same value. A "dangling" one of these types of objects can result in a segmentation fault, and in C, an asterisk is used to declare a variable of this type. For the point, name this data type which references locations of objects in memory.
Pointer
(35) These crops are the most notable to be engineered to express a jellyfish's green fluorescent protein as an aid to reducing water usage. Like tomatoes, this crop can be destroyed by infections of the water mold Phytophthora infestans [[fai-TOFF-theh-rah in-FES-tans]]. This crop in the nightshade family was originally from Peru and has the scientific name Solanum tuberosum [[so-LAH-noom too-beh-ROH-soom]]. Including fingerling, gold, and russet varieties, for the point, what are these tubers that are often mashed or baked?
Potatoes (accept specific types of potatoes such as those mentioned; accept Solanum tuberosum before mentioned)
(7) Troughs between these structures are known as their namesake "slack." These structures are known as zibars [[ZEE-bars]] when they lack a slip face. Multidirectional winds lead to the formation of the "star" type of these structures. Wind primarily from one direction forms the crescent-shaped barchan variety of these structures. Flat, wind-swept areas covered in these structures are known as ergs. For the point, name these hills made of particulate matter, commonly found at beaches and deserts.
Sand Dunes (accept Dune System; or Dune Complex; or Dune Field)
(35) By damaging these structures, the monoclonal antibodies bamlanivimab [[bam-lah-NIH-vih-mab]] and etesevimab [[eh-teh-SEH-vih-mab]] disrupt infection. These structures extend from the viral envelope lipid bilayer and are composed of (+) glycoproteins. Adenoviruses are modified to express these structures in the Johnson & Johnson vaccine. Pfizer mRNA vaccines (*) program cells to produce these structures. For the point, name this protein structure that gives coronaviruses their distinctive "crowned" appearance.
Sars-Cov-19 Spike protein (or Peplomer; prompt on partial answers)
(3) Distortions of this sense are known as dysgeusia [[dis-JOO-syah]]. A conditioned aversion to this sense following illness is named for Dr. John Garcia. One type of G protein-coupled receptors transmit a type of this sense called (+) umami [[oo-MA-mee]]. This sense detects compounds such as glutamate [[GLOO-tah-"mate"]] and tannins which activate (*) receptors within the papillae [[PAP-ih-lay]]. Strongly linked to smell, for the point, what is this sense that is conducted from namesake buds on the tongue?
Sense of Taste (or Gustation)
(3) The Mazon Creek fossil beds in Illinois are primarily made up of this rock. This rock is distinguished from marl by lacking conchoidal [[kon-KOY-dul]] fractures and from mudstone by being highly fissile. Kerogen [[KEH-roh-jen]] hydrocarbons can be found in deposits of this rock. Along with dolomite [[DOH-loh-"might"]], this rock makes up the Bakken [[BAH-ken]] Formation. For the point, name this flaky sedimentary rock that often includes oil deposits such as at places named Burgess in Alberta.
Shale (accept Burgess shale)
(14) These hormones are notably produced in the zona fasciculata [[fah-sih-kyoo-LAH-tah]] and zona reticularis [[reh-tih-kyoo-LAY-riss]]. Aspirin and ibuprofen are part of a class of painkillers named for the fact that they do not act on these hormones. Examples of these hormones include the androgen and estrogen sex hormones. Cholesterol is in a class of precursors for these hormones, which include stress hormones like cortisol. For the point, name these hormones, whose anabolic variety are illegally used to grow muscle mass.
Steroids (accept Anabolic steroids; prompt on "Corticoids")
(22) The Yukawa interaction describes interactions governed by this force in a scalar and Dirac [[dee-RAHK]]] field. This is the only force affected by asymptotic freedom, causing this force to diminish over time. This force is currently best understood through (+) quantum chromodynamics. This force allows quarks to be confined into hadrons, preventing the existence of free quarks. This force is mediated by the (*) gluon, holding neutrons and protons together in the atomic nucleus. For the point, name this most powerful of the four elementary forces.
Strong nuclear force (or Strong interaction; or Color force)
(5) Blueschist [[BLOO-shist]] is a rock created from this process, often forming accretionary wedges. Unstable regions in which this process occurs are known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Regions in which this process occurs are the only known origins of superthrust earthquakes. This process, which is slowed by mantle convection, allows crustal slabs to be recycled. For the point, name this process of one continental slab being pulled under another, which happens at namesake "zones."
Subduction (accept Subduction zone; prompt on plate "convergence"; prompt on plate "tectonics"; prompt on "metamorphosis" before "wedges")
(34) Kruskal's and Prim's algorithms can be used to produce one of these data structures which connects all vertices of a graph with minimum edge weights. The red-black variety of this data structure is self-balancing, differentiating it from the binary search variety, and the first node of this structure is known as the root node. For the point, name this type of data structure whose terminal nodes are referred to as leaf nodes rather than branches.
Tree (accept Binary Search Tree before mentioned; accept Binary tree; prompt on "graph" before mentioned)
26) John Flamsteed thought this object was a new star when he first observed it, and William Herschel first believed that this object was a comet. One theory suggests that this object was struck by a large object early in its existence which not only caused this object to lose a great deal of its internal heat, but also caused this object to tilt so that its axis is very close to being parallel to the plane of the solar system. For the point, identify this planet which has moons that include Titania and Ariel, the 7th planet from the sun.
Uranus
(8) A Knudsen cell is used to measure this quantity for a solid, which can then be used to find its enthalpy of sublimation via the Clausius-Clapeyron [[klah-peh-ROHN]] relation. Volatile substances have high values for this quantity, which is multiplied by the mole fraction to give the partial pressure of a substance according to Raoult's [[ra-OOLZ]] law. A substance boils when this quantity equals the atmospheric pressure. For the point, name this quantity, the force per unit area exerted by a gas in equilibrium with its liquid phase.
Vapor Pressure (accept Equilibrium Vapor Pressure; prompt on "pressure")
This constellation is home to the first discovered quasar, 3C 273, and a galaxy named for its resemblance to a sombrero. This constellation's massive M87 galaxy is the central galaxy of a large cluster. The Milky Way and the rest of the Local Group belong to a supercluster whose center is in this constellation. Spica is the alpha star of, for the point, what constellation that sits between Leo and Libra and depicts a maiden?
Virgo (prompt on "maiden" or "virgin" before mentioned
15) Due to osmium tetroxide's ability to bind to alkenes in this vitamin, Sharpless dihydroxylation was widely replaced with Upjohn dihydroxylation. An extended conjugated chain of alkenes makes up this vitamin that isomerizes from cis- to trans- form in the presence of light. Golden rice is genetically engineered rice that contains a precursor to this vitamin. Rhodopsin makes use of this vitamin, of which beta-carotene and retinol are common sources. For the point, name this fat-soluble vitamin important for healthy eyesight.
Vitamin A (prompt on retinol or retinal or retinoic acid; prompt on beta-carotene)
17. The name for these spacecraft derived from a scrapped NASA mission to visit Mars. The "Pale Blue Dot" photograph of the Earth was taken by one of these spacecraft. These spacecraft were conceived in the aftermath of NASA's failed "Grand Tour" project. In 2012, one of these spacecraft was the first man-made object to leave the solar system. For the point, name this pair of spacecraft that went to study the four outer planets.
Voyager 1 and 2
This person is the namesake of an infrared telescope in the Canary Islands, as well as a crater that makes its body, the moon Mimas, resemble the Death Star. This person discovered the moons Titania and Oberon. His most famous discovery was originally named Georgium sidus after King George III, but was later changed to the Greek god of the sky. For the point, name this astronomer who, in 1781, discovered Uranus.
William Herschel
22) With Joule, this scientist names an effect where real gases expand adiabatically in a throttling process through a valve or porous plug. This scientist names an SI Unit that is the most commonly used absolute temperature scale since zero on that scale marks "absolute zero." For the point, name this Scottish physicist who names the SI unit for temperature.
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (accept either underlined part)
These organisms' cell walls lack D-amino acids. These organisms are defined as having ether linked lipids in their cell walls. 16S rRNA [16-S r-R-N-A] was used by Carl Woese to give these organisms their classification, which moved away from a previous tree of life that had 5 kingdoms. Most halophiles and methanogens are part of, for the point, what domain of extremophiles, separate from eukaryotes and bacteria, named for their age?
archaeabacteria or archaeons (do not accept or prompt on "bacteria" alone
6. RNA from the Xist gene inactivates these structures in lyonization, where they become Barr bodies. Too many CGG triplet repeats in the FMR1 gene on these structures are the cause of a disorder that is named for the fragility of these structures. One of these structures is missing in women affected by Turner syndrome, while men have at least two of these structures in Klinefelter's syndrome. For the point, name this sex chromosome present in both males and females.
X chromosomes (prompt on "chromosomes")
2. Ozone can be used to split this functional group into carboxylic acids and ketones. No intermediate productions, like a similar functional group, form when these functional groups undergo halogenation. The German words Entgegen and Zusammen lend their names to the E and Z symbols used to label isomers of this functional group. The general formula of acyclic examples of these hydrocarbons have formula C-n, H-2n. The simplest example of these hydrocarbons is ethene. For the point, name this type of functional group consisting of a carbon carbon double bond.
alkenes [or olefins]
John Wheeler's "delayed choice" experiment asks whether this experiment's apparatus was "noticed" by the light passing through it. This experiment refuted Newton's corpuscular theory by showing dark bands, formed by destructive interference that wouldn't be possible if light acted as a particle. For the point, name this 1801 experiment, named for the two-holed plate it used and its deviser, Thomas Young.
Young's double slit experiment (accept Young's experiment before his name is read
(22) In The Analyst, George Berkeley [[BAR-klee]] used an error involving this value in his critique of fluxions [[FLUK-shuns]] and infinitesimals, providing an example of "ghosts of departed quantities." This value represents the Turing degree of the partial computable functions. This value represents the bottom element of a bound lattice and is the cardinality of the empty set. For the point, name this number that creates an undefined expression as the denominator of a fraction.
Zero (accept Naught or Nil)
12. It's not related to chromatography, but one of the most common uses of calculating theoretical plates is for this process to increase its efficiency. A solution of 96% water and 4% ethanol forms when performing this process on ethanol, which cannot be extracted further as the solution is azeotropic. For the point, name this process of separating two liquids by raising temperature to a boiling point.
distillation
18. This scientist's book Through the Window discusses a war between the Kasakala and Kahama communities with first hand accounts of non-human cannibalistic infanticide. Among the subjects described by this scientist in the book In the Shadow of Man were David Greybeard, Flint, Goliath, and Flo. After witnessing the use of spoon-like twigs being used to fish for termites, this anthropologist, who has been active for over sixty years, challenged the idea that humans were the only tool-making species. For the point, name this behavioral scientist whose studies at Gombe Stream National Park have made her a world leading expert in chimpanzees.
(Dame Valiere) Jane (Morris) (van Lawick-) Goodall
3) This quantity lowers the surface barrier in transistors, increasing the rate of thermionic emission. The Stark effect describes how spectral lines split when this quantity is non-zero. The cross product of this quantity with the H-field gives the Poynting vector. Maxwell replaced the e-m-f in Faraday's law with the curl of this quantity. For a single static point charge, the force over charge gives this quantity. This field varies perpendicular to magnetic field. For the point, name this field that applies a force to a charged particle, symbolized E.
(external) electric field (prompt on "E-field"; prompt on "E")
2) In a form of NMR named for this particle, tetramethylsilane is used as an internal standard for chemical shift. The Grotthuss mechanism was proposed to explain the diffusion of these particles between water molecules. Bronsted defined acids and bases as accepting and donating one of these particles. They can be thought of as a positively charged hydrogen atom that has had its electron stripped off. For the point, name these particles that make up the atomic nucleus with neutrons.
(hydrogen) protons (or hydrogen ions or hydrogen cation; accept hydron; accept hydrogen-1; do not accept or prompt on "hydrogen")
29. CODASYL used the network model of these constructs as the basis for developing languages for them. Systematic treatment of null values and non-subversion are part of twelve rules developed for these constructs developed by Edgar Codd. Mongo loads these constructs horizontally using shards. Atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability are the four ACID properties that must be kept during transactions of these constructions. Languages that interact with these constructs either use relational algebra or relational calculus during their query. JOIN, SELECT and INSERT are keywords used on these objects in languages like SQL. For the point, name these large pools of stored information.
(relational) databases
In the paper "Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow," the author expressed doubts that this task needed to be done quickly due to a non-uniform, stable, nonperiodic, noncentral trajectory by convection flows. Edward Lorenz's work on numerical methods to perform this task using pressure, wind speed and other metrics led him to determine that the phenomena involved in this task are non-linear. Due to the atmosphere behaving as a chaotic system, this task is often only accurate for up to two weeks at most. Air precipitation, temperature and cloud movement can help with this task. For the point, name this task of determining atmospheric conditions.
ANSWER: forecasting the weather [accept weather prediction; or predicting the weather] ACCEPT: logical equivalence like "inferring weather patterns"; or "meteorology" REJECT: more specific weather-related phenomena prediction such as "Tornado predicting" or "Temperature prediction"
26. This man and Nathan Rosen proposed a type of "bridge" that connects two points of space-time, paving the way for future wormhole theory. In 1905, he wrote a paper on Brownian motion and another on using "photons" to describe the photoelectric effect. A theory by this man predicts time dilation and length contraction at extremely large speeds and describes the curvature of spacetime. For the point, name this German physicist who revolutionized our understanding of gravity with his theory of relativity.
Albert Einstein
11. This program greenlighted AS-204 which ended when a fire caused the death of Ed White, Roger Chaffee, and Gus Grissom. A follow-up program to this one plans to use the Orion spacecraft to set up a station called Gateway. Michael Collins remained in the Command Module during the 11th mission in this program, which landed in the Sea of Tranquility. The follow up to this program is the 2024 Artemis program. For the point, name this program whose 11th mission sent Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong to the moon.
Apollo program
(8) Lewis Binford promulgated the "new" form of this field in a book that said this field is "anthropology or it is nothing." The study of seemingly unimportant features in this field was popularized by In Small Things Forgotten by James Deetz. Popular methodologies of this field include remote sensing and analysis of physical culture. For the point, name this social science field that involves excavating old human settlements.
Archaeology (accept word forms)
21) This man's military innovations include designs of a heat ray for concentrating the sun's energy. This man created a screw used for moving water up a hill. According to legend, this man discovered a method for weighing a gold crown after which he jumped out of his bathtub shouting "Eureka!" while running naked through the streets. For the point, name this Greek mathematician of Syracuse who discovered the principle of buoyancy.
Archimedes of Syracuse
(5) Molecules with this property attract each other via "pi-pi stacking" interactions. The Friedel-Crafts reaction attaches functional groups to molecules with this property, which must have a conjugated system and "4 n plus 2 pi" electrons according to Huckel's rule. Any cyclic planar molecule with delocalized electrons is defined as having, for the point, what stabilizing property possessed by benzene and originally named for its pleasant odor?
Aromaticity (prompt on "Cyclic"; prompt on "Planar")
4. A cold spot in this feature related to the constellation Eridanus is thought to be explainable by the existence of a supervoid. A shotgun was used to kill pigeons roosting in a horn antenna in an unfortunate casualty that helped confirm the discovery of this feature. The superclusters and voids that permeate this phenomenon were elucidated by Martin Rees and Dennis Sciamma, giving an explanation for how photons are affected by this phenomenon in the Sachs-Wolfe effect. The polarization patterns of this phenomenon can be divided into E and B modes, and satellite missions to collect data from this phenomenon include COBE, WMAP and Planck. Bell Labs astronomers Robert Pensiaz and Arno Wilson won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of this "radiation noise." For the point, name this radiation that permeates the universe whose wavelength is the same radiation range as that used to quickly reheat food.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation [or simply CMBR] AFTER "radiation (noise)" IS READ ACCEPT: Cosmic Microwave Background [or CMB]
9) This region is composed mostly of materials that contain magnesium and silicon. A remnant from Keith Bullen's naming system - the D-double-prime layer - is found in the lower portion of this region. Containing the asthenosphere, this region is bounded by the Gutenberg and Moho discontinuities and makes up most of the Earth's volume. For the point, name this solid region divided into "upper" and "lower" portions which is between the Earth's core and crust.
Earth's mantle (accept upper mantle; accept lower mantle)
2) Oceanus Procellarum of this object, part of Flamsteed P, was landed on by the Surveyor 1 probe. Mapping of this object was done by Clementine. This object may have been formed from a collision by Theia, an idea called the giant-impact hypothesis. One of the maria on this object is the Sea of Tranquillity. Chang'e 4 landed on the "dark side" of this object. For the point, name this celestial object that orbits the third planet from the sun.
Earth's moon (accept Luna)
6. This scientist's namesake equation is modified for relativity in the Klein-Gordon equation. That equation was first published in this scientist's paper "Quantization as an Eigenvalue problem" and describes a particle's wavefunction. This man criticized the Copenhagen interpretation by imagining an atom's decay causing a hammer to break a flask of poison. For the point, name this Austrian physicist who developed a thought experiment about quantum states involving a dead and alive cat.
Erwin (Rudolf Josef Alexander) Schrödinger
3) Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod studied this organism and discovered it produces a permease and cleaving enzyme that help metabolism when glucose levels are low. Negative repressible feedback mechanisms have been found in this organism's trp ["trip"] and lac operons. This bacteria produces a Shiga toxin associated with haemolytic uremic syndrome, in its most clinically significant serotype O157:H7. For the point, name this rod-shaped bacteria present in the gut whose toxic outbreaks have been linked to romaine lettuce.
Escherichia coli (prompt on "coli")
9) Along with Jordan, this mathematician names a form of elimination to solve linear equations in matrix form. This mathematician showed a heptadecagon is constructible using a compass and straightedge. According to legend, as a child he summed the numbers one to one hundred much faster than his teacher had anticipated. For the point, name this German mathematician and physicist who names the normal distribution.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
24. This astronomer discussed how each planet of the solar system was like a different voice singing in a choir in his book Harmonices Mundi. This astronomer proposed a nested platonic solid model of the solar system. NASA's major extrasolar planet hunting telescope is named after this astronomer, who used Tycho Brahe's calculations to discover rules such as how solar system orbits are all ellipses. For the point, name this astronomer who developed three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
9) This scientist names a conjecture about packing spheres into the most space possible. He's not Newton, but this scientist's second law states that an object sweeps out equal area in equal time. This astronomer worked under Tycho [TIKE-oh] Brahe and proposed the planets move in ellipses in his book the Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. For the point, name this 17th century German astronomer who names three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
The survival of a chimpanzee named Enos green-lit this man's solo mission, for which M. Scott Carpenter served as backup. Although he lacked a basic science degree, he was awarded one for his journey on Friendship 7. In 1998, this astronaut served as a payload specialist on Discovery's STS-95 mission, in which he became the oldest person to go into space. For the point, name this astronaut and former senator, the first American to orbit the Earth.
John Glenn
3) The Morrison formation is an abundant source of fossils from this geological period. During this period, the supercontinent Pangea rifted to form Laurasia and Gondwana. The oldest known bird, the Archaeopteryx [ar-KEE-op-ter-icks], lived in this geological period that also included the Stegosaurus. For the point, name this middle period of the Mesozoic Era that took place after the Triassic and before the Cretaceous period.
Jurassic period (accept Late Jurassic period)
1) In 2019, this state's legislature voted to make Streptomyces griseus, the source of streptomycin antibiotic, its official microbe. Einstein tried to unify field theory at this state's Institute for Advanced Study. UNIX, C++, the laser, and the transistor were invented at this state's Bell Labs. The Wizard of Menlo Park, Thomas Edison, worked in this state, where John Nash developed his equilibrium at its Princeton University. For the point, name this state where Willis Carrier invented air conditioning in Newark.
New Jersey
5. A faulty telescope reflecting the blood vessels of his eye may be the reason that this astronomer thought he had discovered spoke-like features on Venus. After this astronomer's death, Clyde Tombaugh [tom-bo] took over much of his work. This American astronomer was the foremost supporter of Giovanni Schiaparelli's observations of Martian canals. For the point, name this astronomer who names a major observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona.
Percival Lowell
12) The largest fossil of this dinosaur was excavated at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation in South Dakota and is nicknamed after its discoverer Sue Hendrickson. That fossil of this dinosaur is in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. This bipedal carnivore had a large head and short forelimbs. For the point, name this large Cretaceous period dinosaur whose name translates to "Tyrant Lizard King."
Tyrannosaurus Rex (accept T-rex)
(24) This equation wrongly predicts that the critical compressibility factor equals three-eighths for all fluids. Maxwell's equal area rule corrects a flaw on P-V isotherms generated by this equation, which truncates the virial [[VEE-ree-al]] equation at two terms. (+) Attractive forces and particle volumes are accounted for by the parameters "a" and "b" in this equation, making it more accurate than the (*) ideal gas law. For the point, name this equation of state, whose Dutch developer also names a set of weak intermolecular forces.
Van der Waals Equation (or Van der Waals Equation of State)
32) The irregular Canis Major is the nearest galaxy that can be described by this adjective. Many Kuiper Belt objects like Haumea and Makemake can be described by this term, thanks to a new category created in 2006. Along with "red", this term describes the majority of stars in the Milky Way, and in about seven billion years the Sun will become a white star of this type. For the point, give this term for a relatively diminutive astronomical object, the opposite of a giant.
dwarf (accept dwarf galaxy, dwarf planet, dwarf star, red dwarf, and white dwarf)
(26) The application of this substance was first scientifically studied by University of Illinois bioethicist Arthur Galston. This substance is composed of equal parts dichlorophenoxyacetic [["die"-klo-ro-feh-NAHK-see-ah-SEH-tik]] acid and trichlorophenoxyacetic [["try"-klo-ro-feh-NAHK-see-ah-SET-tik]] acid. The first use of this substance occurred during the Malaysian Emergency. This substance is the best known of the so-called Rainbow Herbicides. For the point, name this defoliant used to clear out forests during the Vietnam War.
Agent orange
24) This scientist names ten "field equations" that relates his namesake tensor to the stress-energy tensor. This scientist's paper on Brownian motion and his explanation of the photoelectric effect won him the 1921 Nobel prize in Physics. This physicist fixed the speed of light as a constant in all reference frames in his formulation of special relativity. For the point, name this scientist who proposed the famous rest-mass equation E equals m, c squared.
Albert Einstein
Pittsburg Compound B is used in PET scans to detect this disease. Acetylcholine deficiency is a poorly-regarded hypothesis for the cause of this disease; other theories discuss tau protein mutations and the buildup of beta amyloid plaques. Ronald Reagan suffered from, for the point, what neurodegenerative disease that causes a loss of motor skill and memory and is blamed for the majority of cases of dementia?
Alzheimer's disease (prompt on dementia before mentioned
(25) This compound is oxidized by heating it with oxygen to form nitric oxide in the first step of the Ostwald process. Mixing this compound with bleach-containing substances produces toxic chloramine [[KLOH-rah-meen]] vapors. An artificial nitrogen fixation process for manufacturing this compound was discovered by Fritz Haber [[HAH-buh]]. For the point, name this simplest amine [[AM-een]] compound, whose chemical formula is NH3.
Ammonia (accept NH3 before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "Ammonium")
This process replaced the much less efficient "puddling" process, making wrought iron less important for construction use. William Kelly is thought to have independently discovered this process, in which air is blown through a vessel of molten pig iron; the air causes carbon impurities to be oxidized away into slag. Andrew Carnegie was a proponent of, for the point, what 19th century industrial process that revolutionized steel manufacturing?
Bessemer process
15) Soft-bodied organisms from this geological period are preserved in the Chengjiang biota. Stephen Jay Gould's book Wonderful Life describes unusual fossils from this period such as the five-eyed Opabinia and the dominant predator Anomalocaris. Pikaia, the possible ancestor of all vertebrates, first appears in rocks of this period's Burgess Shale. Famous for its trilobites, for the point, name this geological period, the first in the Paleozoic era, that saw a namesake "explosion" in animal diversity.
Cambrian period
(14) The Wolf-Rayet [[RAY-et]] star WR-25 is part of this constellation's Trumpler 16 open cluster. This constellation's brightest star is the current second brightest star in the night sky, Canopus [[KAH-noh-pus]]. This constellation's namesake nebula contains the (+) Keyhole Nebula and the Homunculus [[ho-MUNG-kyoo-luss]] Nebula. A star in this constellation was the second brightest star for several decades after a great eruption in 1837. Puppis [[PUH-piss]] and Vela [[VEE-lah]] form a ship with (*) this constellation, of which this constellation is the hull. For the point, what southern constellation contains a luminous blue variable Eta [[EH-tah]] star?
Carina
23) This scientist's "dangerous idea" was resisted with "skyhooks" according to Daniel Dennett in a book about his theories. Alfred Russel Wallace independently developed a theory that made this scientist famous. This man was sailing with Robert Fitzroy on the H.M.S. Beagle when he discovered the beak patterns of his namesake finches in the Galapagos. For the point, name this author of On the Origin of Species who proposed the theory of natural selection as a means of evolution.
Charles Darwin (accept Charles Robert Darwin)
2) One application of this physical principle involves aligning an ultrasound signal parallel to blood flow in an artery to measure the speed and direction of blood flow. Another application of this principle allows weather radar to accurately determine the speed and direction of storms without having to rely on repeated imaging. For the point, identify this principle also used to determine the expansion of the universe by detecting red shifts in the light from galaxies, a physical principle named for an Austrian scientist.
Doppler effect (accept Doppler shift)
1. This region, which includes "hot" and "cold" populations, has its namesake "cliff" at 1 to 2 resonance. NASA's New Horizons mission is currently exploring this region, where cubewanos like the dwarf planet Makemake can be found. The only moon with a retrograde orbit in the solar system, Triton, was once an object in this region before it was captured by Neptune, beyond which this region extends. For the point, Pluto resides in what region of space that is named for a Dutch-American astronomer?
Edgeworth-Kuiper belt
(27) Anonymous inline examples of these objects are known as Lambdas, and a type of language which includes Scheme and Lisp is named for these objects. In Java, the main program is defined using the "public static (+) void main" type of these objects, and recursive versions of these things repeatedly make (*) calls to themselves. For the point, name these objects which can take input parameters and return output.
Functions (accept Methods, Subroutine, Routine, Subroutine, or Procedure; accept Lambda function; accept Functional language; accept Recursive function)
14) In 2008, this pathogen was declared cured in the "Berlin patient.". Opportunistic infections like Pneumocystis pneumonia often follow infection by this pathogen. Truvada is a drug designed to prevent infection by this pathogen. The drug Selzentry blocks it by binding to CCR5 receptors, while AZT therapy inhibits this pathogen's reverse transcriptase enzyme. Helper T-cells are the primary target of this virus, resulting in collapse of the immune system. For the point, identify this retrovirus, which may lead to AIDS.
HIV (accept human immunodeficiency virus; prompt on AIDS)
3. A horizontal approach to the most well known characteristic of this construct occurs along a path named for Henyey. That path for Henyey for this construct can be followed from a different track named for Hayashi. Delta Scuti and SX phoenicis occupy this construct's instability strip. Most data points on this plot are along what is referred to as the main sequence. This diagram typically uses temperature as the x-axis and luminosity as the y axis. For the point, name this color-magnitude diagram named for Danish and American astronomers used for stellar classification.
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram [or HR diagram]
(17) Bourdon [[boor-DOHN]] tubes utilize coil expansion due to this law to measure pressure. Stress-strain curves have straight lines due to this law. This law can be generalized as strain is proportional to stress in elastic materials. This law predicts that distance from equilibrium is negatively and directly proportional to the restoring force. For the point, name this law relating force to displacement, which models the behavior of springs as "F equals negative kx."
Hooke's law
(5) Dissolving sulfuric acid causes it to undergo this process to produce hydronium and bisulfate ions. After undergoing this reaction, amides [[AM-ides]] are converted into a carboxylic [[kar-bok-SIH-lik]] acid and an amine [[AM-een]] or ammonia. (+) Glycosidase [[gly-KAH-sih-dase]] enzymes break polysaccharides into monosaccharides via this reaction. Proteases [[PRO-tee-ay-ses]] break down proteins by using this reaction to (*) cleave peptide bonds. For the point, name this reaction that breaks up molecules when they react with water.
Hydrolysis
7) This term describes a matrix whose elements are given by the Kronecker delta and has ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere. Multiplying an element by its inverse gives this term, which is one for multiplication. For the point, give this term that names a property stating that any number times one is equal to itself.
Identity
The Zvezda system reclaims water at this location, where it is used by the Elektron, its primary oxygen generator. Its series of sixteen solar panels rotates when the Progress or Dragon delivers supplies to this location; the Dragon launches on Falcon 9 rockets produced by SpaceX to reach it. For the point, name this Earth-orbiting satellite, currently manned by a crew of three Russians, a Brit, and two Americans.
International Space Station (or ISS
One scientist from this country observed how a dead frog's leg apparently kicked when exposed to an electric spark. Another scientist from this country charted the Taurus constellation in his 1610 book titled Starry Messenger ; that man derived his law of free fall in a thought experiment about dropping two spheres from a tower in this country. Galileo hailed from, for the point, what country home to Luigi Galvani and the Leaning Tower of Pisa?
Italy
This programming language can use the Swing library to create graphic user interfaces. This language, which does not support operator overload or class inheritance, was originally called Oak, and its bytecodes are executed on a Virtual Machine. Widget toolkits in this language are useful for creating applets. James Gosling developed this language at Sun Microsystems. For the point, name this object oriented programming language whose logo is a cup of coffee.
Java (do not accept or prompt on "Javascript"
This man determined that the cube of the semi-major axis of an orbit is proportional to the square of its orbital period. He used Platonic solids in an explanation of heliocentrism in his Mysterium Cosmographicum. This assistant to Tycho Brahe inspired Newton's theory of universal gravitation with an explanation of Copernicus' work. For the point, name this German astronomer who described elliptical, rather than circular, orbits in the first of his three laws of planetary motion.
Johannes Kepler
The discovery of this object, has recently been joined by a smaller but similar object to the southwest, is often credited to Robert Hooke in 1664. This object is located 22 degrees south of its host's equator, rotates counterclockwise about once every six Earth days, and is the size of two or three Earths. For the point, name this large, dark storm on Jupiter, named for its color.
Jupiter's Great Red Spot
3. Organic-rich black shale deposits have been correlated with the Toarcian Turnover, an extinction event during this period. The Solnhofen Limestone is home to fossilized creatures who lived in this period, including the earliest-known bird, the Archaeopteryx. During this period, much of western North America was covered by the Sundance Sea, whose receding led to the accumulation of the Morrison formation. For the point, what is this period between the Cretaceous and Triassic that was famed for its dinosaurs?
Jurassic period
16. A spacecraft from this project was the first to perform a gravitational slingshot. The original ideas of the Cassini spacecraft derived from the cancelled "Mark II" series of these spacecraft. The tenth member of this project was the first probe to visit Mercury, while the ninth member was the first space probe to ever orbit Mars. For the point, name this set of 10 American inner planet space probes.
Mariner
14) The area of the sky obscured by this object is dubbed the "zone of avoidance." Harlow Shapley believed this object was the only one of its kind to exist, a theory overturned in debates with Heber Doust Curtis using Hubble's evidence of this galaxy's neighbor, Andromeda. This galaxy is home to a black hole at its center called Sagittarius A* [A star]. For the point, name this galaxy which contains our solar system.
Milky Way (prompt on descriptions of "our galaxy") (
14) In 1927, this journal published the result of the Davisson-Germer experiment which supported wave-particle duality. Its annual list of 10 "people who mattered" in science recently included Scott Pruitt. This British journal famously published Watson and Crick's paper on the structure of DNA without sending it out for peer review. For the point, name this prestigious scientific publication currently owned by Springer whose single word name comes from a quote by William Wordsworth.
Nature
(30) When two of these objects merge, a kilanova occurs. These objects exist above the Chandrasekar [[chahn-drah-SEH-kar]] limit and below the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit. When these objects are aligned with the Earth, they are perceived as pulsars. Like White Dwarfs, these objects are supported by the degeneracy pressure of their namesake constituent particles. For the point, name these extremely dense objects that are made up of uncharged baryons.
Neutron stars (accept Pulsars before mentioned)
(13) The telescope camera Ralph was the primary camera device on this probe. This probe carried a spectrometer named Alice which confirmed the discovery of a "wall" of hydrogen first made by the Voyager probes. Images captured by this probe led to the discovery of the moons Kerberos [[KER-ber-ohss]] and Styx. For the point, name this probe that studies objects in the Kuiper Belt, which flew past the Pluto system in 2015.
New Horizons
(9) The generation of these bonds uses protecting groups such as Fmoc [[F-M-O-C]] and Boc [[B-O-C]] in a type of solid phase synthesis. E3 ubiquitin [[yoo-BIH-kwih-tin]] ligases [["LIE"-gay-ses]] catalyze the formation of the "iso-" type of these bonds, whose phi and psi [["SIGH"]] dihedral angles can be visualized on a Ramachandran [[RAH-mah-CHAHN-drun]] plot. Pepsin and chymotrypsin [[kai-moh-TRIP-sin]] cleave these bonds, which are formed from the reaction of a carboxyl group with an amine at the P site of the ribosome. For the point, name these bonds that form between adjacent amino acids in a protein.
Peptide bond(s) (accept Eupeptide bond(s); accept Isopeptide bond(s); prompt on "covalent" bond(s); prompt on "amide" bond(s))
(12) The positive displacement type of these devices work by trapping and moving small amounts of fluids in a continuous way. Fluid motion is alternated between two chambers separated by a flexible rubber seal in the (+) diaphragm type of these devices. Pressure is reduced in a sealed container with the vacuum type of these devices. (*) Reciprocating examples of these devices power hand-operated wells. For the point, name these devices that are used to inflate tires.
Pump (accept Positive Displacement Pump; accept Diaphragm Pump; accept Vacuum Pump; accept Reciprocating Pump; accept Tire Pump)
30) One man with this last name discovered nitrogen in 1772. Another man with this last name created a namesake experiment that was also called the Geiger-Marsden experiment. That man with this last name fired alpha particles through gold foil. For the point, give the last name of Ernest, who discovered the atomic nucleus.
Rutherford (accept Daniel Rutherford; accept Ernest Rutherford)
(11) This problem was used to demonstrate that the "geometry of position" is about something more general than "measurements and calculations." One variation of this problem is the five rooms puzzle. This problem was used to show that the (+) ability to continually move along the edges of a graph was dependent only on the vertices, creating an Euler [[OY-ler]] walk. The real-world inspiration (*) of this problem was briefly made solvable after allied bombing of modern Kaliningrad. For the point, name this early graph theory problem based on the roads of a city on the Pregel River.
Seven bridges of Königsberg (accept Königsberg Bridge problem; prompt on "bridge problem" and similar answers)
21. Tibor Rado formulated a concept involving these structures where they march through and mark ones on a tape, trying to obtain the maximum number of ones. These structures' substructure includes a transition function, an instruction table, and an infinite tape written and read by a head pointer. These constructs are the subject of the Busy Beaver Game. An effective method exists for a function over the natural numbers if it is computed by one of these machines according to Alonzo Church. These models are the subject of the halting problem. For the point, name this general-purpose computer model, a so-called machine named for a British computer scientist.
Turing Machine [accept TM]
21) Natick Labs is a part of this organization which recently developed the OCP as a replacement for UCP and MultiCam. The eCybermission competition is run by this organization as part of their STEM outreach program. The Corps of Engineers is a branch of this organization known for their work in flood control. This organization commissioned the Apache helicopter and the Humvee, both of which today often feature its single-star logo. For the point, name this military organization which trains its cadets at West Point.
United States Army (prompt on just "Army")
A large group of these objects contains the Kirkwood gaps. Jupiter's L4 and L5 Lagrangian points are the home of the Trojan and Greek groups of these objects. NASA's Dawn spacecraft is studying two of these objects: Vesta and the largest one of these objects, Ceres, which is also a dwarf planet. For the point, name these small rocky objects that, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, are found in a namesake "belt."
asteroids
20) Dr. Martin Pall has proposed that electromagnetic fields such as WiFi are a potential cause of this condition. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran developed the "Broken Mirrors" theory to explain this condition in terms of dysfunctional neurons. Along with schizophrenia, Bruno Bettelheim claimed this condition was caused by "refrigerator mothers." Leo Kanner's study of this condition was later challenged by Hans Asperger. For the point, name this neurodevelopmental disorder on a namesake spectrum.
autism (prompt on Asperger's Syndrome before "Asperger")
8) Cloths soaked in brine separated the copper and zinc disks in an early type of this device. Carl Gassner created the first "dry" version of this device with a solid electrolyte, while Gaston Plante's rechargeable design used lead and sulfuric acid. Originally composed of multiple cells joined together, these devices were named by Benjamin Franklin for their resemblance to a group of artillery. Lithium-ion and alkaline are the two most common types of, for the point, what electrical devices that store energy for later use?
battery (accept batteries; accept voltaic pile until "Gassner"; prompt on electrochemical cell)
This organ's diencephalon develops into the thalamus. In this organ, the pineal gland secretes hormones that regulate the circadian rhythm. This organ's medulla oblongata continues into the spinal cord, and its central sulcus separates it into left and right hemispheres. This organ is covered with gray matter and has a wrinkled appearance. For the point, name this organ that controls the nervous system.
brain
5) An "Integrated" technique to designing these devices is based on silicon semiconductor substrates and handles billions of transistors. Kirchoff names a "loop" and "junction" law governing the behavior of these devices. "Voltage equals current times resistance" is a statement of Ohm's law which governs these devices. For the point, name these devices consisting of components that allow electricity to flow.
electronic circuits (accept integrated circuits or prompt on "board"s or "breadboard"s)
5) This particle can't share the exact same spin state by the Pauli exclusion principle. This particle, discovered by J.J. Thomson, is present in lone pairs in free radicals. Atoms like to have a certain number of this particle by the octet rule. This particle is donated in ionic bonds and shared in covalent bonds. For the point, name this negatively charged particle that circles the nucleus of atoms.
electrons
6) Increases in this quantity were suggested by the H-theorem, but challenged by Josef Loschmidt. Clausius coined the name of this quantity and defined it as "transformational content." Ludwig Boltzmann's tombstone is inscribed with a definition of this quantity; that definition sets this quantity as Boltzmann's constant times the natural log of the microstates. This quantity, symbolized S, is always increasing due to the second law of thermodynamics. For the point, name this measure of disorder in the universe.
entropy
13) The zone of plucking refers to an area where this process occurs to bedrock due to glacial movement. Eventually, after this external process, deposition of the displaced sediment occurs. The sun and the Earth's heat are the two major energy sources for this weathering process. For the point, name this physical removal of material by natural forces like wind and water.
erosion (accept weathering until mentioned, prompt afterwards; accept specific forms of erosion like glacial erosion)
4) In the game surrounding the Collatz conjecture, if the previous term does not have this property the next term will be equal to three times the previous term plus one. Goldbach's conjecture proposes that every number with this property can be written as the sum of two primes. Functions described by this property are symmetric over the y-axis. Only one prime number has this property. For the point, name these numbers divisible by two.
even numbers
26) The North American population of ferns spiked more than 70% following this event. The eruption of the Deccan Traps may have contributed to this event. A global layer of iridium and the Chicxulub crater in the Yucatan are both linked to this event, which the ancestors of birds survived. For the point, name this event from 65 million years ago that saw the end of species like Triceratops and Tyrannosaurus.
extinction of the dinosaurs (accept Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, K-Pg extinction, Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction, K-T extinction)
5) The rotational analog of this quantity is torque, while this quantity over a given area is called pressure. This quantity can be balanced and analyzed using Free-Body diagrams. The amount of this quantity caused by gravity is called weight, and the net amount of this quantity on a body is equal to its mass times its acceleration. For the point, name this quantity measured in Newtons.
force
21) CRCS can be used to reduce fine generation during this procedure, although more expensive ceramics are often used below 8,000 feet. In softer formations, an overloading of proppants can help to increase the conductivity of this procedure by avoiding closure. Additives such as polyacrylamide are part of the "slickwater" used in this procedure to promote fast outflow. For the point, name this procedure which relies on injection of fluids into rocks to create wells used to obtain fossil fuels.
fracking (accept hydraulic fracturing)
17. When ropes are involved, these models typically include the letter T. These models are useful for blocks on inclined planes to identify the vector components of gravity. Arrows on these models are all equal size when an object experiences zero force. One simple version of this construct consists of a square with an upward arrow representing the normal force and a downward arrow representing gravity. For the point, name this drawing which helps one identify which forces act on an object.
free body diagram (prompt on "force diagram")
19) A coefficient of this force is plotted against the bearing number on a Stribeck curve. For a circular pipe, the Reynolds number and relative roughness are plotted on a Moody diagram along with a factor of this force named for Darcy. This force is independent of the area of contact according to Amonton's second law of it. Under static conditions, the magnitude of this force is equal to the normal force times this force's static coefficient. A falling object experiences drag, one type of this force. For the point, name this force that resists changes in motion.
friction
9) It's not Chironomus, but the term "polytene" was coined for the large chromosomes observed in this organism's salivary glands. Thomas Hunt Morgan noted sex-linked traits in this organism's mutant white-eyed variant. This organism with four pairs of chromosomes has genetic linkage for curly and short wings. For the point, name this model organism, an insect whose scientific genus is Drosophila.
fruit fly (accept Drosophila Melanogaster; accept Drosophila before mentioned; prompt on fly; do not accept or prompt on other flies like house fly)
The Primum Mobile is the outermost layer of this model, which makes use of circles known as deferents. This model explains retrograde motion through the presence of epicycles. This model, which was popularized in the Almagest by Ptolemy, was challenged by the Copernican revolution. For the point, name this incorrect astronomical model that places Earth at the center of the solar system and universe, contrasted with the heliocentric model.
geocentric model (accept word forms like geocentrism; accept Ptolemaic model or Ptolemy's model of the universe/solar system before "Ptolemy" is said
One type of these objects develops from pressurized firn. The movement of these bodies can create winding ridges of gravel called eskers. These objects can leave behind cirques, small depressions that become tarn lakes if they fill with water. These objects may ablate through calving, in which large bergs break off of them, or through melting. For the point, name these large, land-based bodies of ice.
glacier (accept iceberg until "gravel" is read; do not accept or prompt on it after
18) Quantum analogues of this force include a model of it as "spin foam" with "quantum loops." String theory is a theory of everything that incorporates this weakest fundamental force. Henry Cavendish used a torsional balance to determine a constant in Newton's universal law of this force. For the point, name this force that, on Earth, causes an acceleration of 9.8 meters per second squared and is denoted little g.
gravity (prompt on g) P
17) On a graph of this organ's activity, a sawtooth shape can indicate ST elevation, and a widened QRS complex can signify a bundle branch block. In this organ, the Bundle of His transmits signals from the AV node towards Purkinje fibers, which can be recorded using an EKG. This organ's mitral and tricuspid valves prevent backflow of fluid from the right and left ventricles. For the point, name this cardiac organ that pumps blood.
heart
31. Important cell groups in this organ include the SA and AV nodes. This organ's function can be measured using an EKG. A cycle performed by this organ includes the diastole and the systole. Two atria and two ventricles make up, in humans, the four chambers of this organ. Severe chest pains can signal the onset of a so-called "attack" of this organ. For the point, name this organ that pumps blood around the body.
heart
9) Purkinje fibers in this organ are connected through the Bundle of His to this organ's AV node. The SA node serves as the pacemaker for this organ. The atrium is the smaller upper chamber of this organ that primes this organ's ventricles to pump. Most arteries transport away from this organ while veins head to this organ. For the point, name this organ that circulates blood throughout the body, blockage of which can lead to its namesake "attack."
heart (accept heart attack)
(5) These birds are members of the family Trochilidae and are found exclusively in the Americas, with their highest biodiversity in the lower elevations of the Andes. These birds are capable of backwards flight, and males of birds in this family often have splendid throat feathers. These birds feed predominantly on flower nectar, and include the smallest bird species in the world. For the point, name these birds whose wings produce a namesake sound while beating up to dozens of times per second.
hummingbirds
7) The "poverty of the stimulus" is an argument from this scientific field, sometimes defended by reference to binding theory or anaphora. In this field, formants may be analyzed using a spectrogram of the generated frequencies. Philology is a subfield of this field which attempts to trace historical patterns in etymology such as by using cognates. Noam Chomsky put forth the theory of a universal grammar in, for the point, what scientific field that studies the sounds, symbols, and rules of language?
linguistics (accept developmental linguistics or language learning until "formants")
This element's +1 ion oddly exists as two atoms bonded with a net +2 charge. A column of this element can be used to find atmospheric pressure, with 760 millimeters equaling one atmosphere. This element's most common ore is cinnabar, and mixtures of this element are called amalgams. This element, like alcohol, is sometimes placed in the bulb of a thermometer. For the point, name this toxic element, a liquid at room temperature, whose chemical symbol is Hg.
mercury (or Hg before mentioned
19) This organelle is the site of the Q cycle named for Coenzyme Q10. When cytochrome c is released from this organelle, apoptosis is initiated in the cell. This organelle's matrix is separated from the intermembrane space by folds called cristae, which increase surface area for the electron transport chain. For the point, name this primary factory of ATP synthesis that is affectionately known as the "powerhouse of the cell."
mitochondria (accept mitochondrion) (
30) For two coprime positive integers "a" and "n," "a" raised to the totient function of "n" is related to 1 times this operation on "n" according to Euler's totient theorem. Similarly, an integer "a" raised to some prime "p" is related to "a" with respect to this operation on "p" by Fermat's little theorem. This operation is the subject of the Chinese remainder theorem. The system of arithmetic based on this operation uses congruence relations to compare integers. For the point, name this operation, which "wraps around" and finds the remainder after division of one number by another.
modulus (accept modular arithmetic; accept modulo operation; prompt on mod; prompt on remainder)
A theorem that finds this quantity for a rigid body is sometimes named for Huygens [hoy-gens] and Steiner; that theorem involves the distance between two parallel axes, one of which goes through the center of gravity of the object. The torque on a body is equal to its angular acceleration times this value. For the point, name this rotational analogue of mass, symbolized I.
moment of inertia (prompt on moment; prompt on "I;" do not prompt on inertia alone
4. This is the more massive of two types of objectives cooled via the Urca process. Degenerate matter within the crust of these objects is thought to exist in gnocchi, spaghetti, lasagna and other "pasta" phases. A rotating form of these objects can cause radio frequency signals which gave the first of them names starting with LGM for "little green men." Those rotating variants of these objects were found by Anthony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell. The upper bound on this type of star is given by the TOV limit and like smaller white dwarves they are held up by degeneracy pressure. For the point, name this type of superdense star made up of a namesake uncharged subatomic particle.
neutron stars [accept pulsars]
Bruce Cork discovered this particle's antiparticle. This particle was discovered using paraffin wax in a 1932 experiment at the Cavendish Laboratory conducted by James Chadwick. This particle consists of one up quark and two down quarks. Carbon-13 is an isotope that contains 7 of these particles. For the point, name these particles with no charge found in the nucleus of the atom with protons.
neutrons
29) A function described by this adjective obeys the stipulation that -f(x) [negative f of x] is equal to f(-x) [f of negative x] for all x in the domain, or equivalently, functions described by this word have rotational symmetry about the origin. It is an unsolved problem whether there are any integers of this type that are perfect numbers. In its plural form, this word describes the ratio of the probabilities of an event happening and not happening. For the point, give this word that describes numbers of the form 2n + 1, which are the opposite of even numbers.
odd (accept odds)
7) Part of the Collatz conjecture concerns tripling odd numbers and adding this number to the result. This number is the determinant of every identity matrix, and this is the only number repeated in the Fibonacci sequence. This number equals the cosine of zero, and this positive integer is its own reciprocal. For the point, identify this number, the multiplicative identity, meaning it solves equations like 2x equals 2.
one (or unity)
26. Euryhaline organisms highly regulate this process, while conformers to this process are termed stenohaline organisms A gradient caused by this process is reversed by the hormone ADH. This process causes the swelling of a plant's central vacuole creating turgidity. In general, this process stabilizes solute concentrations, which can result in a cell becoming hyper- or hypotonic. Pressure is used to "reverse" this process in a desalination method. Water moves through a semipermeable membrane during, For the point, what diffusive process?
osmosis [or osmotic flow; prompt on water flow; prompt on water balance; prompt on diffusion]
25) Dissolved amounts of this gas are detected using the Winkler test. This gas's "triplet" form is paramagnetic due to unpaired electrons in its MO diagram. This gas reacts with hydrocarbons in combustion reactions. Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen and this other diatomic gas. For the point, name this gas that makes up 21% of Earth's atmosphere which is absorbed in the lungs for respiration.
oxygen gas (accept O2)
Arnold Beckmann invented an electronic instrument to measure this quantity using a glass electrode. This quantity is equal to the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions in solution. It can be estimated by using methyl red, bromothymol blue, litmus paper, or other indicators that change color based on this quantity. A substance is alkaline if its value for this is high, and values near 7 on this scale indicate neutrality. For the point, name this chemical quantity that tells how acidic a solution is.
pH ["p h"] (prompt on "acidity" or word forms before "acidic" is read
26) The Fourdrinier Brothers went bankrupt after inventing a device that produces this product after Tsar Nicholas I failed to patronize them. Tang soldiers captured at the Battle of Talas likely introduced this innovation to the Middle East. The Han eunuch Cai Lun invented this technology by mixing hemp waste with bamboo and mulberry bark. For the point, name this Chinese discovery with predecessors like the Egyptian papyrus.
paper
These structures are arranged in a corolla, whose elongation into a tube was studied by Charles Darwin. These structures are accompanied in the perianth by protective green sepals. Monocots usually have these structures in multiples of three, while dicots have either four or five. For the point, name these structures of a flower that promote plant reproduction by providing bright colors to attract pollinators.
petals
23. The lever rule can be applied to these structures to determine mole fractions. In these structures, the Clapeyron equation accounts for slopes of boundary lines, one of which is negative for water because water is more dense as a liquid than as a solid. The unit Kelvin is defined by water's triple point, which is displayed on these structures when three curved lines intersect. For the point, name these diagrams that display different physical states of substances at varying temperatures and pressures.
phase diagrams
28. Henry Fox Talbot's Calotype was a version of this process that made use of gallic acid. Thomas Wedgwood was an early pioneer in this process whose work does not survive due to not having a fixing agent to add to the silver nitrate. Charge coupled devices are commonly used in astronomy for this process because of their high quantum efficiency and taking advantage of auto-guiding as well as dark frame subtraction to create a less noisy result. An early form of this process worked by taking advantage of how light oxidises silver grains and used sheets of metal copper coated with silver iodide and is known today as the Daguerreotype. For the point, name this technique of creating images from captured film.
photography [accept equivalents like taking photos]
30) This process utilizes two "system complexes" that contain special pairs of molecules designated P700 and P680.This process uses what is widely considered the most inefficient abundant enzyme, RuBisCo. The Calvin cycle is part of the light dependent cycle of this larger process. For the point, name this process used by plants to convert light into sugars.
photosynthesis (prompt on "Calvin Cycle" until mentioned; prompt on "light-dependent" or "light-independent" reactions)
21. In a radiometric dating technique, this element's radioactive isotope-40 decays to produce argon gas. This element, which has a lilac flame test, is used along with nitrogen and phosphorus in three-component fertilizers. This element's concentration within cells is maintained by an enzyme that actively pumps this element into cells and sodium out of cells. For the point, name this alkali metal with atomic number 19 that is symbolized K.
potassium (accept K before read)
28) Minute [my-newt] crystals in this mineral form jasper. This mineral is the simplest to exhibit conchoidal [con-COY-dull] fractures and comes in milky, smoky, and rose varieties. This mineral is at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series and defines the value of seven for the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this mineral made up of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, the second most abundant in the Earth's crust after feldspar.
quartz (accept milky quartz; smoky quartz; accept rose quartz)
Gas deposits in one form of this mineral turn it "milky," and other impurities in this mineral are classified as "smoky" or "rose." Pierre Curie discovered that this mineral is piezoelectric [PYE-ah-zoh- "electric"], and it is commonly found inside geodes. After feldspar, this is the second-most common mineral in the Earth's crust, and it comes in varieties like chalcedony, onyx, citrine, and amethyst. For the point, name this silicon dioxide-based mineral, used to define 7 on the Mohs scale of hardness.
quartz (accept milky, smoky, or rose quartz; accept any of the four named varieties before they are mentioned
28) Only 10% of nutrients are retained in this biome's soil, leading farmers to use slash-and-burn techniques. The upper canopy in this biome is home to birds of paradise and toucans. On the floor of this biome, you can find red-eyed tree frogs. This biome is home to the most biodiversity. The Amazon is an example of, for the point, what biome, characterized by tall trees and high precipitation?
rainforest [prompt on "forest"]
8) Paul Feyerabend was an active critique against this process, which he argued wasn't used in Against Method. Francis Bacon developed an early form of this method in Novum Organum. This method can be divided into five steps: formulation, hypothesis, prediction, testing, and analysis, For the point, name this method of observation and experimentation.
scientific method (prompt on method until mentioned)
This disease is caused by a point mutation where a glutamic acid is changed to a valine. This disease, which can cause spleen enlargement, inhibits oxygen transfer by reducing hemoglobin's ability to bind to blood cells. This recessive disease causes blockages in veins, but does provide some immunity to malaria. For the point, name this genetic disease, most frequent among people of African origin, that affects the shape of red blood cells.
sickle cell anemia
This element's nitrate is used in an aldehyde testing reagent named for Bernhard Tollens. In the Stern-Gerlach experiment, atoms of this element were deflected to detect spin. A common ore from which this element is extracted is argentite, as was found at the Comstock Lode in Nevada. For the point, name this transition metal that is symbolized Ag on the periodic table and is considered a "precious" metal, though somewhat less valuable than gold.
silver (accept Ag before mentioned
11. In the unit circle, a point's height along the y-axis represents the value of this function for the appropriate angle. This trigonometric function, whose graph passes through the origin and has a period of 2 pi, is positive for all acute, right, and obtuse angles. In a right triangle, this function for an acute angle is equal to the length of the opposite side over the hypotenuse's length. For the point, name this basic trigonometric function whose co-function adds the prefix co- to its name.
sine function
13) This organ has sebaceous glands that secrete fluid, and vitiligo affects this organ. Vitamin D is synthesized when UV light hits this organ. One type of cancer of this structure is known as melanoma. The outer layer of this structure is the epidermis, and this is the largest organ in the body. For the point, name this protective layer that covers the body and is harmed in sunburns.
skin
30) This process can occur chronically in Klein-Levin syndrome. Cataplexy is a common symptom associated with a disease in which this process occurs suddenly. Release of melatonin causes the onset of this process, and apnea occurs when breathing is disrupted during this process. This process can happen without warning in people suffering from narcolepsy. For the point, name this process during which dreams occur.
sleep (accept REM; prompt on dreaming)
29) This material is studied in edaphology and pedology. The texture of the layers of this material are classified into horizons. Mycorrhizal [my-CUH-rai-zuhl] fungi live in this material. This mix of clay, sand, and humus sits on top of bedrock. Crop rotation helps preserve the fertility of this material. For the point, name this material that earthworms help improve and is commonly referred to as dirt.
soil (accept dirt until mentioned, prompt afterwards; accept earth until "earthworms" prompt afterwards)
11) For the formation of this material, Hans Jenny developed a five-factor state equation memorized with the mnemonic CLORPT. Aeolian processes can form a type of this material called Loess [LOH ess]. Horizons of this material are separated into O, A, B, C, and R classifications. Humus is any organic matter deposited in this material. Sand, silt, and clay make up, for the point, what type of sediment that nourishes plants?
soil (accept dirt; accept earth; prompt on "clay")
24) Pedalogy is the study of this substance whose profile is made up by the O, A, B, C, and R horizons. Along with dust and rocks, regolith is made up of this substance. Desertification results in the loss of nutrition in this material. Clay, silt and sand make up this substance which is formed from bedrock. Dirt is the common name of, for the point, what substance which plants grow in?
soil (or regolith until mentioned; accept dirt until mentioned)
19) Two of these regions named P1 and P2 form only in waterlogged conditions. The stonelayer may appear at the base of one of a silica-rich one of these regions named E, marking the lowest depth of the biomantle. Those little affected by pedogenesis are denoted by the letter C, while the one of these denoted B often contains oxides. The topmost one of these regions may contain significant humus. For the point, name these regions or layers in a soil profile which show different characteristics.
soil horizons
1) For computers, a common abbreviation using these four letters describes processor speed, total RAM, and other features. These four letters begin a word used with "broad" to describe antibiotics effective against a wide range of bacterias. A technique that studies radiation's interaction with matter using frequency begins with these four letters. For the point, name these four letters that begin "troscopy" techniques.
spec (accept spectrum; accept spectroscopy)
26) Every simply connected closed volume is homeomorphic to one of these shapes according to the Poincar´e conjecture, the only Millenium Problem to be proven thus far. Geographic coordinates are used to describe these shapes, whose surface area equals four pi times the square of their radius. For the point, identify these shapes, the set of all points in 3D equidistant from a given point which are exemplified by basketballs.
spheres
3) These cells can give rise to transient amplifying cells. Less potent varieties of this class of cells includes those identified as hematopoietic and pluripotent. This biological cell type is sometimes confused for more specific progenitor cells. For the point, name these cells capable of differentiating into other cells and dividing seemingly without limit, whose embryonic variety have come under ethical scrutiny.
stem cells (accept totipotent stem cells)
23. For human drug trials, this property is important to the upper portion of the ratio used to calculate Therapeutic Index. Chemicals with this property that localize to the intestines include SEB and are named for this property, prefixed with entero. Another chemical named for this property is a sodium channel blocker and prefixed tetrodo. Due to a compound with this property, the fugu pufferfish must be prepared carefully. Arsenic naturally has this property giving it use as a rat pesticide. For the point, name this property of biological hazards that can cause death in humans.
toxicity [do NOT accept or prompt on lethality]
Researchers first observed the quantum Hall effect in the inversion layer of one type of these devices. The invention of these devices won John Bardeen and William Shockley the Nobel Prize. Moore's law predicts that the number of these entities in a circuit will double each year, thus improving the performance of computer chips. For the point, name these semiconductors that manage electrical signals.
transistors (accept metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistors; accept MOSFETs; accept BJTs; accept bipolar junction transistors
11)Their reproductive cycles can be described as lytic or lysogenic. Reverse transcriptase is used by the "retro" type of these entities to create DNA. They are surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Infections caused by these pathogens cannot be treated with antibiotics, and thus they are often countered with vaccines. Smallpox and measles are caused by, For the point, which pathogens, examples of which include HIV and influenza?
viruses
23) Andreas Magraff is credited with the discovery of this element by heating calamine ore and carbon in a sealed vessel. This metal is required by the African claw frog's transcription factor IIIa ["three a"] which contains this metal's binding domain referred to as its namesake "finger." Copper is alloyed with this metal to make brass. Supplements of this metal are used to treat symptoms of the common cold. For the point, name this element with atomic symbol Zn.
zinc
16) The development of this structure is divided into placode, bud, cap, and bell stages. Gutta-percha is an inert polymer commonly used to fill the base of these structures after pulp infection. The roots of these structures are covered with cementum, primarily made up of hydroxyapatite and collagen. These structures are embedded within the maxilla and mandible. For the point, name these calcium-rich structures such as the bicuspid and molar, responsible for breaking up food.
(human) teeth (or tooth)
21) One quantity named for this property can be computed via the parallel axis theorem. Angular momentum is equal to that quantity times angular velocity. "Moments" named for this property are the rotational analog of mass. Newton's first law is sometimes referred to as the "law of [this property]." For the point, name this property, the tendency of objects to resist motion.
(moment of) inertia
7) These phenomena can be classified into either diurnal [DIE-ur-null], semi-diurnal or a mixed pattern. The neap variety of these phenomena occurs when the sun's mass offsets it; the neap variety occurs twice a month, as does the spring variety. These phenomena occur because the Moon has stronger gravitational pull on the side of the Earth closer to it. For the point, name these daily changes in ocean elevation levels.
(neap/spring) tides (or tidal bulges; or tidal phenomena; accept anything indicating a change in tides; prompt on "change in sea level")
This molecule exists in Z, A, or its more common B form. Adding methyl groups to this molecule will deactivate parts of it. Billions of copies of this molecule are created during PCR. This molecule wraps around histones to form chromatin, and this molecule's nucleotides are sequenced to study genomes. The genetic material for life is carried by, for the point, what polymer of nitrogenous bases that forms a double helix?
DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid
13) This effect causes a namesake broadening of spectral lines. The Ives-Stillwell experiment tested time dilation predicted by special relativity by measuring this effect on light. The speeds of the source and receiver are used to determine the observed frequency from this effect. For the point, name this effect which causes the pitch of fire truck sirens to descend as they drive away.
Doppler effect
This system was the subject of the Great Debate conducted by Shapley and Curtis. This structure includes the Norma and Orion-Cygnus Arms, and the Great Rift and Coalsack are dark nebula regions formed by interstellar dust in this galaxy. This part of the Laniakea Supercluster is a barred spiral that is centered on Sagittarius A* [A-star], the nearest supermassive black hole to Earth. For the point, name this galaxy which is home to our solar system.
Milky Way (prompt on galaxy before mentioned
While collaborating with Aaron Klug, this scientist found that all tobacco mosaic virus particles were of identical length. While working under this scientist, Raymond Gosling took the famous Photo 51 using X-ray crystallography; that photo, visualizing the "B form" of a certain structure, was given by this scientist to Maurice Wilkins. For the point, name this woman, whose work was co-opted by James Watson and Francis Crick in the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA.
Rosalind Elsie Franklin
28) This star's companion is the closest white dwarf to Earth and was discovered by Alvin Clark on observations of this star's orbit made by Friedrich Bessel. The Winter Triangle is formed by Betegeuse ["beetle juice"], Procyon [PRO-see-on] and this star. This star's heliacal [heely-uh-cool] rising was used in Ancient Egypt to predict the flooding of the Nile. This star has the lowest apparent magnitude at -1.46. For the point, name this alpha star of Canis Major, the brightest star in the night sky, nicknamed the dog star.
Sirius A (prompt on Canis Major Alpha; prompt on Dog Star)
(27) The ability of this substance to deionize water is described by its cation [[KAT-"eye"-on]] exchange capacity. The components involved in creating this substance are abbreviated with the acronym CLORPT. This substance is divided into layers known as horizons. This substance, whose varieties include loam, is composed of decayed organic matter, or humus [[HYOO-mus]], as well as sand, silt, and clay. For the point, name this material in which farmers grow plants.
Soil (accept Dirt; accept Earth)
2. Ozone can be used to split this functional group into carboxylic acids and ketones. No intermediate productions, like a similar functional group, form when these functional groups undergo halogenation. The German words Entgegen and Zusammen lend their names to the E and Z symbols used to label isomers of this functional group. The general formula of acyclic examples of these hydrocarbons have formula C-n, H-2n. The simplest example of these hydrocarbons is ethene. For the point, name this type of functional group consisting of a carbon carbon double bond.
alkenes [or olefins]
(3) In response to this condition, Immunoglobulin E antibodies are produced. The hygiene hypothesis states that lack of exposure leads to this condition. Blood pressure drops rapidly and breathing is blocked in serious forms of this condition that may lead to anaphylaxis [an uh fuh lack sis]. Hay fever is a specific type of this condition. For the point, name this reaction by the body to normally harmless substances like peanuts or pollen.
allergies (accept allergy; accept any type of allergy so long as allergy is mentioned)
This element's trichloride is a common Lewis acid catalyst in the Friedel-Crafts reagent. This element's major ore is extracted in the Bayer process. The Hall-H´eroult process is used to smelt this element, whose oxide is crystallized in corundum. Bauxite is the main source for this element, whose low density and ability to make durable alloys make it a common component of aircraft frames. For the point, name this element with atomic number 13 and symbol Al.
aluminum (or aluminium; accept Al before mentioned
20) Royal Crown was among the first companies to use Ermal Fraze's design for the opening of these containers, later supplanted by the "Sta-Tab" [stay tab] model which reduced litter from these containers. Proteins present in beer trap oxygen, meaning that these containers may not need an internal coating as is usually present when these containers are filled with heavily acidic and corrosive liquids such as colas. Many sodas and other beverages are packaged in, for the point, what metal containers that are stereotypically twelve ounces with a pop top?
aluminum cans (prompt on can, soda can, or beer can, by asking "Made of what material?")
28) The tetracycline family of these medications binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit to block protein synthesis. One of these substances that Alexander Fleming discovered in mold was among the first treatments for Streptococcus infections. That drug is penicillin. For the point, name these medications that fight bacterial infections.
antibiotics (accept antimicrobial drugs; accept antibacterial drugs)
Archimedes studied this quantity of 96-gons to approximate pi. This measure is computed for polygons with the shoelace formula, and for regions bounded by a function, this quantity can be computed with integrals. Among all closed curves with a given perimeter, the circle has the largest value of this quantity. For the point, name this two-dimensional measure that can be computed for triangles as one-half base times height.
area
19. One of these quantities for n and x multiplies p raised to n multiplied by quantity one minus p raised to quantity n minus x in a Bernoulli process. Pascal's theorem expresses these numbers recursively. The name for these numbers comes from the polynomial quantity x plus y raised to the n, and they can be found for a given n using Pascal's triangle. These numbers can be computed by the formula n factorial over k factorial times quantity n minus k factorial. For the point, name these numbers commonly expressed by n choose k
binomial coefficients
17. The highest risk of cyclothymia is from the type 1 form of this disorder. Opposite pole symptoms commingle in the "mixed state" specifier for this disease. Rapid cycling is a severe form of this disease characterized by four or more mood episodes in a year. Lithium is commonly used to treat this psychiatric disorder that can cause symptoms of euphoria for periods followed by periods of dysphoria. For the point, name this disease characterized by bouts of mania and depression.
bipolar disorder [accept manic-depressive disorder or manic depression]
12) Exchanging these items for profit was the goal of Mt. Gox ["mount gocks"]. Ethereum uses similar technology to these items that were invented by the pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto. These items are exchanged along a consensus network that records transactions on a block chain. For the point, name this peer-to-peer cryptocurrency, a coin named for a single one or zero on a computer.
bitcoins
15) Synthesis of this molecule by HMG-CoA reductase is blocked by drugs called statins. This molecule's four-ring structure helps it regulate membrane fluidity. This molecule is transported through the body by HDL and LDL, often called its "good" and "bad" types. High levels of it can cause atherosclerosis, or hardening of the arteries. Cardiovascular disease has been linked to high levels of, for the point, what waxy, fat-like substance?
cholesterol
16) The noctilucent variety of this phenomena forms from ice crystals and is only visible during twilight. The study of this phenomena is known as nephology, and it occurs when saturated air is cooled to its dew point. When they occur at high altitudes, they can form mares' tails, and "contrails" are an artificial example formed by airplanes. Cirrus, stratus and cumulonimbus are varieties of, for the point, what phenomena that takes on a white fluffy shape in the sky?
clouds
The interior of one of these objects was studied by the Deep Impact spacecraft. The breakup and destruction of one of these objects was observed in 1992 as it crashed into Jupiter; that object was named Shoemaker-Levy 9. These objects have a nucleus which is surrounded by a coma. The Philae lander is on one of these objects. For the point, name these celestial objects that, as they pass near the Sun, develop a bright tail.
comets
22. Defects in the structures of these objects occur at grain boundaries. "Quasi" types of these objects lack translational symmetry, which is used to describe fourteen arrangements of these objects named for Bravais. Miller indices specify the orientation of planes in these materials, whose smallest fundamental component, the unit cell, can be defined in terms of lattice points. For the point, Bragg's Law links X-ray diffraction patterns to what solids that include diamond and table salt?
crystals
29) A unique form of these materials has smectic and nematic phases. Materials in this form are labelled with Miller indices before firing a beam of electrons at them to study their structure from the diffraction pattern. Louis Pasteur discovered chirality while studying tartaric acid in this form. In solid state physics, the unit cell and a geometrically repeated pattern defines the lattice of these structures. For the point, name these regularly structured solids, whose "liquid" variant is used in LCD TVs.
crystals (accept crystalline solids)
7. The wavefunction of electrons inside one of these systems is given by a Bloch wave. Ewald's sphere describes momentum transfer in these systems by analyzing these systems' reciprocal spaces. Materials composed of many of these systems exhibit grain boundaries at their interfaces. Walter Schottky names a type of point defect in these systems created by excitations. Laue's equation improves on Bragg's law describing x-ray diffraction by these substances. According to the third law of thermodynamics, one of these systems at absolute zero will have zero entropy. For the point, name these well-ordered solids characterized by their periodic lattice structure.
crystals [accept lattices until mention; prompt on periodic system before mention]
31. Prince Rupert devised a problem involving this geometry such that one instance could pass through another and names the smallest one that will pass through one of unit size. The Delian problem concerns constructing the doubled volume equivalent of an object with this geometry. Of the 14 Bravais lattices, this category and orthorhombic share face-centered and body-centered variants. Algorithms such as F - U - R - U prime - R prime - F prime are performed in a game that uses this geometry. This geometry describes a right-angled parallelepiped, and the four dimensional analogue to this three dimensional geometry is the tesseract. For the point, name this platonic solid with six faces and twelve edges.
cubes
10) Two varieties of this type of cloud are calvus and capillatus. This is the larger of two clouds that can form a flanking line. This type of cloud is the progression from cumulus congestus clouds due to continued powerful upward air currents carrying water vapor with it. For the point, name these "heaped rainstorm" clouds that are abbreviated Cb and are typically larger than cumulus clouds.
cumulonimbus (do NOT accept or prompt on "cumulus" or "nimbus" alone)
23) In addition to forest fires, El Ni˜no increases the likelihood of these events on island countries like Australia. California suffered a recent one of these events occurring from 2011 to 2017. Plants like Cacti are said to have tolerance to this condition, allowing them to grow in arid climates with little rainfall. For the point, name this condition characterized by prolonged shortage of water supply.
droughts (prompt on "water depletion" or similar answers)
Most of the debris in these events is created through saltation bombardment; for example, in the Bod´el´e Depression, winds up to 30 kilometers per hour cause lifted particles to crash back into the ground, lifting up more particles and expanding this event. Simooms and haboobs are examples of these events, which devastated farms in 1930's America. For the point, name these storms, common in deserts, that spread dirt and the namesake material.
dust storm (accept sandstorm; accept dusters; accept simooms or haboobs before read
22) This organ contains the smallest muscle in the human body, the stapedius. The Organ of Corti helps translate signals to the brain in the cochlea [coke-lee-ah] of this organ's inner portion. The middle portion of this organ contains the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are better known as the "hammer," "anvil" and "stirrup." For the point, name this organ that allows you to hear.
ears (accept inner/middle/outer ear)
28) These events can be described by elastic-rebound theory, and they are common at strike-slip faults. These disasters originate at a point known as their epicenter, and when that point is under the sea, these events can cause tsunamis. The Richter scale measures, for the point, what natural disasters that cause the ground to shake?
earthquakes (accept tremors; accept temblor)
20) This is the number of carbon atoms in an unaromatic tub shaped cyclic molecule with four double bonds whose dianion [dai-ANN-i-on] COT has this many carbon atoms. The speed of light is commonly approximated as three times this power of ten. Boron is the first element on the periodic table to violet a rule that elements tend to fill this many electrons. For the point, name this number of carbon atoms in octane.
eight
32. The amount of this quantity enclosed by a surface is equal to permittivity times the electric flux through the surface according to Gauss's law. The force generated by an electric field is equal to its strength multiplied by this quantity. 1.6 times ten to the negative nineteen is the fundamental unit of this quantity and was approximated in the Millikan oil drop experiment. Particles with opposite signs for this property can create an electric dipole. For the point, name this electric quantity measured in coulombs.
electric charge
4. Norton's Theorem states that any circuit can use an equivalent ideal source supplying this quantity. Kirchoff's first law states that the amount of this quantity going into a node must equal the amount going out. Diodes only allow this quantity to move in one direction. By Ohm's law, this quantity equals voltage over resistance. For the point, name this quantity measured in amperes which describes the flow of electric charge.
electrical current
Within a Schwarzchild radius, this value is greater than the speed of light. It is generally calculated by setting kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy equal to each other; as a result, this quantity is proportional to the mass of the central object divided by its radius. It is equal to roughly 11.2 kilometers per second for an object on Earth. For the point, name this minimum speed needed to "break free" of a planet's gravitational pull.
escape velocity (or escape speed
25. NASA expects to discover thousands of these objects via the TESS mission launched in 2018. The first confirmed discovery of one of these objects was Pegasi 51b, which falls under a class of these objects within the frost line known as "Hot Jupiters." Before being retired in 2018, the Kepler space telescope discovered many of these objects by the transit method when they orbited in front of a bright star. If they exist in the habitable zone, these objects are potential sources for life. For the point, name these planets that circle stars other than our Sun.
extrasolar planets [or exoplanets]
One of these images is generated by plotting qualifying values of the complex equation z squared plus c. The coast of Great Britain was considered one of these images in a 1967 paper that describes fractional dimension. The Menger sponge and Koch snowflake are examples of these images. Graphical images of the Mandelbrot set are common examples of, for the point, what self-similar images whose patterns repeat as one "zooms in"?
fractal
The Fourier transform converts a function from the time domain to a domain named for this quantity. Longer waves tend be described in terms of their period rather than this quantity, which is the reciprocal of the period. For the point, name this quantity, measured in hertz, that counts the number of repetitions of a phenomenon over a given unit of time.
frequency
30) The angle of repose is the arctangent of a value representing this force. This force is independent of the surface area according to Amontons' second law. The amount of this force is calculated by multiplying an object's normal force and the coefficient of this phenomenon symbolized mu. This force comes in static, rolling, and sliding forms. For the point, name this force that resists motion.
friction
31. The Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect is relevant on the scale of these astronomical entities. The center of the Great Attractor is the "Norma" one of these entities. Fritz Zwicky's discovery of dark matter used observations form the "Coma" one of these entities. The nearby one of these entities named "Virgo" includes M87 and along with the local group, forms the local "super" one of these entities. For the point, name these collections of galaxies.
galaxy cluste
5) Firn is a substance found at the head of one of these bodies, made of compacted n´ev´e [nay-vay]. Cirques [serks] are created by the action of these bodies, and seracs [suh-ROCKS] are formed when two or more crevasses [kruh-VOSS-es] meet on one of these bodies. Randklufts and bergschrunds can be found where these bodies begin to pull away from stable rocky cliffs. Moulins ["Mulans"] allow water to enter these bodies from the top. For the point, name these bodies that contain most of Earth's fresh water in the form of dense, moving ice.
glaciers
15) This intrusive rock is equivalent to the extrusive rhyolite. Dykes of aplite can often be seen streaking this rock, which may have formed as this rock cooled from the same mineral composition. That composition for this rock is between 20 and 60 percent quartz and primarily alkali feldspar, per the QAPF diagram. Because this rock often contains trace uranium, basements built into it must be tested often for radon. For the point, name this igneous rock, the most common continental rock, often used for decorative countertops.
granite
1) In 2016, the project LIGO reported the detection of waves of this force. General relativity states that this force is responsible for the curvature of spacetime. Of all four fundamental forces, this is the weakest. Newton formed a universal inverse-square law for this force, which produces an acceleration of 9.8 meters per second on Earth's surface. For the point, name this force described by constants big G and small g, the attraction between two masses.
gravity [accept word forms like gravitation]
15) Three of these interactions are present between guanine and cytosine in DNA. Hydrogen sulfide has a much lower boiling point than water because of these interactions. They are the reason that ice is less dense than water. For the point, name these weak noncovalent bonds in which the lightest element is shared between two atoms.
hydrogen bond (accept H-bond; prompt on bond)
18. A plus three oxidation state salt derivative of one member of these elements is commonly used as an MRI contrast agent. Due to poor shielding of the 4f electrons of these elements, they experience a namesake contraction in atomic radius. Members of this group of elements include Europium, Samarium, and Ytterbium. This group of elements begins at 57 and ends at 71. For the point, name this group of elements that sits below the transition metals on the periodic table above the actinides. .
lanthanides [accept lanthanoids]
8) Research by Arthur Ashkin, G´erard Mourou, and Donna Strickland on these devices won them the 2018 Nobel in Physics. In these devices, implementing Q-switching obtains higher peak power than continuous-wave operation. Pumping into the gain medium of these devices puts a majority of the electrons into higher energy states, a condition known as population inversion. For the point, name these devices that produce a collimated beam of coherent light, whose practical applications include barcode scanning.
laser (or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
This statement was found by Mikhail Lomonosov during his attempts to disprove phlogiston theory. Antoine Lavoisier discovered this statement by reacting metals with oxygen in sealed containers. Modern formations of this law must consider the central quantity's equivalence to energy. According to this principle, a chemical reaction in a closed environment should not change weight. For the point, name this principle which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
law of conservation of mass
11) The guard cells in this structure are used to control carbon dioxide uptake. A cutical layer over this structure prevents excess water loss through transpiration, and this structure is the site of concentrated chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis. For the point, name this green part of a plant that will change colors and fall off of trees in colder seasons.
leaf (accept leaves)
8) Christian de Nuve accidentally discovered this organelle by noticing enzyme activity dropped when acid phosphatase was present. Tay Sachs disease is one of the many genetic storage diseases that can affect this organelle due to its high amount of specialized hydrolytic enzymes. For the point, name this organelle whose name refers to the fact it breaks down waste products.
lysosomes
1) These bodies are home to a habitat that comes in fringing, barrier, and atoll types. Species denser than these bodies that rest on their bottom live in the benthic zone. Nutrients in these bodies of water are provided by cold seeps, hydrothermal vents, marine snow, or whale falls. For the point, name these bodies of water, which include the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific.
ocean (accept sea until "Arctic"; prompt on coral "reef" with "Where are reefs located?")
31) In 1979, Jimmy Carter installed 32 of these devices for the White House that were uninstalled in 1986 by Ronald Reagan. Recent dust storms on Mars have covered these devices on the Opportunity rover. These devices create electricity through the photovoltaic effect and account for 1.3% of global power . For the point, name these devices that convert light from the sun into usable energy.
photovoltaic solar panels (accept solar cells; accept photovoltaic cells; prompt on cells)
This behavior is exhibited by "divide and conquer" algorithms, as well as the Euclidean algorithm for finding GCDs. The definition of the factorial function as "n factorial equals n times "n minus 1 factorial"" exhibits this property, as does a sequence generated by the rule "multiply the previous term by 2." For the point, name this circular behavior in which the rule for doing something references itself.
recursion (accept word forms like recursive behavior or recursive function
Charged particles that exceed this value within the medium glow blue as a result of Cherenkov radiation. Tachyons are particles that hypothetically exceed can this value. The relativistic mass is multiplied by this quantity squared to give energy in a formula derived by Albert Einstein. For the point, name this constant, approximately 3 times ten to the eighth meters per second within a vacuum, the speed of all massless particles.
speed of light (accept c; prompt on speed alone
12) A sudden increase in the severity of this phenomenon is called a squall. Barbs with flags are used to indicate measurements of this phenomenon on weather maps using station models. Caused by the atmosphere's equalization of pressure differences, this phenomenon is noticeable on beaches due to differential heating of the land versus the water. This phenomenon's speed can be measured using an anemometer, and its direction using a vane. For the point, name this phenomenon of moving air.
wind (accept wind speed until "direction")
12) The largest "farm" that captures this form of energy is the Gansu Powerbase in China. This energy is captured through a tower connected to a rotor which transforms the energy into rotational shaft energy. The power of this form of energy is equal to 1/2 A times the density of air times the velocity cubed. For the point, name this form of energy captured by turbines that spin due to air particles picking up velocity.
wind energy (accept wind power)
17) Francis Wenham's invention of this device allowed him to see that long and narrow objects performed better. The Reynolds number was discovered in one of these devices by experiments on a scale model. Pressure-sensitive paint is sometimes used during testing in these devices and can help users of these devices perform a wake survey to determine drag. For the point, name these devices used to study the aerodynamics of objects by placing them in a tube with flowing air.
wind tunnels
The Betz limit notes that these devices can only capture up to 16/27ths of the maximum kinetic energy from their source. These devices are commonly built with a Darrieus vertical axis, or with a horizontal axis whose equipment is placed at the top of a tower. These devices usually have three tips and are arrayed in large farms. For the point, name these generators of renewable energy that produce electricity by spinning via natural forces.
wind turbine (or windmill
11. The A7L design for the extravehicular mobility units used in this program gave rise to an iconic "fishbowl" look associated with all future designs. The Phillips Report party blamed a disaster during this program on North American Aviation. This program greenlighted AS-204 which ended when a fire caused the death of Ed White, Roger Chaffee, and Gus Grissom. A follow-up program to this one plans to use the Orion spacecraft to set up a station called Gateway. Michael Collins remained in the Command Module during the 11th mission in this program, which landed in the Sea of Tranquility. The follow up to this program is the 2024 Artemis program. For the point, name this program whose 11th mission sent Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong to the moon.
Apollo program
13. Low mass analogs of HMCs in this process are termed hot corinos. This process is related to local gas surface density by an empirical relation named for Maarten Schmidt. This process begins occurring above the Bonnor-Ebert mass. The rate for this process is high in Pea galaxies and blue compact galaxies. The presence of a first hydrostatic core is thought to be detectable during this process which is also accepted to be the source of nebulonic ejections known as Herbig-Haro objects. Binary and multi-variants of the product of this process are commonly formed in systems in Bok globules. The elephant trunks of the Eagle Nebula were photographed undergoing this process in a photo named Pillars of Creation. For the point, name this process of forming astronomical objects like the sun.
(proto)star formation [or (proto)stellar formation; accept formation of stars; accept "forming" for formation and also logical equivalents like "birthing" "development", etc.]
(30) Most members of this classification are part of the Olfactores [[ohl-fac-TOH-res]] clade [[KLAYD]], which is named for possessing specialized smell organs. Along with Echinodermata [[ee-kai-no-der-MAH-tah]] and acorn worms, members of this phylum are deuterostomes [[doo-TEH-roh-stohms]], meaning they have a separate mouth and anus. Members of this phylum possess either pharyngeal [["fair"-en-JEE-ahl]] pouches or pharyngeal slits while in their embryonic state. For the point, name this animal phylum named for possessing a namesake cartilage tube or backbone.
Chordata (or Chordates)
21) A famous photograph of x-ray diffraction on this molecule came out of the lab of Rosalind Franklin. Watson and Crick discovered this molecule's structure which is composed of bases like adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine that form base pairs. For the point, name this molecule with a double helix structure that contains the genetic code for life.
DNA (accept deoxyribonucleic acid)
15. A vaccine approved for this virus genus in the United States in December 2019 made use of vesicular stomatitis virus with modified glycoproteins. A discovery of a filovirus that shared characteristics of this virus genus was named for Reston, Virginia and is fortunately nonpathogenic. The antibody cocktail ZMapp was created to curtail this virus genus. In addition to the Marburg virus, which is in the same family as this virus genus, old world fruit bats are considered a natural reservoir for this hemorrhagic fever disease. For the point, name this genus of viruses whose Zaire strain caused a major epidemic in West Africa from 2013 to 2016.
Ebola Virus Disease [prompt on EVD; accept ebolaviruses; accept specific strains like Zaire Ebola]
7) In the early 20th century, only scientists from this country could detect the fictitious N-rays. Hand and face transplants were both first carried out in this country. The HIV virus was discovered by researchers in this country at an institute named for the developer of the first successful anthrax vaccine. The metric system was invented during this country's revolution, and the element gallium is named for it. For the point, identify this country whose eminent scientists include Louis Pasteur, Henri Becquerel, and Pierre Curie.
France
16) Predictions for the formula of this substance have included quicklime, because it ignites on contact with water. The Byzantines used this substance, often by launching it from ships, until its formula was lost in the 1200s. For the point, name this ancient weapon that is said to be similar to modern napalm because it can burn while floating on water.
Greek fire (prompt on "fire;" prompt on "wet fire" and similar)
28) This virus's gp41 and gp120 proteins help target it to CD4 receptors. Opportunistic infections as a result of this virus can cause Kaposi's Sarcoma. The proliferation of this virus is slowed down by drugs like AZT which work by inhibiting this virus's reverse transcriptase. This retrovirus infects helper T cells of the immune system. For the point, name this virus that weakens the immune system and leads to AIDS.
HIV (accepthuman immunodeficiency virus; prompt on AIDS before it is read; prompt on acquired immune deficiency syndrome before AIDS is read)
10) He Jiankui unethically used CRISPR to edit two babies' DNA in hopes of giving them resistance to this disease. The HAART approach to treating this disease focuses on inhibiting multiple targets, including the virus's protease, integrase, and reverse transcriptase. For the point, name this disease that became an epidemic in U.S. in the 1980s and is caused by the retrovirus HIV.
HIV/AIDS (or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; accept HIV or human immunodeficiency virus before mentioned)
11. The Angular framework helps this language through directives and expressions. This language is the main language whose functionality is increased through Cascading Style Sheets. Common Gateway Interface allows programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript to produce files in this non-programming language, which uses angled brackets to designate tags. For the point, name this markup language that forms the backbone of websites.
HTML [or Hypertext Markup Language]
15) The so-called "Armada" sent to study this object included Sakigake, the first Japanese spacecraft to leave Earth's orbit, and the ESA's Giotto probe. This object was the first non-planet proven to orbit the sun. Debris from this object produces the Orionid meteor shower, and images from its last visitation in 1986 confirmed the "dirty snowball" hypothesis. For the point, identify this comet, named for an English astronomer, due to return to Earth's vicinity in 2061.
Halley's comet (accept 1P/Halley)
(14) High speed optical communication using this radiation relies on the C band of EDFAs. Along with ambient visible light, this is the primary radiation converted into electrons in night vision goggles. This radiation names a form of spectroscopy that measures a molecule's vibrational transition. This radiation has wavelengths from 700 millimeters to one centimeter. For the point, name this radiation range with wavelengths longer than that of visible light.
Infrared light (or IR)
(29) A pentavalent [[pen-tah-VAY-lent]] compound of this element named for Dess and Martin oxidizes alcohols into carbonyl groups. A solution of this element fixes crystal violet dye during a bacterial Gram stain. A salt of silver and this element is used to cause precipitation during cloud seeding. This element forms a dark blue complex with starch in its namesake "clock reaction" commonly performed in lab demonstrations. Goiter is caused by a deficiency in, for the point, what halogen often added to table salt?
Iodine (or I)
24) A series of pouches named for this scientist preserved nerve supply unlike the Heidenhain pouches of his mentor. As the founder and first chair of physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, this scientist developed a theory to explain "psychic secretions" he noticed when he approached his subjects, who believed they were about to be fed. For the point, name this Russian scientist whose work on classical conditioning involved training dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
This man proposed a thought experiment that would violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics by allowing entropy to decrease in a system via a door between two gas chambers opened and closed by a small, intelligent being. More notably, this scientist collected the work of Amp`ere, Faraday, and Gauss into a unified theory of electromagnetism. For the point, name this Scottish scientist who names a hypothetical "Demon" and the set of four electromagnetism equations.
James Clerk Maxwell
29) This man gives his name to a conjecture for the maximum efficiency of packing spheres. One law named created by this scientist gives a relation between the square of the orbital period to the cube of the orbit's semimajor axis. This astronomer developed the three laws of planetary motion further developing Copernicus's model of heliocentrism. For the point, name this German astronomer and mathematician.
Johannes Kepler
(23) In one paper, this thinker proposed a circular and contextual conception of stimulus and response. This author of "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology" responded to Walter Lippman in The Public and its Problems. This thinker founded the University of Chicago Lab School to test his progressive educational theories. For the point, name this American psychologist and pragmatist philosopher, the author of Democracy and Education
John Dewey
(2) This object is considered by astronomers as the best with which to calibrate the period-luminosity relationship of Cepheid [[SEE-fee-id]] variables. This object is the prototype of a galaxy classification with one major spiral arm. This galaxy's Tarantula Nebula contains the remnants of Supernova 1987A. A bridge of neutral hydrogen connects this galaxy to its smaller counterpart. For the point, name this bigger of two Local Group galaxies named after a Portuguese explorer.
Large Magellanic Cloud (or LMC; do not accept or prompt on partial answers, or "Small Magellanic Cloud" or "SMC")
3. The brightest supernova seen since the 1600s was discovered in 1987 in this galaxy. This galaxy is home to a rapid star formation region called the Tarantula Nebula and one of the brightest known stars, S Doradus. This is the fourth largest galaxy in the local group and the largest satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. For the point name this companion to a "small" galaxy, both of which are named for a Portuguese explorer.
Large Magellanic Cloud [or LMC]
13. An effect named for this scientist is mathematically expressed as the magnetic flux density, times the path length times Verdet's (vayr-DAY) constant for the material equals the angle of rotation. Maxwell wrote a version of this scientist's law as the curl of electric field equal to the negative partial derivative of the magnetic field with respect to time, where the negative sign was precursored by Lenz's law. This scientist's law describes how an electromotive force is created by a change in flux. For the point, name this English scientist who names an electromagnetic law of induction.
Michael Faraday
3) CalTech alumni and faculty help run this agency's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. This agency has been responsible for exploring Gale crater with a machine whose name was proposed by sixth-grader Clara Ma. This agency's Orion craft will launch the second Artemis mission in 2022. For the point, name this American space agency that landed Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong on the moon.
NASA (or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
2. In 2014, NASA's WISE mission disproved the idea that a hypothetical planet named Tyche resided within this region. The Hills Cloud is thought to be the inner region of this body, which is roughly spherical in shape due to the influence of galactic tides. Richard Muller hypothesized that a dwarf star called Nemesis travels through this region every 26 million years, making long-term comets bombard Earth and cause mass extinctions. For the point, what region marks the outer limit of the solar system and is named for its discoverer, a Dutch astronomer?
Opik-Oort cloud
19) This constellation is northwestward of the north star Sirius. This constellation contains the stars Rigel and Betelgeuse ["beetlejuice"]. Mintaka, Alnilam, and Alnitak form a diagonal line to make up this constellation's "belt" while the namesake nebula of this constellation is located in the Sword asterism. For the point, name this constellation of a hunter from Greek mythology.
Orion
One star in this constellation forms the center of the Winter Hexagon. A line extending from this constellation's two brightest stars passes close to Castor and Pollux. The largest star in this constellation is a red supergiant about 600 light years away that will go supernova within a million years. The two brightest stars in this constellation are Rigel and Betelgeuse. For the point, name this constellation that depicts a hunter and has a group of three stars forming its "belt?"
Orion (prompt on "hunter" before mentioned
16) Simpson's rule uses this shape to approximate integrals. This shape can be formed by intersecting a plane with a cone parallel to its slant height. This curve is the locus of all points equidistant from the focus and the directrix. For the point, name this conic section with eccentricity of one, the graph of a quadratic function.
Parabola
5) This programming language uses "duck typing" to denote objects. The site Reddit is entirely coded in this language, which uses namesake "Num" and "Sci" libraries for computing. This language invented by Guido van Rossum uses whitespace for readability, and has variables called "spam" and "eggs." Web servers often use, for the point, what programming language named for a British comedy troupe with a "serpentine" name?
Python
(10) In an editorial on this case one writer referred to the defense as "theological bilge." One defense witness in this case was asked questions about the population of ancient Egypt as well as Cain's wife. This case involved a violation of the (+) Butler Act and was deliberately staged to bring attention to the small town of Dayton, Tennessee. (*) Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan debated at, for the point, what court case, in which a teacher was convicted of teaching evolution?
Scopes trial (or the Scopes Monkey trial; or The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes)
(4) A three thousand-year old Japanese skeleton discovered in 2021 provides evidence for the oldest known one of these events. Common methods for preventing these events include drumline traps and nets that emit (+) electrical frequencies. These events often happen when a certain animal mistakes a surfer's (*) silhouette for that of a seal or other marine mammals. For the point, name these events in which a large cartilaginous [[kar-tih-LAH-jih-nus]] fish injures or kills a human.
Shark attack (or Shark bite; accept descriptive answers involving humans being attacked and/or injured by sharks)
22) In this author's essay "General Scholium" he claimed to "feign no hypothesis" centering around the second edition of his most famous work. After the Glorious Revolution, this scientist was appointed Master of the Royal Mint. Edmund Halley convinced this scientist to publish his Principia Mathematica after discovering that this man had solved Kepler's laws of planetary motion. For the point, name this mathematician who feuded with Leibniz over the discovery of calculus.
Sir Isaac Newton
(16) The solubility of these compounds approaches the CMC at the Krafft temperature. An anionic [[an-"eye"-AH-nik]] type of these compounds called SDS is added to denature proteins before gel electrophoresis [[ee-lek-troh-foh-REE-sis]]. In solution, these compounds self-assemble into spherical aggregates called micelles [[mih-SELLS]], whose exteriors contain their hydrophilic head groups. Phospholipids and detergents are classes of, for the point, what amphiphilic [[am-fee-FIH-lik]] compounds that reduce surface tension?
Surfactants (accept Detergents before mentioned)
22) A facility in Arizona called the VLA [vee-el-ay] uses 27 of these devices, often in tandem, while 18 smaller mirrors will make up the segmented mirror in one of these named for James Webb. A famous one of these devices required the COSTAR module to be installed in 1993 to serve as corrective optics, and the largest refracting type of this device is located at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin. For the point, name these devices used for looking at celestial objects.
Telescopes (accept radio telescope before mirrors)
(35) During the winter in South Korea, frozen sausages are often used to interact with this technology. Extended use of this technology without rest can lead to a repetitive motion injury commonly known as "gorilla arm." Mobile devices often employ haptics to improve user experience with this technology. Pinches and multi-finger swipes are common gestures used with this technology. For the point, name this technology used to give inputs when using smartphones.
Touch screen (accept descriptive answers involving screens which are operated by touch)
17) The first appearance of this class of arthropods defines the start of the third stage of the Cambrian era, and this class would survive mass extinctions until finally going extinct at the Permian-Triassic extinction. A horseshoe shaped "head shield" or cephalon was one of the defining three lobes of this class. For the point, identify this class of marine arthropods, which with over 17,000 identified species, is considered the most diverse class of animals that has gone entirely extinct, a class named for their three lobes their body was divided into.
Trilobites (accept Trilobita)
6) At this university's Ryerson Lab, Robert Millikan conducted his oil drop experiment to measure elementary electrical charge. Enrico Fermi built the world's first nuclear reactor under this university's squash court stands. For the point, name this Illinois research university in Hyde Park.
University of Chicago
30) This single letter symbolizes the amino acid that replaces glutamic acid in sickle-cell hemoglobin. It is not N, but this letter appears squared in one term of the van der Waals equation. A theory whose name begins with this letter predicts trigonal pyramidal geometry for ammonia. As a Roman numeral, this letter represents the most common oxidation state of niobium, such as in the compound niobium pentoxide. For the point, name this letter, the symbol of element 23, vanadium.
V
16) This planet's axial tilt of over 177 degrees is the most of any planet. Ishtar Terra is the smaller of this planet's two highland areas, and this planet include Maxwell Montes, this planet's highest point. With the least eccentric orbit of any planet, one day on this planet is roughly 20 Earth days longer than one year on this planet. For the point, identify this planet known for the runaway greenhouse effect in its atmosphere which makes this planet the brightest planet as seen from earth.
Venus
(17) This nutrient inhibits smooth muscle growth by deactivating protein kinase C [[KAI-nase-see]]. Mutations to the a-tocopherol [[ay-toh-KAH-feh-rahl]] transfer protein encoding gene causes this nutrient's familial isolated deficiency. Dietary supplements for this nutrient esterify tocopherols to form this vitamin's acetate [[AH-seh-tate]]. This vitamin is commonly used in skincare products that allegedly prevent aging or drying. This vitamin is found in plant oils and possesses antioxidant properties. For the point, name this fat soluble vitamin important for protecting the cell membrane from ROS species.
Vitamin E
(22) The measure of this quantity can be represented in 2D with an oscilloscope. For a point charge, this quantity is yielded by the product of Coulomb's constant times charge over distance, or kQ divided by r. According to Kirchoff's [[KEER-koffs]] second law, this quantity around a loop always equals zero. Current times this quantity gives the power emitted by a circuit component. For the point, name this quantity equal to current times resistance according to Ohm's law.
Voltage (or Electric potential difference, electromotive force, emf, electric pressure, or electric tension)
This NASA program included Ann Druyan's brainwaves and Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" on golden records that were attached on the outside of its probes. One probe launched by this project passed the heliopause in 2012, leaving the solar system. This project succeeded the Mariner program, as its probes were launched in 1977. For the point, name this NASA program whose two probes are currently the farthest human-made objects from Earth.
Voyager program (accept Voyager 1 and/or 2
(1) This inventor was inspired by a wine glass instrument played by Edward Delaval [[deh-lah-VAHL]] to build the modern glass harmonica. This inventor created the hand paddle swimming aid and was the first to chart the course of the Gulf Stream by dropping bottles into the ocean. For the point, name this inventor of a namesake heating stove and bifocals, an American Founding Father who may have tied a key to a kite to prove that lightning was electricity.
Benjamin Franklin
25. David Kirzhnits worked with one of the discoverers of this process on its predecessor which proposed "cosmological phase transitions." This process underwent damped oscillations which decayed into radiation equilibrating to the reheat temperature. Alan Guth and Andrei Linde proposed this process as an explanation to the horizon and flatness problems, describing it as a sort-of gravitational repulsion. This process started occurring about 10 to the negative 36 seconds after the principal event that started the universe. For the point, name this process of rapid expansion that occurred shortly after the Big Bang.
Cosmic Inflation
(2) This theory was first proposed by Alan Guth to explain the non-existence of magnetic monopoles. This theory proposes that the early universe underwent a rapid cooling on the order of 100 thousand times prior to its thermalization. This theory's namesake epoch occurred from ten to the negative 36 to ten to the negative 32 seconds after the universal singularity. For the point, name this theory that states the size of the universe rapidly increased shortly after the Big Bang.
Cosmic inflation (or Cosmological inflation; accept Inflationary epoch)
32) This planet was first visited by Pioneer 10 and more recently by the spacecraft Juno. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided into this planet in 1994. This planet's moon Io is the most volcanically active body in the solar system, while its moons Europa and Ganymede may have subsurface oceans. The Great Red Spot is on, for the point, which largest planet in the solar system?
Jupiter
8) This object was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, the first object in what was to be named the Kuiper Belt. This body is orbited by the moon Charon which is nearly half its size. In August 2006, the IAU downgraded the status of this body reducing the number of full-fledged planets in the solar system. For the point, name this former 9th planet from the sun.
Pluto
4) The quality of this process is controlled with a "pioneer round" involving the cap-binding complex. In bacteria, the Shine-Dalgarno sequence helps initiate this process. Wobble base pairing helps explain some of the redundancy in the 20 base units used in this process. A, P, and E sites in ribosomes are occupied by tRNAs during this process. AUG is typically the start codon for this process which terminates when a stop codon is read. For the point, name this process of producing protein from an RNA sequence.
RNA translation (prompt on answers indicating protein synthesis)
(8) A large, steerable device for observing this regime is located inside of a "quiet zone" near Green Bank, West Virginia. The Very Large Array is an observatory that studies light in this regime. On Earth, light in this regime is bounced off of the ionosphere to transmit information long distances through amplitude modulation transmissions. Telescopes used to observe this regime can detect the 21 centimeter line. For the point, name this radiation regime observed by dish and antenna telescopes, whose wavelength is greater than microwaves.
Radio waves (prompt on "radiation" or "electromagnetic radiation")
(11) This task can be carried out by comparing parent and daughter materials on an isochron plot. Clay is a common material used in the K-AR [[K-A-R]] technique for this task. One technique for performing this task uses zircon to calculate the (+) uranium-thorium-lead decay chain. Another method for performing this task uses the ratio of the (*) twelve and fourteen isotopes of carbon. For the point, name this process of using radioactive decay to determine when an object came into existence.
Radiometric Dating (accept Radiocarbon Dating; accept Uranium-Lead Dating; accept descriptive terms referring to finding a date or an age of an object)
13. These systems follow a second order, linear differential equation of the form -k over m times x [[pause]] equals the second derivative of x with respect to t. That formula has the solution x equals A times sine of quantity 2 pi f t plus phi, which can be used to obtain frequency as one over 2 pi times the square root of quantity k over m. That second order linear differential equation of these systems is obtained by substituting net force in Newton's second law with Hooke's law. For the point, name this periodic system that follows a namesake motion, commonly used to model springs.
Simple Harmonic Oscillator [or SHO; accept Quantum Harmonic Oscillator prompt on oscillator]
13) This structure's split deactivation is responsible for the tortoiseshell and calico patterns on some cats. This structure's lyonization creates a remnant Barr body. A child will always inherit a copy of colorblindness on this chromosome if the mother is red-green colorblind. For the point, name this sex chromosome which female mammals have two copies of.
X chromosome
2) This process is indirectly measured for photons by calculating attenuation and assuming processes like reflection, emission and scattering do not occur when using Beer's Law. An atom can perform this process with a photon by raising an electron's energy level. For the point, name this chemically defined ability to suck up another substance such as sponges taking up water, which should not be confused with adsoprtion.
absorption (or absorbance; accept absorbtivity)
8) This value is zero in every inertial reference frame. For an object moving uniformly in a circle, this value is equal to the velocity squared divided by the radius. Newton's second law equations this quantity to net force over mass. For this quantity due to gravity on Earth, denoted little g, it is 9.81 meters per second squared. For the point, name this measure of how fast velocity is changing.
acceleration (do not accept or prompt on angular acceleration)
2) Definitions of these substances include electron pair acceptor and hydrogen donor. Depending on whether they lose all of their protons in water, these substances can be classified as either strong or weak. These substances name a type of rain often caused by pollution. These substances have a pH less than seven and are often sour tasting. Vinegar and lemon juice are, For the point, what substances that are often corrosive?
acids
William Klann is credited with promoting this concept, having been inspired by procedures used in Chicago meatpacking plants. This concept was further improved with the installation of conveyor belts in Henry Ford's factory. This process improves efficiency by having specialized workers each complete one step of the job. For the point, give this term for a manufacturing system in which the product is passed from worker to worker.
assembly line
10) Relying on Planck's constant, a Kibble one of these devices was used to redefine the unit it measures in 2019. A Roberval one of these devices has six pivot points arranged in a parallelogram, while an ancient one of these, the steelyard, requires a movable counterweight. A traditional school lab might use a double pan or triple beam one of these devices, and modern electronic ones can be precise to one microgram. For the point, name this device used to measure the mass of an object.
balance (accept scale)
15) Two drugs to treat this condition measured on the Hamilton-Norwood scale are Minoxidil [muh-NOX-uh-dill] and Finasteride [FIN-uh-STARE-uh-dee]. Alopecia [al-OH-pay-shee-uh] is the scientific name for this condition treated with brands like Propecia and Rogaine, as well as follicular implants. This condition's "male-patterned" form happens for around 50% of men. For the point, name this irreversible hair shedding process.
balding (accept alopecia before mentioned; prompt on "hair loss")
4) In 2017, a Harvard University project proposed attaching Stratocruiser modules to these objects in order to spray sulfates into the atmosphere. Leon Teisserenc de Bort used observations from these objects to discover the stratosphere. In 1873, the Montgolfier brothers were the first to pilot one of these objects, which they constructed from taffeta cloth. For the point, in 1824, Michael Faraday invented a rubber version of what objects that use helium or hot air to float?
balloons
This technology, combined with a harsh winter, caused the "Great Die-Up." Joseph Glidden improved the production of this technology, which was removed in the Cutting Wars in Texas and New Mexico. This product was far easier to erect than hedges and far cheaper than lumber fencing. The West was legendarily "tamed" by, for the point, what invention that permitted ranchers to control wandering cattle, a wire with intermittent sharp points?
barbed wire
15. Due to the bond between carbon and magnesium, Grignard reagents are effective types of these compounds. Schiff names a nitrogen-containing variety of these compounds, whose "super" type includes sodium hydride. According to Lewis, these compounds donate electron pairs, while the Bronsted-Lowry theory states that these compounds are proton acceptors. These compounds, which produce hydroxide ions in water, turn litmus paper blue. For the point, what chemicals have pH values greater than 7?
bases
22) Fatty acids are reacted with these compounds in saponification reactions to form soaps. These compounds donate electron pairs according to the Lewis definition and dissociate in water to form hydroxide ions in the Arrhenius definition. For the point, name these compounds with a pH greater than 7, contrasted with acids.
bases
18) A reaction for creating soap uses this class of molecules along with esters. Sodium hydride is a "super" example of this class of molecules. Lewis variants are ones that donate electron pairs. Common examples include the weak one, ammonia, and sodium hydroxide. For the point, name this class of molecules with pH greater than seven which can be neutralized with acids.
bases (accept word forms like basic)
6. AGAMOUS is a mutant in a long-day model organism used to study this process. Cadastral genes play a role in dividing out three regions where type A and C genes are mutually antagonistic in the ABC Model of this process. This process results in the formation of perianth, pistils and stamens. For the point, name this characteristic angiosperm-related process during which a reproductive organ with petals is formed by plants like roses and tulips.
budding [accept flower development; accept blossoming; accept blooming (until mentioned) ]
6. While many animals and fungi possess some MADS-box genes, the number is significantly greater in plants that participate in this process. AGAMOUS is a mutant in a long-day model organism used to study this process. Cadastral genes play a role in dividing out three regions where type A and C genes are mutually antagonistic in the ABC Model of this process. This process results in the formation of perianth, pistils and stamens. For the point, name this characteristic angiosperm-related process during which a reproductive organ with petals is formed by plants like roses and tulips.
budding [accept flower development; accept blossoming; accept blooming (until mentioned) ]
21) This compound was first isolated after Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge received a request from Wolfgang von Goethe. After steaming, this compound can be removed by introducing supercritical carbon dioxide. This purine-class molecule is likely to function by inhibiting adenosine receptors in the brain preventing the onset of "tired" signals. For the point, name this stimulant found in coffee beans and tea leaves.
caffeine (or guaranine; or methyltheobromine or 1,3,7-,trimethylxanthine; or Theine)
4. When water flows through ion deposits of this element and magnesium, hard water is formed. The majority of kidney stones are made up of a compound consisting of oxalate and this element's ion. Milk-alkali syndrome is caused by elevated levels of this element, whose ionic form is released from bone in response to actions of the parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D increases absorption of this element from the intestine. For the point, what element, necessary for healthy teeth, has atomic number 20 and is represented by Ca?
calcium
These are the larger of two entities that can make up a flanking line, which is created by the forced upward movement of warm air. Mammatus form underneath these structures. Ice crystals are formed at the top of these clouds, whose mature incus type is anvil shaped. For the point, name these clouds that are significantly taller than cumulus clouds and are often the site of thunderstorms.
cumulonimbus clouds (prompt on clouds before read
11) This molecule's inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase is the reason it quickly leads to death after inhalation. When this molecule is a part of an organic compound as a functional group, it is known as a nitrile. This molecule can sometimes smell of "bitter almonds." It consists of a carbon atom triple bonded to an element to the immediate right of carbon on the periodic table. For the point, name this poison found in apple seeds with chemical formula CN minus.
cyanide (accept CN minus before it is read)
15) The oldest of these structures still in operation is Quatinah [kah-tee-nah] Barrage which, around 1300 BC, created Lake Homs in Syria. One type of these is a "gravity" type in which the force of gravity on this structure acts as a counterbalance to other forces, while those forces can be further balanced by adding an arch design to these structures. For the point, identify these structures, of which the Nurek in Tajikistan is the tallest, the Aswan High has the largest capacity, and among hydroelectric types, the Three Gorges in China produces the most electricity.
dams
27) The oldest known example of one of these structures on the Wadi Rajil was located in the local town of Jawa. The largest of these structures is the Three Gorges one in Yichang, China. An "arch-gravity" one of these structures impounds Lake Mead on the Nevada, Arizona border, generating a massive amount of hydroelectric power. Beavers construct natural versions of, for the point, what structures that hold back water across a river or lake exemplified by one named for Herbert Hoover.
dams
4) In order to work around the existence of this type of matter, Mordehai Milgrom developed Modified Newtonian Dynamics. The Lambda CDM model formulates this type of matter as "cold." The fact galaxies spin faster than expected given severe underestimates of their mass from calculations led to the formulation of this theorized state of matter. For the point, name this form of matter named for being undetectable by light.
dark matter
9) The probability of encountering these entities is encoded in the Drake equation. The Fermi paradox arises from the high probability of these entities existing though none have been discovered. For these entities to exist, it is thought they have to arise in a star system on a planet with water that sits within the goldilock zone. For the point, name this theoretical type of life that exists on planets other than our own.
extraterrestrial(s) life(forms) (or aliens; accept obvious equivalents)
27) This organ may make use of crystallin to increase refractive index . The anterior and posterior chambers of this organ are filled with aqueous humour. Cataracts are a disease affecting this organ which contains a sensitive spot known as the macula. This organ contains cone and rod cells in its retina. The iris controls pupil size in, for the point, what organ responsible for vision?
eyes (anti-prompt on "lens"; anti-prompt on "cornea"; anti-prompt on "retina")
Wilson's Theorem tests whether an integer p is prime by checking whether this function of p minus 1 is divisible by p. This function appears three times in the formula for the binomial coefficients "n choose k". The number of ordered lists of n items is this function of n. This function of n can be computed as n times this operation on n minus 1. For the point, name this operation that is the product of all integers from 1 to n, symbolized by an exclamation point.
factorial
To avoid this phenomenon, some pseudoscientists fire shockwave cannons at the sky. Graupel is sometimes described as the "soft" form of this precipitation because it is composed of rime. Megacryometeors are unusual examples of this phenomenon, which forms around a condensation nucleus as it is lifted by updrafts in a thunderstorm. For the point, name this form of precipitation made up of ice pellets.
hailstones (Note: the "theory" behind the cannons is that shockwaves stop the updrafts and keep the hail from forming...but wouldn't thunder take care of that? Right?
23) The cycle of growth of this structure is separated into anagen, telogen and catagen phases. This biological structure is rich in alpha-keratin, whose disulfide bonds explain why it smells bad when burned. This protein structure separates into the bulb and follicle. Sebum supplies oil to this structure that can be stripped with shampoos. For the point, name this feature of mammals that grows on the skin and scalp of humans.
hair follicle (accept hairs; prompt on follicles)
20) Elements in this group react with magnesium to form Grignard reagents. This group contains the rarest naturally-occurring element in Earth's crust, astatine. This is the only group with elements in solid, liquid, and gas phases at STP. Table salt contains an alkali metal and an element from this group. For the point, name this group with seven valence electrons that includes fluorine and chlorine.
halogens
21. Alkyl groups are bonded to elements from this group in products of the Hunsdiecker-Borodin reaction. Members of this group bind to each other to form "inter" varieties, and one member is used in Lugol's solution to stain starches blue. In organic chemistry, a test named for an element from this group determines if a solution has carbon-carbon double bonds. Purple gas is formed when another member of this group sublimes. For the point, name this group of elements that includes bromine and iodine.
halogens (accept Group 17 and Group 17A)
10) All examples of the mineral stishovite found on Earth's surface are associated with these features. Another of these features named for Herschel gives Saturn's moon Mimas an uncanny resemblance to the Death Star. Among the largest of these in the Solar system are Hellas on Mars and Caloris on Mercury, though a notable Earth example is the 560-foot deep Meteor one near Flagstaff, Arizona. For the point, identify these rounded depressions formed by the impact of a solid object on a celestial body.
impact craters (accept meteorite until "Herschel"; prompt on "basin")
15) Two important regions of the brain that light up in fMRIs [F-M-R-Is] that are studied in this science are Broca's area and Wernicke's area. The computational subfield of this science extracts morphemes and uses AI to analyze audio and text. MRIs [M-R-Is] can be used to visualize the articulation patterns of speakers in this science. For the point, name this scientific study of language.
linguistics
These objects can be multiplied if the width of the first matches the height of the second. A square example of these objects with ones along the main diagonal and zeroes everywhere else is called the identity. These objects can be added by taking the sums of their corresponding entries. The formula a d minus b c computes the determinant of one of these objects that has two rows and two columns. For the point, name these rectangular arrays of numbers.
matrix (or matrices
38. The historic closure of the Indonesian Seaway may have strengthened this phenomenon by raising the temperature of the Indian Ocean, while Tibetan uplift has been linked to the strengthening of this phenomenon in India. The high heat capacity of water and its ability to convect as opposed to land sets up this large-scale seasonal sea breeze, resulting in about 80 percent of India's precipitation. For the point, name this pattern of seasonally reversing winds and their accompanying precipitation, causing wet and dry seasons.
monsoon [accept (South) Asian monsoon]
Parallel ridges form in a relatively small class of these features named for their resemblance to washboards. Another type of these structures is named after a lake nearby in Sweden. The terminal variety of these features is at the furthest point that an ice sheet extends to. These features can be formed from deposits of till. For the point, name these rocky accumulations of debris left behind by a glacier.
moraines
3) One collection of these features gives its name to the Jurassic period. The process of folding in the crust can create these features. Varieties of these landforms include fold, block, and volcanic. Orogeny refers to the creation of a new range of these geographical landmasses due to uplift of tectonic plates. For the point, name this type of landmass, examples of which include Kilimanjaro and Everest.
mountains (or mountain range; accept Jura mountains or Jura mountain range; prompt on "Jura")
20) For unit complex numbers, this operation represents a rotation and for a sequence of terms this operation can be represented by a capital pi. This operation can be carried out on binomials with a technique called FOIL. The identity element for this operation is 1. For the point, name this operation which for natural numbers is equivalent to repeated addition.
multiplication
30) The principal tree used to extract this material is the South American Hevea brasiliensis [huh-VEE-uh bra-ZILL-ee-EN-siss] species. Vulcanization is a technique to strengthen the cross links between this material. This material is extracted in the form of latex by "tapping" its namesake trees. For the point, name this sticky elastic material extracted from a namesake tree and used to produces like erasers.
natural rubber (or India rubber; Amazonian rubber caucho or cautchouc; prompt on "latex" until mentioned)
One of these objects named for a homunculus is found around the star Eta Carinae. The expulsion of the outer layers of a red giant forms the planetary variety of these objects. The Pillars of Creation are found within one of these objects, and another resembles a horse's head. For the point, name these clouds of dust and gas, associated with stellar birth and stellar death, that include examples named Eagle and Crab.
nebulae
14) The Heaviside step function of any of these numbers is zero. The norm of a vector can never equal one of these numbers, and defining the constant i extends the square root function to these numbers. These numbers were first described during the Han Dynasty, and the absolute value of any number is never one of these numbers. For the point, identify these numbers, which are found to the left of zero on the number line.
negative numbers
29) This element is produced via the fusion of oxygen and helium in the alpha process. Out of all elements with a complete p shell, this element is the lightest. Along with another element, this element forms a laser that produces light at 633 nanometers. This element is frequently used in signs due to its ability to produce a characteristic, bright light. For the point, name this second lightest noble gas with symbol Ne.
neon (accept Ne before it is read)
9. On Earth, this process may be possible by magnetically confinding deuterium and tritium in a tokamak. This process absorbs energy in elements heavier than iron and occurs when the strong force overcomes the Coulomb barrier formed from electrostatic forces. The CNO cycle and proton-proton chain are two reaction cycles of this process that form Helium from Hydrogen atoms. For the point, name this process that powers the sun, the act of two nuclei merging together.
nuclear fusion
24) Only in cases of Prader-Willi syndrome does higher ghrelin correlate positively with this condition. A strain of mice named for getting this condition have a mutation in the leptin encoding gene, produced primarily by adipocytes. This condition leads to increased risk for type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease; it is characterized by a BMI over 30. For the point, name this condition of extreme body fat accumulation.
obesity (or obese; prompt on "being fat" or "overweight")
The rate of these systems is measured in Sverdrups. One of these systems is responsible for the mild winters in Nantucket. The Kuroshio is one of these systems that forms part of the North Pacific Gyre. The North Atlantic Drift extends one of these to Europe after it accelerates northward on the Eastern Seaboard. The Gulf Stream is a hundred-kilometer wide example of, for the point, what continuously flowing paths of water within an ocean?
ocean currents (or gyres before it is read
4) Manganese nodules can be found in this region and have been mined from here at great cost. Cold seeps in this region can create brine pools, while this region is famous for its "smokers," or hydrothermal vents. Harry Hess showed that this region's expansion is partially responsible for plate tectonics, creating alternating magnetic bands in the rock here. Basalt is the most common rock making up, for the point, what region of the Earth that lies underneath the Atlantic and Pacific?
ocean floor (accept oceanic crust; accept seabed; accept answers that indicate the bottom of the ocean)
9) A cart and pole serves as an "inverted" one of these devices in control theory. Foucault [foo-KOH] used one of these devices to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. The balls in Newton's cradle are the bobs of these devices. Christopher Huygens [HOY-guns] was one of the first to use this device as a clock. For the point, name this device consisting of a weight suspended from a pivot which swings back and forth.
pendulums
14) The Porro variety of this instrument uses four reflecting surfaces. Spectrometers take advantage of this instrument and diffraction gratings when getting spectral signatures of atoms. After passing through the objective lens, light is directed through this instrument before reaching the eyepiece in binoculars. Isaac Newton used this instrument to develop his theory of color. For the point, name this simple optical device, commonly made out of glass, that breaks up white light into its colored components.
prism (accept specific prisms like optical prism; glass prism; triangular prism; plastic prism; dispersive prism)
30) These organic compounds are examined in Ramachandran plots. Crucial motifs for these compounds include leucine zippers.This class of compounds has secondary structures mostly made up of alpha helices and beta-plate sheets. The fundamental units of these compounds are encoded on the codons of mRNA. For the point, name these biological compounds whose primary structure is made up of peptide bonds between amino acids.
proteins (prompt on poly"'peptide"s; prompt on "amino acid"s before mentioned)
25) The U.S. Army secretly sprayed nerve gas trails in the sky to kill thousands of these animals in Utah's Skull Valley. One of these animals was named 6LLS and was part of the Finnish Dorset breed. That animal was Dolly, who was the first mammal to be cloned. For the point, name these animals, commonly kept for their wool.
sheep
20) This word is replaced with "quantum" in a system whose energy levels are spaced by h-bar times omega. This adjective describes the motion exhibited by pendulums under the small angle approximation. This adjective is paired with harmonic to describe systems which oscillate around a fixed point. For the point, name this six-letter adjective that describes straightforward systems that lack complexity.
simple (accept simple harmonic oscillator or simple harmonic motion; prompt on harmonic before mentioned)
31) The lungs secrete DPPC and other lipid components to increase pulmonary compliance and lower this quantity. This quantity is a linear function of temperature according to Eotvos's [airt-varsh's] rule. A gradient in this quantity causes mass transfer due to the Marangoni effect, which causes the "tears of wine" phenomenon. Surfactants lower this property of a liquid which is responsible for the meniscus seen when a liquid is held in a tube. For the point, name this property caused by the cohesive forces between molecules, which water striders take advantage of to stay afloat.
surface tension (prompt on tension)
This mineral is produced with kyanite in a reaction between magnesium chlorite and quartz. With schist, it is a major component of soapstone, and this often foliated mineral is largely comprised of hydrated magnesium silicate. Welding chalk uses this mineral, which is a common solid lubricant and can be easily scratched by a fingernail. For the point, name this commonly white mineral used in baby powder and as the defining mineral for 1 on Mohs' scale of hardness.
talcum (accept talcum powder
14) This element was first commercially produced via the Hunter process. A mineral containing this element, rutile, is the cause asterisms in gems. This relatively-inert transition metal is extracted in the Kroll process. The dioxide of this element is a common white pigment in paints and is used in sunscreen. For the point, name lightweight metal with atomic number twenty-two and chemical symbol Ti.
titanium (prompt on Ti until mentioned)
6) These events are predicted by pressure recorders in the DART system. Abrupt deformation of the sea floor can cause a vertical displacement resulting in one of these events. In 2004, an earthquake along the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate caused one of these catastrophic events in the Indian Ocean. For the point, name these large waves with a Japanese name which can devastate coastal regions.
tsunamis (prompt on tidal wave; prompt on seismic sea wave)
1. The inventor of the stethoscope, Rene Laennec, was diagnosed with this disease when his nephew used Laennec's stethoscope to do so. French monarchs used the "Royal touch" to rid their subjects of this disease, which is often diagnosed with a test created by Charles Mantoux, the PPD test. The Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine targets this disease, which is caused by a bacteria of genus Mycobacterium. For the point, what disease affects the lung and was historically known as "consumption"?
tuberculosis
5) A substance known as "purified protein derivative" is used to test for this disease by injecting it under the skin and waiting two to three days for swelling. The BCG vaccine was developed for this disease which the Mantoux [mahn-TOH] test was developed for. This disease is caused by a member of the mycobacterium genus. For the point, name this disease commonly abbreviated TB.
tuberculosis (prompt on "TB" until mentioned)
14. A set of zipper-like proteins that help transport these structures include synaptobrevin and SNAP-25 and can be targeted by botulinum toxin. The fusion of these structures is mediated by SNARE proteins. Triskelion shaped proteins that form a cage like structure around these structures are called clathrin. MPRs are packed onto these structures so that they can be recycled after dropping off mannose-6-phosphate tagged proteins to the lysosome. These structures are similar to micelles and form during endocytosis. For the point, name these structures important in cell transport where a liquid or cytoplasm is surrounded by a lipid bilayer.
vesicles
6) This molecule is released in the formation of a peptide bond. Desiccants made up silica gel and other material are used to absorb this molecule. The most common form of thin-film interference involves oil and this molecule. This molecule has a bent geometry, a freezing point at 0 degrees Celsius, and a boiling point at 100 degrees Celsius. For the point, name this substance with chemical formula H2O [h-two-oh].
water (accept H2O before it is read)
18. The term for these astronomical objects was coined by Charles Misner and John Wheeler. A Roman Ring is a collection of these objects that do not allow for time travel. One type of these objects is an Einstein-Rosen bridge. A link between a black hole and a white hole and create, for the point, what type of hypothetical object that can allow for faster than light travel by introducing a direct connection between two distant regions of the universe?
wormhole
22) A SELF-1 gene was recently discovered in a model organism that falls under this broader animal classification. Fire and Mello worked on RNA interference in a model organism under this classification. C. Elegans falls under nematodes which are a part of this broader classification that is divided into segmented and unsegmented variants. Parasitic "round" ones and "tape" ones fall under, for the point, what classification that includes "earth" [this classification] which eat soil?
worms (accept Nematodes or Nematoda)
The anatomical snuffbox is a depression found in this structure. The median nerve is the only nerve that passes through a passage within this structure. The 8 bones of this structure, including the trapezium and the scaphoid, are located between the ulna and radius on one side and the metacarpals on the other. The thumb extends from this structure, which is the location of the carpal tunnel. For the point, name this joint between the arm and the hand.
wrist (accept carpus before "carpal" is said; prompt on arm before said
15) Bragg's law is used to quantify the scattering of this form of light in a form of crystallography. Tesla generated images using this radiation of a human foot in 1896 though credit for their invention is given to W.C. Roentgen. This phenomenon lies between the more energetic gamma rays and less energetic UV rays on the electromagnetic spectrum. For the point, name this form of radiation that can penetrate through soft tissue to image bone.
x-rays (accept x-radiation)
27) This radiation range is governed by Bragg's law in its namesake crystallography. Chandrasekhar [chahn drah say kar] names a telescope that uses this radiation range. This radiation range was used by Rosalind Franklin to take Photo 51, which Watson & Crick used to determine the double helix structure. Wilhelm [vill-HELM] R¨ontgen [ROOnt gen] discovered this radiation between UV and gamma rays. For the point, name this radiation range that is most commonly known for being used to image bones.
x-rays or x-(ray) radiation (prompt on R¨ontgen radiation) [Science Bee Regionals 1]
All multiples of 3 have this value as their digital root. Quadratic equations with negative determinants have this many real solutions. A positive number raised to this power gives a value of 1. This is the value of a when the equation "a times x equals b" has no solution, since division by this additive identity is illegal. For the point, name this number that, when added to any other number, does not change that number.
zero
Pingala represented this concept with the word ´sunya. Brahmagupta made an early attempt to systematize this concept, which was represented in a Babylonian system of sexagesimals by a space. Under Wu Zetian in China, an open circle was used to represent this concept, which was described in the Islamic world by a word meaning "empty." For the point, name this concept which quantifies the lack of a numerical value.
zero (prompt on empty or word forms before read; prompt on nothing or synonyms
30) When this quantity equals one over the square root of L times C, an LC circuit will exhibit resonance. A photon's value for this quantity is equal to energy over Planck's constant. Woofers are designed to produce low values of this quantity. For a given wave, this quantity is equal to one over the period. For the point, name this quantity measured in hertz.
(angular) frequency
23) Hydrolysis of this compound is required by ABC transporters. In the body, this compound is typically complexed with a plus 2 magnesium ion. Oligomycin A can inhibit the Fo [F-oh] subunit of a synthase that generates this compound. That synthase works on a rotary motor mechanism. This molecule is primarily produced during oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis begins by expending two units of this molecule. For the point, name this energy currency produced primarily by mitochondria.
ATP (or adenosine triphosphate)
One of this man's theories was verified by Arthur Eddington during a 1919 solar eclipse. This man proposed "light quanta" to explain the photoelectric effect during his Annus Mirabilis. This man proposed that mass causes space to bend and that the speed of light was the same to all observers in the general and special versions of his most famous theory. For the point, name this German scientist who formulated the theory of relativity.
Albert Einstein
28) This scientist correctly predicted the landing site of the Treysa meteorite. Together with his father-in-law Wladimir K¨oppen, he wrote The Climates of the Geological Past, published in 1924. Six years later, this scientist died on an expedition to establish meteorological monitoring stations in Greenland. His best known contribution to science was published in his The Origins of Continents and Oceans. For the point, name this German scientist who proposed the theory of continental drift.
Alfred Lothar Wegener ["vague"-ner]
(2) The root mean square voltage of this phenomenon is equal to the square root of the mean over the square of instantaneous voltage. The voltage equation of this phenomenon can be stated as peak voltage times the sine of the (+) angular frequency times the time traveled. When diode bridges have this phenomenon as an input (*) but not an output, they are known as bridge rectifiers. The voltage of this phenomenon can be "stepped up" or "stepped down" in a transformer. For the point, name this type of electrical current contrasted with direct current.
Alternating Current (or AC)
(11) This mountain range is home to the only extant short faced bear, the spectacled bear. This range is home to a genus of high altitude hummingbirds known as hillstars. This range's northern end is home to the Mountain Tapir, and this mountain range is the natural habitat of chinchillas and guinea pigs. Wild camelids found in this mountain range include the vicuña [[vih-KOO-nyah]] and guanaco [[gwah-NAH-koh]]. For the point, name this South American mountain range home to alpacas and llamas.
Andes Mountains (or Cordillera de los Andes; accept Andean Mountains; prompt on "Altiplano")
5) After observations of stars in this object, Walter Baade [VAL-ter BAH-deh] formulated the idea that stars could be grouped based on their metallicity. The Triangulum galaxy's largest neighbor is this object which was discovered to contain Cepheid variables by Edwin Hubble, partially resolving the Shapley-Curtis debate. This object is number thirty-one in the Messier catalog and is expected to collide with the Milky Way in 2.5 billion years. For the point, name this spiral galaxy, the closest to the Milky Way.
Andromeda galaxy (prompt on M31)
18. Drawing upon the findings of Joseph Priestley, this man opposed the phlogiston theory by analyzing the weights of heated metals, an action that would later lead him to discover oxygen's role in combustion. Hydrogen was named by this author of Elementary Treatise of Chemistry. This man developed a statement that is often paraphrased as "Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed," the law of conservation of mass. For the point, name this Frenchman, the "father of modern chemistry."
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
(17) With his first wife, Barbara de Mey, this man opened a self-run draper's shop before spending 40 years as a chamberlain at the City Hall in Delft. After this man's development of a method to create powerful lenses, his friend, Reiner de (+) Graaf, helped induct him into the Royal Society of London. Throughout his scientific career, this man created over 500 microscopes and discovered infusoria [[in-"few"-SOH-ree-ah]], the (*) vacuole [[VAK-yoo-ole]] of a cell, and spermatozoa [[sper-mah-tah-ZOH-ah]]. For the point, name this Dutch scientist recognized as the "Father of Microbiology."
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek [[LEH-ven-hohk]]
11. A "mailbox" apparatus was hastily built during this mission to remove carbon dioxide from the Lunar Module. Ken Mattingly did not fly this mission due to concerns about contacting German measles and was replaced by Jack Swigert. During this mission, a malfunctioning "Main B Bus Undervolt" was the reason for James Lovell's often wrongly-quoted line "Houston, we've had a problem." For the point, name this 1970 NASA space mission where astronauts were prevented from landing on the moon due the explosion of an oxygen tank on board.
Apollo 13 mission (prompt on "Apollo")
Ken Mattingly was prevented from participating in this program due to German measles. Ed White, Roger Chaffee, and Gus Grissom died in what was retroactively deemed the first mission of this project. James Lovell commanded another mission in this program that suffered an oxygen tank explosion, less than a year after this program's goal was acheived by Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong. For the point, name this NASA program that brought humans to the Moon.
Apollo program (accept Apollo 13; accept Apollo 1 after "Ed White" is said; accept Apollo 11 after "Buzz Aldrin" is said
(24) This location contains the highly saline Barsakelmes [[BAR-sah-KEL-mess]] Lake. This location is the origin of toxic dust storms that spread tuberculosis and cause cancer in former fishing towns such as Mo'ynoq [[MOY-nok]]. Desertification of this location was driven by agricultural diversion of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. For the point, name this now mostly dried up Central Asian lake, formerly located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.
Aral Seabed (or Aral Sea; accept Aralkum Desert)
14) Gelo II is the addressee of this man's treatise The Sand Reckoner, where this polymath attempts to count the grains of sand in the world. This man constructed a heat ray to sink the Roman navy during the prolonged siege. He wrote the work On Floating Bodies. For the point, name this Syracusan scientist who shouted "Eureka" after discovering a namesake buoyancy principle.
Archimedes
This man considered the volume of space in his book The Sand Reckoner. This scientist gave the first explanation of the law of the lever, and he created a namesake screw used to elevate water. According to legend, he discovered the laws of buoyancy while taking a bath, after which he ran through the streets naked. For the point, name this ancient Greek scientist and mathematician known for his "Eureka!" moment.
Archimedes of Syracuse
4) This body of water's precursor was Iapetus. In this body of water, John Tuzo Wilson discovered cycles of opening and closing seafloor. Of the five ocean basins, this one has the highest salinity. After the usual list of names was exhausted for this ocean, the Greek alphabet was used to denote the names of tropical cyclones in this ocean's basin in 2020. For the point, name this second-largest ocean bounded to the east by Europe and the west by North and South America.
Atlantic Ocean
(26) The namesake radiation curve of these systems have peaks inverse to temperature according to Wien's [[VEENS]] displacement law. These systems have spectrums dependent entirely on energy level and not composition or shape. The radiation emission of these systems is described by Planck's law. These hypothetical systems would be both ideal and diffuse emitters. For the point, name these idealized objects that absorb all incoming radiation.
Black Body
(20) The largest known variety of these animals is the raja ofu [[rah-jah-OH-foo]]. Some varieties of these animals from the Anthophila [[an-thoh-FEE-lah]] clade [[KLADE]] are able to communicate distance information through a "waggle dance." Neonicotinoid [[nee-oh-nih-KAH-tih-noyd]] pesticides are considered the most common cause of colony collapse disorder among these animals. The "Africanized" hybrid type of these animals are often known as the "killer" variety. For the point, name these insects that live in colonies and produce wax and honey.
Bees (accept Honeybees; accept Africanized honeybees; accept Killer bees; accept Wallace's giant bee; do not accept or prompt on "wasps")
2) A paper by Alpher-Bethe-Gamow explains nucleosynthesis of heavier elements after this event. The theory of this event was opposed by Hoyle's steady-state theory even though Hoyle coined the term for this event. The cosmic microwave background is remnant radiation from this event which caused the universe to undergo rapid inflation. For the point, name this event that occurred at the beginning of the universe.
Big Bang
18) Deuterium and helium were made in a nucleosynthesis named after this event. he theory underpinning this event relies on the universe being homogenous and isotropic by the cosmological principle. The existence of cosmic microwave background radiation supports this theory. This event was followed by cosmic inflation. For the point, name this theory that the universe exploded out from one infinitely dense singularity.
Big Bang theory
Georges Lemaitre [le-MET] first stated this hypothesis, which is supported by the discovery of galactic redshift and the cosmic microwave background, the surviving radiation from this event. The Planck epoch followed this event, during which the fundamental forces are believed to have been unified. This event, often described as a singularity, was followed by cosmic inflation. For the point, name this event that took place 13.8 billion years ago at the beginning of the universe.
Big Bang theory
(34) These entities can be described using only mass, angular momentum, and charge, rendering them "hairless", and energy can be extracted from one of these entities via the Penrose process. An object approaching one of these entities will become increasingly redshifted and eventually stop moving, and the boundary of that occurrence with these objects is known as the event horizon. For the point, name these gravitational singularities from which even light cannot escape.
Black holes
(2) The air required for these devices to operate is called draught [[DRAFT]] and can be pulled in through the convective action of chimneys. When used as part of a home heating system, these devices are linked to hollow metal tubes called radiators by insulated pipes. The fire-tube type of these devices were historically used to provide energy for steam engine trains. For the point, name these devices that heat pressurized water to provide steam to drive an engine.
Boiler (accept Fire-tube boiler)
(1) This quantity is plotted versus orbital binding energy on a Walsh diagram. The reaction of a nucleophile with a carbonyl group is defined by one form of this quantity named for Bürgi [[BOOR-gee]] and Dunitz [[DUN-itz]]. The combination of torsional strain and small values for this quantity leads to significant ring strain in cyclopropane. Because of greater repulsive forces, replacing a substituent with a lone pair decreases this quantity according to VSEPR [[VES-per]] theory. For the point, name this quantity that is 120 degrees for trigonal planar molecules and 109.5 degrees for methane.
Bond Angle (accept Angle of Attack; prompt on "angle")
(20) Acids containing this element react with halides in the Suzuki coupling reaction. A compound of this element and hydrogen contains 3-center 2-electron "banana" bonds as predicted by Wade's rules. The ores colemanite and ulexite [[OO-lek-site]] contain this element, whose trifluoride is a strong Lewis acid with only six valence electrons, which unusually violates the octet rule. For the point, name this element with atomic number 5 and chemical symbol "B."
Boron (accept B before mentioned)
16) A book often nicknamed "K&R" contains this single letter in its official title. A programming language similar to Java is named after this letter followed by the musical sharp symbol. The binary number 1100 is represented using this letter in hexadecimal notation. The most common type of style sheet language used online is abbreviated with this letter coming before "SS." For the point, two plus signs follow what letter in the name of a common programming language?
C
25) Events in this period are the subject of Stephen Jay Gould's theory of contingency. Many important fossils from this period were discovered at the Burgess Shale by Charles Walcott. This period was preceded by the Ediacaran and succeeded by the Ordovician. Trilobites and mollusks first appeared during this period. For the point, name this first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, which names an explosion in biodiversity.
Cambrian period
31) This scientist discovered a staining technique known as the "black reaction" which stained neurons. Even though he and Ramon y Cajal came to different conclusions on how the nervous system worked, they were jointly awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. This scientist is the namesake of an entity that is folded into cisternae and is responsible for dispatching protein received from the endoplasmic reticulum. For the point, name this Italian scientist, the namesake of an organelle apparatus.
Camillo Golgi (accept Golgi method or staining; accept Golgi apparatus or body)
(6) This scientist names inhibitory cells within the brain which are classified as Type One or Two based on their axon length. A staining method named for this scientist that uses silver chromate led to the discovery that brain tissue consists of individual neurons. An organelle named for this scientist passes vesicles [[VEH-sih-kuls]] through folds called cisternae [[sis-TER-nay]]. For the point, name this Italian biologist whose namesake "apparatus" packages proteins within the cell.
Camillo Golgi [[GOHL-jee]] (accept Golgi apparatus; accept Golgi complex; accept Golgi body; accept Golgi stain)
(33) Phosgene [[FAHS-jeen]] is produced by reacting this molecule with chlorine gas. Steam reforming releases both hydrogen gas and this molecule, a mixture which is known as Syngas. This molecule is isoelectronic with the cyanide ion and gaseous nitrogen. Incomplete combustion reactions release this diatomic [["die"-ah-TAH-mik]] molecule, whose toxicity is explained by the fact that it binds hemoglobin with 200 times the affinity of oxygen. For the point, name this gas found in vehicle exhaust, with formula CO [[SEE-OH]].
Carbon Monoxide (accept CO before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "carbon dioxide")
During a six-day stop on the island of St. Helena, this man noted differences between it and other islands. This man carried a copy of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology during that expedition, which was led by Robert Fitzroy. This man studied land iguanas on an archipelago west of Ecuador, as well as finches that inspired his landmark theory. For the point, name this English naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Charles Robert Darwin
The north polar region of this object contains a dark area which scientists have called "Mordor." This object was discovered by James Christy, whose wife's name influenced its naming. In 2005, two smaller objects were found to orbit the same body as this object; they were named Nix and Hydra. This is the second largest object in the main planetary system visited by the New Horizons spacecraft. For the point, name this largest moon of Pluto.
Charon
(11) The Thysville Cave system along this river is the only known habitat of this river's namesake "blind barb" fish. This river's basin is the endemic range of the Hydrocynus goliath, or giant tigerfish. The dwarf crocodile and African manatee both inhabit this river, and the formation of this river is believed to have caused the divergent speciation of chimpanzees and bonobos. For the point, name this species-rich Central African river that flows past Brazzaville and Kinshasa.
Congo River (or Nzâdi Kôngo; accept Congo blind barb)
(4) The primary task of the Pierre Auger [[oh-ZHAY]] Observatory is observing and tracing the origins of these phenomena. When composed of heavy elements, these phenomena are called HZE ions. Theoretically, the upper energy limit of these phenomena when traveling through the intergalactic medium is set by the G-Z-K limit. Upon making contact with the atmosphere, these phenomena create a cascade of ionized particles known as an air shower. For the point, name these extremely high energy particles named for primarily originating outside the solar system.
Cosmic rays
(1) This molecule's relative stability is quantified by A-values. One conformation of this molecule is destabilized by steric strain between its "flagpole hydrogens." Substituents on this nonpolar molecule switch between "axial" and "equatorial" positions when it undergoes a ring flip to move between its twist, boat, and chair conformations. Complete hydrogenation of benzene produces, for the point, what cyclic alkane with formula C6H12?
Cyclohexane (accept C6H12 before mentioned)
(18) This compound was first popularized due to pyrethrum [[pai-REE-thrum]] shortages. Up-regulation of cytochrome P450 conveys resistance to this organo-chlorine compound, which prevents sodium channels from closing. This chemical was implicated in declining peregrine falcon and bald eagle populations as it accumulated in their prey. For the point, name this pesticide that was largely banned following the revelation that it thinned eggshells after the release of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.
DDT (or Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
9) The replication of this molecule is semi-conservative and it is transcribed in the first step of the Central Dogma. It is made up of a sugar-phosphate backbone and a sequence of nucleotide base-pairs formed from adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. Rosalind Franklin originally discovered this molecule's double-helix structure which was then published by Watson and Crick. For the point, name this molecule that stores information in the genetic code.
DNA (accept deoxyribonucleic acid)
(23) This enzyme uses repeated cycles of "scrunching" to stop and restart during the process of "abortive initiation." In bacteria, this enzyme binds a sigma factor before recognizing the minus 35 and minus 10 elements, which are analogous to the eukaryotic (+) TATA box. This enzyme binds a promoter sequence to begin synthesizing a single-stranded product that is later spliced and translated. (*) Transcription is performed by, for the point, what enzyme that produces a certain biologically essential molecule from a DNA template?
DNA detected (dependent) RNA polymerase [[pah-LIM-er-ase]] (accept RNAP or RNAPol; prompt on "polymerase"; do not prompt on "RNA")
(22) One form of this technique uses firefly luciferase [[LOO-sih-feh-"race"]] to detect released pyrophosphate ions, which can be coupled with bisulfite [[bai-SUL-"fight"]] treatment to detect methyl groups at CpG islands. A flow cell with clustered primers is used in a "next-generation" type of this technique developed by Illumina. Fluorescent dideoxynucleotides [["die"-dee-ahk-see-NOO-klee-oh-"tides"]] cause a growing chain to terminate in a form of this technique pioneered by Frederick Sanger. For the point, name this technique that determines the order of bases in a sample of DNA.
DNA sequencing
(20) This man names a type of space formed from expanding vector algebra and calculus from 2D and 3D planes. This man names a program that would prove the consistency of complex systems by breaking them into smaller parts. In one thought experiment, this man showed that a countably infinite number of guests could be added to a completely full and infinitely large hotel. For the point, name this mathematician who produced a set of 23 then unsolved problems.
David Hilbert (accept Hilbert space; accept Hilbert's program; accept Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel or Hilbert's Hotel; accept Hilbert's problems)
(10) Products removed during this process are known as sidecuts. The product undergoing this process is fed through a long, winding tube that passes through an oven at 398 degrees Fahrenheit. Unsorted products of this process are known as naphtha [[NAP-thah]]. The most viscous products created from this process include paraffin and asphalt. For the point, name this process used to separate petroleum into components such as butane and kerosene.
Distillation (accept Oil or Petroleum distillation; accept Oil or Petroleum refining; accept word forms)
20) The first of these events was organized after Senator Gaylord Nelson observed the damage caused by the Santa Barbara Oil Spill. The first March for Science was organized to coincide with the date of this event, and following the one in 2016, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change was signed. The EPA, Clean Water Act, and Endangered Species Act are seen as responses to, for the point, what worldwide event promoting environmentalism that was first celebrated on April 22, 1970?
Earth Day
16) Inge Lehmann suggested that this region has a solid component. Convection occurring in one portion of this region is the proposed mechanism for dynamo theory. This region can be divided into its outer molten component and inner solid component. For the point, name this region that sits directly below the mantle in the center of the Earth.
Earth's core (accept inner core; accept outer core)
29) This disease was targeted by the ZMapp vaccine, which relies on a serum made in fast-growing tobacco plants. The 2018 Kivu outbreak of this disease struck the Congo last August. Controversially, in 2014, health workers in Liberia with this disease were flown to U.S. hospitals for treatment. The first known outbreak of this disease was a 1976 case in Zaire near a river sharing its name. For the point, name this viral hemorrhagic disease that struck West Africa in a 2013-2016 outbreak.
Ebola virus disease (accept EBOV or Ebola hemorrhagic fever or EHF or EVD)
(3) Some members of this phylum possess teeth-like plate structures known as Aristotle's Lanterns. The Holothuroidea [[hah-luh-thoo-ROY-dee-ah]] class in this phylum feeds by vomiting out its digestive organs and pulling them back in. Adults in this phylum typically possess penta-radial symmetry and use pressurized water for locomotion. For the point, name this animal phylum that includes sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and starfish.
Echinodermata (or Echinoderms)
27. This weather pattern is the warmer phase of a larger pattern known as the Southern Oscillation. A higher than normal air pressure over the eastern Pacific Ocean during this weather pattern reduces the amount of cold water that can upwell along the South American coast. Fishermen in Peru named this weather pattern in reference to its noticeable effects near Christmastime. For the point, name this recurring weather pattern which results in warmer and wetter conditions in the eastern Pacific, contrasted with drier and cooler La Niña periods.
El Niño
(12) This technique is performed at 800 degrees Celsius to industrially produce sodium metal in a Downs cell. This technique is applied to a bath of molten cryolite to smelt aluminum in the Hall-Heroult [[heh-ROH]] process. Michael Faraday proposed two laws to describe the mass added onto electrodes during this process, which is also used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. For the point, name this process that uses an electrical current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
Electrolysis (accept Electrolytic process; accept Electrorefining; accept Electrowinning; accept Electroplating; prompt on "Electrochemical process")
(11) Uranyl [[YOO-rah-nil]] acetate [[ASS-ih-tate]] is often used as a negative stain alongside these devices. Samples may be "fixed" with osmium tetroxide or glutaraldehyde [[gloo-tah-RAL-dih-"hide"]] before being analyzed by one of these devices. Antibodies bound to gold nanoparticles are used as a contrast agent when using these devices, the development of whose "cryo-" type won the 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. These devices come in both "scanning" and "transmission" varieties. For the point, name these devices that fire a beam of negatively charged particles at samples to produce high-resolution images.
Electron Microscopes (accept Electron Microscopy; accept Scanning Electron Microscopes; accept Transmission Electron Microscopes; accept EM; accept cryo-EM; accept SEM; accept TEM; prompt on "microscope")
14. Since low-temperature serpentinization produces diatomic hydrogen on this body, it has been theorized that methane-producing archaea may be able to survive on it. The fact that this object experiences more tidal heating than an icier relative is the subject of a paradox named for Mimas and this object. In the south polar region of this object, cyro-volcanism has been detected in its "Tiger Stripes," where geysers spew material that replenishes the E-Ring. For the point, what is this moon of Saturn, named for a Greek giant?
Enceladus
(6) This quantity is plotted on the X-axis of a diagram commonly used to visualize heat transfer in a Carnot [[kar-NOH]] cycle. This state function is measured in units of Joules per Kelvin. This quantity equals (+) Boltzmann's constant times the natural log of the number of microstates, and never decreases in isolated (*) systems according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For the point, name this quantity symbolized "S," a measure of a system's disorder.
Entropy (accept S before mentioned)
(10) Herodotus credited this mathematician, who was nicknamed "Beta" among his peers, with inventing the first armillary [[AR-mih-lay-ree]] sphere. A method developed by this mathematician involves deleting all multiples of each remaining number starting with two. Using the distance between Syene [["sigh"-EEN]] and Alexandria, this mathematician gave the first estimate of Earth's circumference. For the point, name this mathematician whose namesake "sieve" can be used to find prime numbers.
Eratosthenes [[eh-rah-TAHS-theh-neez]] of Cyrene
4) His last name isn't Curie, but this scientist names a non-SI unit of radioactivity equal to one million nuclei decay per second. This scientist is the namesake of the first element after the actinide series, element 104. This scientist names a type of elastic scattering between charged particles caused by the Coulomb interaction. This man supervised an experiment run by Geiger and Marsden where alpha particles were fired at gold foil, disproving the plum-pudding model of the atom. For the point, name this scientist who developed the model of the atomic nucleus.
Ernest Rutherford
16) A theorem named for this man and Euler states the connection between Mersenne primes and perfect numbers. This man's lemma states that a prime number that divides the product of two integers must divide one of the integers, and this man also theorized that there are infinitely many primes. This mathematician's work in geometry includes a system of proof based on five postulates, such as the parallel postulate. For the point, name this ancient Greek mathematician who wrote the Elements.
Euclid of Alexandria
22. A sequence of numbers named for this thinker has terms equal to 1 more than a product of the smallest primes. This thinker showed that whenever a prime divides a product it must divide one of the factors in Proposition 30 of his Book 7. This man popularized the theorem that isosceles triangles have equal base angles, and he used five axioms to open the first textbook in geometry. For the point, name this ancient Greek mathematician who wrote The Elements.
Euclid of Alexandria
31) The origin of this taxon is thought to have occurred due to endosymbiosis. The flagella of members of this taxon have a nine plus two arrangement. The Latin name of this domain is "true kernel." Organisms in this domain can undergo meiosis to produce four haploid daughter cells, and this domain is characterized by organelles and a nucleus. For the point, name this domain of life consisting of plants and animals.
Eukaryotes (accept Eukaryota)
Zeckendorf proved that every positive integer can be written as the sum of one or more numbers in this sequence, even if consecutive numbers are forbidden. Starting with the fifth term, every number in this sequence is the largest value in a Pythagorean triple. This specific case of a Lucas [loo-kah] sequence was inspired by a thought experiment involving rabbit breeding. As this sequence progresses, the ratio between its terms approaches the golden ratio. For the point, name this recursive sequence of numbers that begins "1, 1, 2, 3, 5."
Fibonacci sequence
(26) Spin trapping often requires reacting these molecules with nitrones before they can be visualized using EPR spectroscopy. These molecules contain a high-energy molecular orbital called a SOMO [[SOH-moh]]. These species are created by homolytic (+) cleavage reactions, which can be drawn using fish-hook arrows. The superoxide example of these molecules is diagrammed with a (*) single dot. For the point, name these species with unpaired electrons that are neutralized by antioxidants.
Free Radicals (prompt on "Paramagnetic")
(13) This force causes objects to become charged in the tribo-electric effect. Amonton's [[ah-mohn-TOHNS]] Law states that this force is independent of surface area. This force is described by a namesake coefficient, represented with the letter mu [[MYOO]], and comes in dynamic and kinetic varieties. Causing your hands to warm up when you rub them together, for the point, what is this force which resists an object's motion?
Friction (accept Dynamic friction, Static friction, or Sliding friction; accept Kinetic friction; accept Coefficient of friction)
30. This author of Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems allegedly stamped the ground and retorted "and yet it moves" when convicted guilty by the Catholic church. An apocryphal experiment conducted by this man describes him dropping two spheres of different mass from the Tower of Pisa. The discoverer of four moons of Jupiter was, For the point, what 16th century Italian scientist who was put on trial for defending heliocentrism?
Galileo Galilei
28) According to legend, this scientist once dropped two balls off the leaning tower of Pisa to show that falling time was independent of mass. This man improved upon Hans Lippershey's design for a telescope used to discover four moons of Jupiter that are named after him. For the point, identify this Italian astronomer and physicist who was placed under house arrest for refusing to recant his heliocentric views.
Galileo Galilei (accept either underlined part)
(2) Soft repeaters of this kind of radiation are believed to originate in starquakes in magnetars and neutron stars with orbiting fossil disks. Large amounts of this radiation are released from jets caused by (+) tidal disruption events and hypernovas. An initial flash of this radiation followed by a lower energy afterglow is characteristic of this radiation's namesake (*) "bursts." For the point, name this radiation that has a higher frequency than X-rays.
Gamma radiation (or Gamma rays; accept Gamma ray burst; prompt on "GRB")
32) This technique is conducted before the transfer step of a Southern blot. Molecular weight determines the migration rate of this technique. A carcinogenic dye called ethidium bromide helps to visualize this technique, which relies on an agarose matrix. For the point, name this technique which separates DNA using an electric field.
Gel electrophoresis
27) Kurt G¨odel's [gur-dull's] solution to equations governing this theory curiously exhibits rotation and twisting worldlines. Arthur Eddington tested this theory in 1919 by taking measurements from a solar eclipse. LIGO has confirmed the existence of waves predicted by this theory. For the point, name this theory that describes gravity as spacetime curvature, developed by Einstein after considering a more special case of the same concept with electromagnetism.
General Theory of Relativity (accept GR; prompt on "Relativity"; do not accept or prompt on "Special Relativity")
29) An enlarged sesamoid [sess-ah-moyd] bone gives this animal a pseudo-thumb which may help it feed. This animal's scientific name, Ailuropoda melanoleuca [ail-oo-roh-poh-da mel-an-oh-lu-kah] incorrectly identifies this animal as a black-and-white cat. This animal is a member of the order carnivora, but its diet is almost exclusively bamboo. For the point, identify this endangered animal, today considered a distant relative of bears which is native to the mountains of central China.
Giant panda
(5) At a transition temperature named for this substance, polymers enter a viscous, rubbery state. Electronic pH meters often use an electrode made from this substance, whose most prevalent type contains lime and soda. Hydrofluoric acid is commonly used to (+) etch this material. Most modern labware consists of this material's (*) borosilicate [[boh-roh-SIH-lih-kut]] variety, which is called Pyrex. For the point, name this amorphous [[ay-MOR-fus]] material used to make beakers and test tubes.
Glass (accept Soda-lime glass; accept Borosilicate glass)
(19) This material is produced using epitaxy [[EH-pih-tak-see]] by growing it on layers of silicon carbide in a form of chemical vapor deposition. This material exhibits an unusual half-integer form of the quantum Hall effect. Each atom in this material shares three sp2 hybridized orbitals, making it the strongest of all currently known materials. Andre Geim [[GIME]] employed micromechanical exfoliation and a silicon wafer to isolate layers of this material using Scotch tape and the primary component of pencil lead. For the point, name this 2D carbon allotrope arranged in a single-layered hexagonal lattice.
Graphene (prompt on "Carbon Nanotubes"; do not accept or prompt on "graphite")
10. This scientist won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1953 for his work on discovering a set of biochemical reactions alongside Fritz Lipmann, who received the prize for his related work on Coenzyme A. This scientist and his student Kurt Henseleit give an alternative name to the Urea cycle. This scientist gives the alternative name to a cycle that begins with the addition of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and occurs in the matrix of mitochondria as a precursor to oxidative phosphorylation. For the point, name this German-born British biologist who gives an alternate name to the Citric Acid cycle.
Hans Adolf Krebs
3. A horizontal approach to the most well known characteristic of this construct occurs along a path named for Henyey. That path for Henyey for this construct can be followed from a different track named for Hayashi. Delta Scuti and SX phoenicis occupy this construct's instability strip. Most data points on this plot are along what is referred to as the main sequence. This diagram typically uses temperature as the x-axis and luminosity as the y axis. For the point, name this color-magnitude diagram named for Danish and American astronomers used for stellar classification.
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram [or HR diagram]
Francois Englert co-won a Nobel prize for helping theorize this particle. A mechanism using spontaneous symmetry breaking shares its name with this particle's namesake. An experiment at CERN in 2012 claimed to have discovered this particle, which lacks charge and spin. This particle is thought to explain why W and Z bosons have mass. The "God particle" is a nickname for, for the point, what recently discovered boson?
Higgs boson (prompt on boson
(12) This hormone names a secretagogue [[see-KREH-tah-gog]] receptor 1A, which is activated by Ghrelin. Crowded teeth and enlarged hands and feet are common symptoms of a disorder caused by this hormone. Excessive levels of this hormone can cause pituitary tumors and acromegaly [[ak-roh-MEH-gah-lee]]. Deficiencies of this hormone are the primary cause of human dwarfism. For the point, name this common performance-enhancing drug, a peptide hormone responsible for stimulating cell division.
Human Growth Hormone (or HGH; accept Somatropin or Somatotropin)
(29) The presence of methane trapped in these structures is the primary evidence for Dansgaard-Oeschger [[DANS-gard ESH-guh]] events. These are the largest structures to experience basal shear stress. One of these structures that formerly (+) covered most of Canada and the United States was named (*) Laurentide. For the point, name these structures that cover Greenland and Antarctica, large masses of frozen water that are larger than glaciers or ice shelves.
Ice Sheets (accept Continental Glaciers; prompt on "Glacier"; prompt on "Ice Shelf"; prompt on "Ice")
1. Graal is a JIT compiler written in this language, designed to support files written in a mix of languages. This language, C sharp, and Kotlin are the top three used in the Android Software Developer Kit. The default graphics library for this language is Swing. This language was developed at Sun Microsystems by James Gosling. The virtual machine used to run the bytecode compiled from this language has led to advertisements of this language with the slogan "write once, run anywhere." For the point, name this object-oriented programming language, not to be confused with a similarly named "script" whose logo is a coffee mug in reference to an Indonesian island.
Java
(12) Along with two boundary conditions, a straight path, and a steady state, this condition is necessary for shell balance. A 2D layer with this condition is necessary for the Blasius [[BLAY-zee-us]] equation. Incompressible and Newtonian fluids (+) characterized by this condition experience a pressure drop according to the Hagen-Poiseuille [[HAH-gen pwah-ZUHL]] equation. High momentum diffusion and low momentum convection characterize this regime, which notably (*) lacks eddies. This regime occurs in fluids that have a low Reynolds number. For the point, name this flow regime contrasted with turbulent flow.
Laminar flow (or Streamline flow)
(8) Felsic varieties of this substance can form namesake "domes." When this substance is extruded underwater, it can form its "pillow" variety. This substance can be classified as either ʻaʻā [[AH-AH]] or pahoehoe [[pah-HOY-HOY]] based on its texture and makeup. Pumice [[PUM-iss]] and obsidian are examples of igneous rocks formed by the cooling of this substance. For the point, name this form of molten rock created when magma reaches the Earth's surface.
Lava (do not accept or prompt on "magma")
19. The name for these equations is shared with a competitive form that instead uses a logistic equation basis. These equations typically take the following form: Equation 1 (read slowly) dx-dt equals alpha x minus beta times x times y. Equation 2 (read slowly) dy-dt = delta x times y minus gamma times y. Those two equations encode the self interaction of the species and its interaction with its counter-role species. For the point, name these doubly eponymous equations important to mathematical biology that model predator-prey relations.
Lotka-Volterra equations [accept Competitive Lotka-Volterra; prompt on partial answers; prompt on predator-prey equations]
15) This scientist discovered racemization [RAY-suh-muh-ZAY-shun] in tartaric acid experiments. This scientist developed the use of a swan bottle neck to disprove the spontaneous generation of germs in fermentation processes. This creator of the rabies and anthrax vaccine invented a process where mild heat is used to remove pathogens. For the point, name this scientist who names a process used to keep milk sanitary.
Louis Pasteur
23) This scientist helped disprove spontaneous generation by using a swan-necked flask filled with broth. This scientist developed vaccines for rabies and anthrax. He is best known for his work on heating wines which was extended into his namesake process which increases the shelf life of perishable foods by heating them up. For the point, name this French scientist who names a process of treating milk to remove microorganisms.
Louis Pasteur (accept Pasteurization)
(13) Evidence for the existence of these regions includes the presence of primordial helium 3 and massive flood basalts. These structures are bookended by a hot "tail" and a cooler "head." The movement of the crust over (+) one of these regions is the likely cause of volcanic island chains such as Hawaii due to the formation of (*) hotspots. For the point, name these regions in which partially molten rock rises up to the crust from their namesake layer of the earth.
Mantle Plume (prompt on "hotspots" before mentioned; prompt on "mantle")
(33) This feature was explored by the Victor Vescovo-piloted Ring of Fire expeditions. As part of Project Nekton, this feature was explored by the Auguste Piccard designed Trieste [[tree-ESS-teh]] vessel. One portion of this feature was explored by the Kaiko and Nereus unmanned submarines. This feature's southern end contains its deepest point, the Challenger Deep. Located near an American-controlled Pacific island group, for the point, what is this deepest point in the ocean?
Mariana Trench (or Marianas Trench; accept Challenger Deep before mentioned)
(30) During World War One, this scientist developed mobile radiography units to quickly X-ray wounded soldiers. This scientist unsuccessfully attempted to sell her gold Nobel Prize medals to the French National Bank to help the war effort. This woman died of aplastic [[AY-"plastic"]] anemia, obtained as a result of prolonged exposure to her work with radiation. For the point, name this woman, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields: Chemistry and Physics.
Marie Curie (or Marie Salomea Skłodowska Curie; or Maria Salomea Skłodowska; accept Madame Curie)
(16) When computing this quantity for a galaxy from its luminosity, this quantity must be multiplied by ten to account for dark matter. The gravitational force between two objects equals big G over r squared times this quantity for both objects, and the standard unit of this quantity in astronomy is the "solar" one. For the point, name this quantity equal to a star's density times its volume, for which the sun is around two times ten to the 30th kilograms.
Mass (accept Galactic mass)
29) MASCS was designed to study the exosphere and surface of this planet. The first flyby of this planet was made possible with the 10th Mariner mission. Two spacecrafts on ESA-JAXA's BepiColombo are en route to this planet. The first probe to orbit this planet, MESSENGER, crashed into it in 2015. One day on this planet takes 59 Earth days, but this planet zips around the sun in merely 88 days. For the point, name this smallest planet and the one closest to the sun.
Mercury
32) Urbain Le Verrier hypothesized that irregularities in the orbit of this planet were due to a yet undiscovered planet he called Vulcan. The MESSANGER probe orbited this planet for 4 years before entering the final phase of its mission and crashing to the surface. This planet completes an orbit around the sun every 88 days, less than half the time it takes Venus to do the same. For the point, name this closest planet to the sun.
Mercury
Irregularities in this object's orbit were hypothesized to come from an undiscovered planet, Vulcan, but were later correctly explained through general relativity. This body is home to the large impact crater Caloris Basin, which was studied by Mariner 10 and MESSENGER. This body has the highest difference between day and night temperature of any planet in the Solar System. For the point, name this moonless planet, the nearest to the sun.
Mercury
(14) The pesticides AzaGuard and Starycide work by preventing this process, making them a type of IGR pesticide. Some invertebrates undergo this process when the corpus allatum [[ah-LAH-tum]] stimulates the production of juvenile hormone, inducing ecdysis [[EK-dih-sis]]. Hemi-metabolous insects undergo an incomplete form of this process that involves an immature nymph stage. Butterflies and moths have an intermediate stage in this process called a chrysalis [[KRIH-sah-lis]] or cocoon. For the point, name this process by which insects mature, such as when caterpillars become butterflies.
Metamorphosis (prompt on "maturation" or similar answers)
10. This man succeeded in "magnetizing a ray of light" using his namesake effect to rotate the light's plane of polarization with a magnetic field. This inventor of the first dynamo names a law relating the electromotive force to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux. The electric field at every point is equal to zero inside this man's namesake "cage". For the point, name this English scientist who names the SI unit of capacitance and the namesake of the law of induction.
Michael Faraday
3) Charged particles in a vacuum are intercepted by this scientist's namesake cup. An effect named for this scientist describes the polarization of light rays passing through a B-field. A law named for this scientist sets the electromotor force proportional to the negative change in magnetic flux. This scientist names a cage which screens electromagnetic radiation. This assistant to Sir Humphrey Davy names the SI unit of capacitance. For the point, name this English scientist whose study of electromagnetism led him to propose a namesake law of induction.
Michael Faraday
(12) When these structures are unable to become ionized, they become the reflection type instead of the emission type. The planetary variety of these structures occur when a red giant expels its outer layers. The Pillars of Creation are a formation within one of these structures named Eagle. The Crab is a well-known example of, for the point, what large star-forming clouds of dust and gas?
Nebulae (or Nebulasl accept Reflection nebula; accept Emission nebula; accept Planetary nebula; accept Eagle nebula; accept Crab [a]nebula)
5) The Le Verrier [luh vuhREE ay] ring of this astronomical body might be shepherded by Despina. A storm on this planet is called the Scooter. Voyager 2 discovered Proteus, one of this body's satellites. This planet has a great dark spot, and its largest moon, which notably has a retrograde orbit, is Triton. For the point, name this eighth planet from the sun, more massive than Uranus which is named for the Roman god of the sea.
Neptune
(9) These particles are distinguished from their antiparticles by having left-handed chirality [[kai-RAL-ih-tee]]. Sterile, non-interacting forms of these particles have been proposed as a potential explanation of dark matter. Along with a (+) positron, one of these particles is released in Beta plus decay. These particles come in three leptonic flavors (*) corresponding to the electron, muon [[MYOO-on]], and tau [[TAO]]. For the point, name these nearly massless particles which lack charge.
Neutrinos (accept Tau neutrinos; accept Muon neutrinos; accept Electron neutrinos; prompt on "fermions"; do not accept or prompt on "neutrons")
19) One of these statements is an early statement of demonstrating that change in momentum is equal to the impulse imparted to an object. Another of these statements is an early statement of the conservation of momentum in terms of paired forces. One of these statements discusses the cause of acceleration being an outside unbalanced force applied to an object. For the point, identify this trio of statements which explain fundamental motion of objects as first written in the Principia by the man who also proposed the Law of Universal Gravitation.
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
18) Annual meetings of those who have achieved this honor are held at Lindau. Nazi policy forbade the acceptance of this honor by German scientists such as Richard Kuhn and Adolf Butenandt. The premature publication of an obituary led to the founding of this honor by the inventor of dynamite. Chemist Linus Pauling has won two of these honors in different categories. Awarded by various Swedish and Norwegian committees, for the point, name this prestigious annual prize awarded to laureates in fields such as medicine, physics, and peace.
Nobel prizes
4) It's not the stomach, but some people have an extra part of this organ called the Duct of Santorini. This organ's Duct of Wirsung empties its contents into the duodenum. Amylin and glucagon are produced by alpha and beta cells in this organ's Islets of Langerhans. Type 1 diabetes targets, for the point, what organ that secretes insulin?
Pancreas
9) A mission to retrieve macroscopic samples from this object named "Grunt" failed to find a launch window out of Earth's orbit. This is the larger and closer of two moons discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall, and it completes its orbit in 8 hours. This moon, home to the Stickney Crater, is named for Ares' son, the personification of fear. For the point, name this larger moon of Mars, paired with Deimos.
Phobos
(15) The kinetic energy of the output of this effect is equal to the work function subtracted from Planck's constant times frequency. A coil with a spark gap was used to observe this effect by Heinrich Hertz. Robert Millikan verified that this effect's output is related to frequency but not intensity. Albert Einstein's 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics was for his work on this effect. For the point, name this effect in which electrons are emitted under light.
Photoelectric Effect
(14) This letter names a phenomenon in which carbonyl groups donate electrons to orbitals on transition metals, which is called "backbonding." Osmotic pressure is symbolized by the uppercase form of this letter, which also denotes the delocalized electrons within a conjugated system. A carbon-carbon triple bond contains two bonds denoted by this letter. For the point, name this Greek letter that names covalent bonds weaker than sigma bonds, formed from the overlap of p orbitals.
Pi (accept Pi bond; accept Pi electrons; accept Pi backbonding; prompt on "p")
(21) In the Earth's atmosphere, the Birkeland currents are carried by these substances. These substances are confined with magnetic fields in a tokamak [[TOH-kah-mak]]. As in electrolyte solutions, the range of a particle's electrostatic effect in this state is given as the Debye [[deh-"BYE"]] length. Nuclear fusion is only possible if matter is in this state. For the point, name this fourth state of matter, a collection of highly energized gas atoms found in stars.
Plasma
1) This object was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh. New Horizons made observations of this object in 2015 where pictures revealed its "frozen heart," which likely had nothing to do with this object's demotion to a trans-Neptunian object in 2006 after the discovery of Eris. For the point, name this dwarf planet that used to be the 9th planet from the Sun.
Pluto (accept 134340 Pluto)
19) The German firm Badische Aniline & Soda Fabrik outpaced the Allies in phosgene production, critical in creating this weapon. The Italians broke the Geneva Protocol of 1925 by using this weapon in the Second Ethiopian War. The first use of this chemical weapon was at the Battle of Ypres [EEP] during WWI. For the point, name this weapon made of noxious fumes with "Mustard '' and "Chlorine" variants.
Poison Gas
(28) This object is two-and-a-half times brighter than when it was originally observed by Ptolemy, changing its classification from third to second-magnitude. This star serves a role previously held by Alpha Draconis and which will eventually be usurped by Vega. This star lies along the line connecting Dubhe [[DOO-bay]] and Merak [[MEE-rak]], and it is the brightest star in Ursa Minor. For the point, name this star found at the end of the Little Dipper's handle, commonly known as the North Star.
Polaris (or Alpha Ursae Minoris; accept Pole Star; accept North Star before mentioned)
(19) These particles are theorized to have a half-life of 1.67 times 10 to the 34th years and would decay into a neutral pion [["PIE"-on]] and a positron. These particles can capture an electron through inverse beta decay. These particles make up the nucleus of the protium isotope of hydrogen. For the point, name this positively charged baryon [[BAY-ree-on]], which forms the nucleus with neutrons.
Proton
28. One story claims that this man's experimenting with a set of differently weighted blacksmith hammers allowed him to discover the basics of musical tuning. The Law of Cosines generalizes the most famous work of this thinker, whose followers found meaning in a 10-point diagram called a tetractys and claimed he discovered the Platonic solids. For the point, name this ancient Greek mathematician whose namesake formula concerns the side lengths of right triangles.
Pythagoras of Samos
3. This duck-typed language was used to write the web building framework Django. This interpreter language, which is now on version 3.7, still provides some backwards compatibility for version 2.7 which was sunsetted in 2020. This language was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991 and provides ample readability by requiring tabs to delimit bodies. For the point, name this programming language named for a comedy sketch crew and not after a snake.
Python
8) The "num" library in this language is used for mathematical algorithms and data statistics. Tutorials in this language commonly make use of "spam" and "eggs" as variable names. This language, developed by Guido van Rossum, is typically recommended for novices due to its lack of syntactic overhang, since it delimits blocks with whitespace indentation. For the point, name this interpreter language that is actually named after a British sketch comedy show and not a snake.
Python (accept NumPy [num-PIE])
(3) The Grotthuss [[GROHT-hooss]] mechanism is a minor consequence of this effect, which names a technique developed by Binnig and Rohrer which can image individual atoms. In addition to that form of microscopy, this effect was used by George Gamow to explain alpha decay. This effect is illustrated with a non-zero wave function outside a finite potential well. For the point, name this phenomenon in which an atom passes through a normally impassable barrier, unexplainable by classical mechanics.
Quantum Tunneling
(27) One paradigm used in this language replaced dataframes and tables with tibbles. That paradigm in this language uses ggplot2 [[G-G-PLOT-TWO]] and dplyr [[DEE-ply-er]] and is known as the tidyverse. Stable packages used in this language can be hosted by CRAN. This language is most commonly implemented in an Integrated Development Environment called [this language] "Studio." For the point, name this open source programming language primarily used for data and statistical analysis.
R (accept RStudio)
(28) This scientist countered Hoyle's Fallacy, which proposed a tornado in a junkyard assembling a jet, by describing a complex god as the "ultimate Boeing 747." This scientist described cultural features that are passed down in a way analogous to genes with the coined term "meme." This scientist popularized the gene-centered view of evolution in books such as River Out of Eden and The Selfish Gene. For the point, name this British evolutionary biologist, known for his criticisms of religion in his book The God Delusion.
Richard Dawkins
Samuel Pepys [PEEPS] praised this man's major work, which included pictures of the edge of a razor and the eye of a fly. This member of the Royal Society coined one term after noticing a resemblance of certain entities to honeycombs. This author of Micrographia also developed a namesake law of elasticity. For the point, name this English scientist who coined the term "cell."
Robert Hooke
35. In a letter to this man, Newton claimed "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants" which might have been a sarcastic reference to this man's hunchback. Young's modulus equals the force constant in this man's law which relates stress to strain, and this man's work with microscopes led to his discovery of the fundamental unit of life. For the point, name this English scientist who coined the term "cell" and names a law governing springs.
Robert Hooke (accept Hooke's law)
This scientist's transfer to Birkbeck College may have convinced colleagues to publish a finding that was previously considered incomplete. The important Photo 51 was taken by this scientist, whose X-ray crystallography was improperly given by Maurice Wilkins to those colleagues. This scientist's 1958 death prevented her from being recognized by the Nobel committee. For the point, name this scientist whose research on the double helix structure of DNA was instrumental to the work of Watson and Crick.
Rosalind Franklin
(7) One type of this process named for an Indian physicist is subdivided into Stokes and anti-Stokes varieties. Those varieties of this process are central to Raman spectroscopy. Interactions between photons and charged particles can result in the Compton type of this process. The sky appears blue because of a type of this process named for Lord Rayleigh. For the point, name this process of particles being deflected by other particles.
Scattering (accept Raman Scattering; accept Compton Scattering; accept Rayleigh Scattering; accept Elastic Scattering; accept Inelastic Scattering)
(35) In a 2012 study at UCSB, this situation was tested with a piezoelectric [[pee-EH-zoh-"electric"]] "tuning fork." This situation lends its name to a type of quantum situation where a particle is superpositioned into diametric outcomes. This situation was designed to critique the Copenhagen interpretation and imagines a vial of poison that will be released if a particle randomly decays. For the point, name this thought experiment depicting a feline that is both dead and alive.
Schrödinger's Cat
(27) This region is home to terrigenous sediment that forms Calcareous [[kal-KAY-ree-us]] and Siliceous [[sih-LIH-see-us]] oozes. The most remote portions of this region are primarily covered in hematite [[HEE-mah-"tight"]] rich "red clay." This region is home to formations such as black and white smokers. Cold seeps along this region can result in the formation of brine pools. Organisms that live near this region are collectively known as benthos, which often cluster around hydrothermal vents. For the point, name this rocky region at the bottom of the ocean.
Sea floor (or Ocean floor; accept Bed in place of Floor; accept Bottom in place of Floor before mentioned)
This was the first extrasolar star to have its velocity calculated. Along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, this star, which is 8.6 light years from earth, forms the Winter Triangle. Alvan Graham Clark discovered, using Frederick Bessel's calculations, that this star is part of a system with a white dwarf. This binary star, the alpha star of the constellation Canis Major, is the star with the lowest apparent magnitude from Earth and thus the brightest star in the night sky. For the point, name this "dog" star.
Sirius (or Alpha Canis Majoris before "Canis" is read
This law can be derived from a 1662 principle stating that the least time-intensive path is taken by the central phenomenon; that principle is named for Pierre de Fermat. This law states that the ratio of phase velocities is equal to the sine of the angles of incidence over the sine of the angle of refraction. For the point, name this law that explains the trajectory of light rays through two different mediums, named for a Dutchman.
Snell's Law (accept Snellius' Law; accept Snell-Descartes law; accept law of refraction before "refraction" is read
(14) The WRB and UK-ADAS [[u-k-AY-duss]] systems classify this substance on a triangular diagram. This substance naturally sorts into distinguishable layers known as "horizons." Loam [["LOW"-um]] is a type of this substance particularly valuable for agriculture, and this substance can be enriched with humus [[HYOO-muss]]. This substance is composed of organic matter, sand, silt, and clay. For the point, identify this substance in which seeds are planted.
Soil (accept Dirt; accept Earth)
32) This country operated both the Buran shuttle program and Venera probes from Baikonur. Among this nation's most successful vehicles was the Soyuz, and its Mir station continued to operate until 2001. Pioneers from this country included Valentina Tereshkova and Laika the dog, and its pilot Yuri Gagarin was the first person to leave Earth's atmosphere. Launching Sputnik in 1957, for the point, name this former country whose cosmonauts competed against Americans in the space race.
Soviet Union (accept USSR; prompt on Russia until "Baikonur," which is in Kazakhstan)
A letter-writing campaign convinced one of these objects to change its name from Constitution to Enterprise. These craft carried out 135 STS missions, though in 1986 and 2003, two of these craft and their seven-person crews were lost; the former on takeoff and the latter on re-entry. The Challenger and Columbia were, for the point, what NASA re-usable spacecraft that were officially retired in 2011?
Space Shuttle orbiters
(24) Three times this quantity cubed makes up the denominator of the Larmor [[LAR-mor]] formula. Exceeding this quantity in a certain medium results in the emission of Cherenkov [[che-REN-kof]] radiation. Particles that can hypothetically exceed this quantity in a vacuum are known as tachyons [[TAK-ee-ons]]. Mass energy equivalence is established by a formula that sets energy equal to mass times this quantity squared. Represented as "c" in Einstein's formula "e equals mc squared," for the point, what is this rate at which photons move?
Speed of Light (or Lightspeed; prompt on "c")
5) These organisms use choanocytes to move food past microvilli, which absorb nutrients in the process of filter-feeding. The bodies of these organisms contain a gelatinous matrix called a mesohyl. These organisms lack symmetry and internal organs. For the point, name this phylum of simple sessile, aquatic organisms.
Sponges (accept Porifera)
(5) Regular expressions are used to match this type of data, and in C, these objects are stored in arrays ending with a null terminator. In Java, the plus sign can be used to concatenate [[kon-KAT-eh-nate]] objects of this type. Often constructed using double quotes, for the point, what is this data type which is comprised of sequences of characters and is used to store text?
String (prompt on "str"; prompt on "barchar"; prompt on "text" before mentioned)
7. While the original formulator of this language has suggested changing their name to "springs," this language still uses the name "glue" for objects with space, stretch, and shrink attributes that become rigid when set. Useful packages in an extension of this language include graphicx, geometry and Beamer. This language handles input by grouping letters into hboxes which are then put into a vbox with the goal of minimizing badness between lines. Leslie Lamport designed an extension to this language with more user-friendly macros and packages. Donald Knuth designed this language to make beautiful textbooks and has said the X should be pronounced like a Scottish person pronounces "Loch." For the point, name this markup language whose extension shares its spelling with the name for natural raw rubber.
TeX [accept LaTex]
Surface features of this object include light Xanadu and the dark Ontario Lacus. This object, which is in a 4 to 3 orbital resonance with Hyperion, is home to the large Kraken Mare [mar-ay]. The Huygens [hoy-gens] lander, part of the Cassini Orbiter, was sent to study this satellite, the only moon with a significant atmosphere. Large methane lakes scatter the surface of, for the point, what second largest moon in the Solar System and largest moon of Saturn?
Titan
This body includes methane lakes like Ligeia Mare [mah-ray] and Kraken Mare. Like Earth, this body's atmosphere is dominated by nitrogen, making it the only satellite in the solar system with a significant, stable atmosphere. That atmosphere prevented this moon's surface from being observed until the Huygens [hoy-gens] probe landed there in 2005. For the point, name this second-largest moon in the solar system, the largest moon of Saturn.
Titan
This man conducted much of his later research at his observatory at Uraniborg. Manderup Parsberg's injury of this man's face during a duel led this man to wear an artificial nose partly made of gold. This man attempted to combine Copernican and Aristotelian astronomy in a model that had the Sun and Moon orbit Earth while the planets orbit the Sun. For the point, name this astronomer from Denmark whose data was later used by his assistant, Johannes Kepler.
Tycho Brahe (accept Tyge Ottesen Brahe
3) The discovery of Ceres and this object were taken as proof of the since discredited Bode's law. This object's satellites include Puck, Oberon, Titania, and many others named for Shakespearean characters. Because its axis is nearly parallel to the ecliptic, this planet rotates on its side, and it was the first planet discovered with the aid of a telescope. Found by William Herschel and named for the Greek god of the sky, for the point, identify this seventh planet from the Sun.
Uranus
21. Parathyroid hormone stimulates the production of the activated form of this vitamin via upregulation of 1-alpha-hydroxylase. An electrocyclic reaction converts 7-Dehydrocholesterol to cholecalciferol, one form of this vitamin. Kyphosis, bowed legs, and a large forehead are common symptoms in a deficiency in this vitamin that affects children. Deficiency in this vitamin can cause rickets. For the point, name this vitamin obtained from sunlight that helps with the absorption of calcium, which is why it is often used to fortify milk.
Vitamin D [accept D3; accept D2; prompt on cholecalciferol; prompt on ergocalciferol]
3) British analysts referred to a stream of data during this war as Fish, which was created by the Lorenz cipher. At Bletchley Park during this war, a precursor to the computer named after Heath Robinson was built to help crack the Enigma machine. Alan Turing contributed to British intelligence in cracking Nazi code during, for the point, what war between Axis and Ally powers?
World War II (or WW2; or Second World War; prompt on "World War")
7) The difference between this quantity's forward and reverse forms equals the reaction heat. On a reaction coordinate, this quantity is the difference between the maximum point and the curve's value for the reactants. Catalysts lower, for the point, what amount of energy which must be supplied to a system for a reaction to occur?
activation energy [accept Ea; accept activation enthalpy)
The existence of Uranus and one of these objects were successfully predicted by the Titius-Bode Law. These objects make up the Hilda family, which exist in a 3-to-2 resonance with Jupiter; Jupiter's Trojans are also this type of object. Vesta is the brightest of these objects as seen from Earth, and the first of these to be discovered has been re-classified as a dwarf planet. For the point, give this term for small, rocky bodies like Ceres, which are commonly found in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.
asteroid (or minor planets or planetoids; do not accept or prompt on planet or dwarf planet
17) 4 Vesta is the only one of these objects visible to the naked eye. These objects can be classified as C-type, M-type, and S-type, based on observations of their mineral composition. They were named by William Herschel for their apparent resemblance to stars. These objects are thought to be the remnants of planetesimals formed in the early solar system that lacked enough mass to become true planets. For the point, name these objects, some of which lie in a namesake "belt" between Mars and Jupiter.
asteroids (accept planetesimals until "William")
5) One instance of this type of landform in Punalu'u is black due to nearby basaltic lava flows. The zig-zag pattern of this type of landform is due to longshore drift. The shingle variety of this type of landform primarily has a higher percentage of pebbles in its washed-up sediment. For the point, name this type of landform along a coast of water, usually made up of pebbles and sand.
beach (prompt on the "coast"; prompt on "shore")
The rhamphotheca protects this structure. Tomia are found inside the edges of this structure. Nares are holes on this structure that provide passage to the respiratory system. Darwin noticed that this structure was specialized based on the foraging habits of finches. Eggs can be cracked by a specialized tooth on, for the point, what hard protruding structures on bird heads that are used for eating?
beak (or bill or rostrum
19) Karl von Frisch studied how these organisms communicate the location of food through a waggle dance. These creatures of the genus Apis will spontaneously migrate in colony collapse disorder. These creatures are specialized into "drone," "nurse" and "queen" classes. For the point, name these organisms whose most famous variety creates honey while helping with pollination.
bees (accept European honeybees; accept Apis mellifera before mentioned)
22. In the presence of a strong Lewis acid catalyst, this compound can undergo the Friedel-Crafts reactions. James Dewar names an isomer of this compound. A derivative of this compound, anisole, is made up of an amine group and a phenyl group, which is this compound without a hydrogen atom. Xylene and toluene are methyl-group derivatives of this compound. Due to resonance, each bond length in this compound's ring is 140 picometers. For the point, chemist August Kekule discovered the structure of what organic compound with formula C6H6?
benzene
15) Naphthalene [NAFF thuh LEEN] and anthracene [AN thruh SEEN] contain two and three units of this compound, which can be modified to form phenol [FEE nol] or toluene [TALL u EEN]. This molecule's four-times-one-plus-two conjugated electrons obey H¨uckel's rule, making it aromatic. When fully hydrogenated, this molecule forms cyclohexane. Kekule discovered the structure of this molecule based on the image of a snake biting its own tail. For the point, name this planar molecule with formula C6H6.
benzene (prompt on C6H6)
28. Midland, Michigan is home to a three-way example of one of these structures. The Anji one in China is the oldest of these to make use of an open-spandrel design. Labels such as "fracture critical" and "structurally deficient" are labels used by the NBI to categorize these structures. Donald Bailey designed movable versions of these structures that bear his name to help Allied war efforts in World War II. John Augustus Roebling received help from his wife Emily in designing one of these structures in Brooklyn. The Akashi Kaikyo is the longest example of a suspension one of these. Arch, beam, cable-stayed, truss, and cantilever are other design variants of these structures. For the point, name these structures that span geographical obstacles like rivers, valleys, and roads.
bridges
6) One of the oldest examples of these structures is the Arkadiko one in Mycenae. C.T. Loscher designed one of the first Cable-stayed variants of these structures while their arch and beam varieties have been around since B.C.E.. Akashi Kaikyo is the longest of these structures that utilize a suspension design. For the point, name these structures that connect two points to span obstacles like rivers, valleys, and roads.
bridges
12) Gypsum can form "flowers" and "beards" in these places. "Soda straw" is a very common speleothem in these places. These places can form from the dissolution of limestone in karst topography. Mammoth and Carlsbad are two U.S. examples of these places. For the point, name these underground locations that contain stalagmites and stalactites which are explored by spelunkers.
caves (or caverns)
11) An alloy of this element with lead is frequently used in manufacturing car batteries. A namesake exchanger uses sodium to remove this element from cells, the presence of which allows for the contraction of muscles. Though it's not magnesium, this element is one of the primary components of hard water. The carbonate of this element is used in antacid medication and found in limestone. For the point, name this element essential for the function of teeth and bones with symbol Ca.
calcium (accept Ca before it is read)
One of this element's sulfates is gypsum, and one of its oxides is lime; each is commonly used in plaster. The decay of argon-40 into potassium-40 would be used in radioactive dating if this element's isotope 40 weren't such a common product of that decay. This element with twenty protons is a very common metal in the human body, due to its role in mineralizing bone. For the point, name this chemical element with atomic symbol Ca ["C A"], which is important for healthy teeth.
calcium (prompt on "Ca" before it is read
18) Inversions in projective geometry map a generalized type of these objects to another general type. The equation [read slowly] "r equals cosine theta" describes this shape in polar coordinates while their general equation in Cartesian coordinates is [read slowly] x minus h squared plus y minus k squared equals r squared. For the point, name this two-dimensional shape consisting of the points equidistant from a given point.
circle
20) The energy of this reaction can be measured by a Bomb calorimeter. Types of this reaction include smoldering and spontaneous. This exothermic reaction produces carbon dioxide and water from oxygen and a hydrocarbon fuel source, and they occur commonly in diesel engines. For the point, name this reaction of blowing stuff up that commonly results in flames.
combustion reaction
23) An apparent alignment of this phenomenon with the plane of the Solar System has been dubbed the "Axis of Evil." The WMAP mission detected anisotropies in this phenomenon, while the COBE satellite measurements of it produced a near perfect black body spectrum. Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered this phenomenon by accident in 1964, and its temperature is about 2.7 kelvins. For the point, name this faint radiation detectable throughout space, a residual effect of the Big Bang.
cosmic microwave background radiation (accept CMB or CMBR; do not accept or prompt on any other order of the words)
6) This structure can be described using Miller indices. X-ray diffraction is a method to analyze the atomic layout of these structures. Body centered cubic and face centered cubic are among the ways these structures can organize themselves. These structures can be described mathematically with lattices. For the point, give this term for solids that have a repeating structure.
crystals (accept crystallography)
33. Expansion by minors and calculating cofactors is a common method for calculating this value in 3-by-3 or 4-by-4 matrices. In identity matrices, this value is 1, as multiplying another matrix by an identity matrix will not change this value for the original matrix. For the point, name this quantity that represents a scaling factor for square matrix transformations that, for a 2-by-2 matrix with elements a, b, c, and d, is equal to "a times d" minus "b times c."
determinant of a matrix
In 1937, Pyotr Kapitsa discovered that, under certain conditions, helium had a value of zero for this quantity. The forces caused by this property are in the denominator for the Reynolds number. Liquid helium, as a superfluid, has a value of zero for this quantity and can therefore "creep up" the walls of its container. For the point, name this quantity that measures a fluid's resistance to flow.
dynamic viscosity
25) Along with acid rain, the Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study examined this process's effect on watersheds. Jared Diamond blames this process for the collapse of the Easter Island society. On satellite images, the Dominican Republic-Haiti border is easily seen because of this process, also done to expand palm oil plantations, which threatens Indonesia's orangutans. A consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture, this process destroys a soccer field-sized patch every minute in Brazil. For this point, name this process in which trees are cleared from large areas of land.
deforestation (accept logging or any answer describing the removal of trees)
10) Resolving errors in crystallographic data has led most scientists to believe osmium has the highest elemental value for this quantity. The ratio of this quantity to that of a reference substance is the specific gravity. This intrinsic property, commonly symbolized rho, defines how tightly an object packs its mass into space. For the point, name this property equal to mass divided by volume, which can be used to determine if an object floats in water.
density (accept descriptions of how dense the object / element is)
24) This molecule was imaged in "Photo 51" using X-ray diffraction by Rosalind Franklin. Along with Maurice Wilkins, James Watson and Francis Crick received the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of this molecule. This molecule is made up of phosphates, sugars, and the nitrogen bases, adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. For the point, name this double-helix molecule, the basis of all life.
deoxyribonucleic acid
24) In the Vickers Hardness test, this mineral is used to make indents. A gum-like material used to coat this mineral is called nyf to give this mineral ridge-like appearance. On the Mohs hardness scale, this mineral is just above corundum. Graphite can be converted to this mineral under high pressure. For the point, name this hardest mineral on the Mohs scale, a valuable carbon-based gemstone.
diamonds
The rate of this process is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the molar mass of two gases. Albert Einstein related a constant named for this process to mobility in a paper on Brownian motion. An equation that calculates the flux relating to this process is Fick's first law. This process occurs when particles move along a concentration gradient. For the point, name this process in which matter moves from areas of high concentration to those of lower concentration.
diffusion (prompt on effusion
On a circuit diagram, these elements are represented by a triangle pointing into a bar. These circuit devices function by using a p-n junction composed of a semiconductor, like silicon. They make use of a depletion zone to prevent current from travelling from the cathode to the anode. For the point, name these circuit elements that only conduct electricity in one direction and which sometimes emit bright light as LEDs.
diodes (accept light-emitting diode or LED
16) Protecting circuits commonly connect two of these devices to ground, anti-parallel to each other. The Esaki variety of this device was one of the first to take advantage of quantum tunneling. Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura won a 2014 Nobel prize for creating an efficient version of these devices that emits blue light. Circuit diagrams depict these devices as a triangle with a line over one point. For the point, name this circuit element that only allows current to flow in one direction, whose light-emitting variety is abbreviated L.E.D.
diodes (prompt on L.E.D.; accept light-emitting diodes)
4) This function is generalized by the gamma function. Stirling's formula is an approximation of this function. This function applied to a positive integer n is given by n times quantity n minus one all the way down to one. This function gives the number of ways to arrange n distinct objects in a row. For the point, name this function symbolized by an exclamation point next to a number.
factorial (prompt on "exclamation" point)
This function's value at one-half is said to be equal to the square root of pi, though that result is actually produced by the gamma function, which extends this function to non-positive integer inputs. This function at zero is defined as 1, in part because there is one way to order zero people in a line. This function at 10 is 3,628,800, and this function applied to 5 yields 120, or 5 times 4 times 3 times 2 times 1. For the point, name this mathematical function notated by an exclamation point.
factorial function (accept gamma function before it is read
These locations replaced the "putting-out" system, which was largely done domestically. Richard Arkwright's spinning frame allowed yarn to be produced in these facilities, ending a cottage industry. The River Rouge Complex was a large example of these facilities, where interchangeable parts move between workstations in an assembly line developed by Henry Ford. For the point, name these sites that were built during the Industrial Revolution, where workers use large machinery to build goods.
factory (accept any specific type of factory, like yarn factory, car factory, etc.
7) The fixed action patterns of aggression in some of these animals were studied by Niko Tinbergen. One of these vertebrates was first cloned by George Streisinger. These non-mammals include the stickleback and one named for its zebra pattern along its scales. For the point, name these waterbreathing animals that include trout and salmon.
fish (accept Stickleback and Zebrafish before mentioned) (
5) This is the color of light produced by a protein isolated from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria. That protein is used in cellular microscopy and is known as "this color" fluorescent protein. This most common form of color blindness prevents afflicted individuals from seeing red and this color. This is the color of unripened tomatoes which are a popular fried dish, and this color describes a classification of trees that have leaves year round. For the point, name this color of most grass.
green (accept evergreen; accept green fluorescent protein)
10) An equation described by this law is modified with a and b constants to create the van der Waals equation. This law only applies under the assumptions of kinetic molecular theory. The equation described by this law can be derived through a combination of Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law. For the point, name this law which relates the product of pressure and volume of an ideal substance to its temperature.
ideal gas law (accept gas law after "ideal"; accept PV equals nRT; accept PV equals NkT; accept equivalent expression) (
5) Simple, strong bulky bases can be formed by combining this element with n-butyl ["n" - bew - till] or diisopropylamide [di - "iso" - pro - pill - am - ide]. Esters and carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols using this element's aluminum hydride. A salt containing this element is used as a treatment for bipolar disorder. This element's ions can be moved between anode and cathode making it useful in rechargeable batteries. For the point, name this lightest alkali metal, atomic number 3, with symbol Li.
lithium (prompt on Li)
6) This computer concept can be achieved by using a series of flip-flops. In Von Neumann [NOY-men] architecture, this unit interacts with the ALU and Control Unit. RAM is a "random access" form of this concept. On a user level, this computer concept is achievable with a USB, an SD card, or a hard drive. For the point, name this ability of a computer to remember information.
memory
28. Some types of these landforms are created by fault blocks, often in an alternating pattern with grabens. Other types are created in a process called folding, such as many of the oldest examples of this landform along the U.S. east coast. The geologic process of creating these landforms is known as orogeny. Melting rocks at a subduction zone can cause rising magma to create these landforms in a similar process to what happens at hotspots. For the point, name these landforms, notable and steeply defined summits usually within namesake "ranges."
mountains [accept horsts until "folding"]
25) Duchenne and Becker name a dystrophy of this tissue which operates by sliding myosin and actin filaments. One form of this tissue has a structural unit known as sarcomeres. This tissue has smooth and cardiac types, while its skeletal type is connected to bone through tendons. Lactic acid is secreted in this tissue during a workout. For the point, name this tissue that makes up the deltoids, trapezius, and biceps.
muscle tissue (accept skeletal muscles)
18) Perimysium groups this tissue into bundles. Two Z-lines and the H-zone are part of the basic unit of this tissue collectively referred to as a sarcomere. This tissue contains a unique organelle responsible for storing calcium ions called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. One type of this tissue is divided into "slow twitch" and "fast twitch" varieties. The sliding filament model explains the movement of this tissue through interactions between actin and myosin. For the point, name this tissue that is responsible for contraction in the heart and skeletal movement.
muscle tissue (accept smooth muscle; accept skeletal muscle)
5) Projections of the cell membrane within this tissue are called T-tubules. The tetanus toxin blocks neurons attached to this tissue. The breakdown of this tissue releases large amounts of myoglobin into the bloodstream. A "power stroke" cycle allows for the contraction of this tissue via the interaction between myosin and actin. For the point, name this type of tissue whose "skeletal" type makes up the diaphragm and biceps.
muscles (accept smooth muscles; accept skeletal muscles)
2) Neutral theory symbolizes the rate of these events with the Greek letter mu [mew]. The terms "frameshift" and "point" are two variants of these events. These events are deleterious if the result decreases an organism's fitness. These events introduce new alleles to a population. They can happen to DNA exposed to UV light or nuclear radiation. For the point, name these events that cause alteration in an organism's DNA.
mutations (accept mutation rate; accept point mutation; accept frameshift mutation; accept mutagenesis)
In these cells, the nodes of Ranvier are breaks in a layer of insulation where ion exchange can occur. Those nodes are found in the axon, a part of these cells that is protected by the myelin sheath, which degenerates in multiple sclerosis. These structures consist of a soma with branching dendrites, which pass chemical and electrical signals from across synapses into these structures. For the point, name these cells which perform the major work of the nervous system.
neurons (or nerve cells
4. In this technique, cross-relaxation can cause spin-active substituents to transfer their polarization in the Overhauser effect. The equation "A" cosine squared of theta plus B cosine of theta plus C is used in this technique to determine the relation between dihedral torsion angles and the J coupling constant; that equation is the Karplus equation. TMS is used as a reference in this technique which has much larger chemical shifts for its Carbon-13 variant than the proton variant. A medical imaging technique that makes use of this method requires the patient to not have any metal implants due to the use of a giant magnet. For the point, name this technique which makes use of an external magnetic field to make nuclei readings.
nuclear magnetic resonance or NMR spectroscopy
4. The equation "A" cosine squared of theta plus B cosine of theta plus C is used in this technique to determine the relation between dihedral torsion angles and the J coupling constant; that equation is the Karplus equation. TMS is used as a reference in this technique which has much larger chemical shifts for its Carbon-13 variant than the proton variant. A medical imaging technique that makes use of this method requires the patient to not have any metal implants due to the use of a giant magnet. For the point, name this technique which makes use of an external magnetic field to make nuclei readings.
nuclear magnetic resonance or NMR spectroscopy
9) Emergency shutdown of these devices is commonly referred to by the acronym SCRAM. Graphene and water typically serve as moderators in these devices to slow down neutron flux. When these devices produce more material than they consume, they are called "breeders." Control rods can be employed in these devices to shut them down in the case of runaway reactions. These devices typically use uranium as a fuel source. For the point, name this device which produces energy through nuclear fission.
nuclear reactors (accept equivalents like nuclear power plant or nuclear pile; prompt on reactor)
Gilbert Lewis proposed this rule from Richard Abegg's observations, which supported his model that placed electrons in the vertices of a cube. This statement can be explained by the s and p orbitals fitting up to 2 and 6 electrons respectively. Noble gases besides helium are not reactive due to the fact that they already satisfy this rule. For the point, name this statement which says that atoms wish to have eight valence electrons.
octet rule (or rule of eight before "eight" is said at the end
29) Raising i to the fourth power gives this number. This is the only natural number with exactly one divisor. X raised to negative this number gives x's reciprocal. Raising a number to this power gives back the same number. Raising a number to zero yields this number. The multiplicative identity states that a real number times this number equals that number. For the point, name this smallest positive integer.
one
31) As of 2016, the largest calculation with this unit was 93 billion. This whole number is equal to approximately 9.46 trillion kilometers. 3.26 times this distance is equal to one parsec. This astronomical distance is commonly confused for a time since it has a unit of a time in its name. For the point, name this distance that it takes a photon to travel in 365 days.
one light year (accept light years; the "largest calculation" is the size of the observable universe)
16. The primary Seidel terms of the Zernike circle polynomials are often sufficient to describe the majority of defects due to this phenomenon. The Schmidt corrector plate introduces an equal and opposite form of this phenomenon in front of spherical primary mirrors and was used in the SchmidtCassegrain telescope design. Field curvature, chromatic, and coma are forms of this phenomenon. This phenomenon commonly occurs when parallel rays of light do not converge. For the point, name this phenomenon in optics where light is spread out over a region of a lens instead of focusing at a single point.
optical aberrations
The simplex algorithm performs this process in linear programming, a field often alternatively named for this process. The knapsack problem seeks to do this to profit, while the traveling salesman problem seeks to do this to the distance traveled. For the point, give this general term for mathematical processes, including maximization and minimization problems, which try to make some quantity as good as possible.
optimization problems (accept word forms and other elaborations; prompt on maximization and/or minimization before mentioned
An early result of this discipline was the accidental synthesis of mauve by William Henry Perkin. Typical reactions used in this field are additions, eliminations, substitutions, and rearrangements. This field of chemistry typically focuses on aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Diagrams of molecules in this field do not show hydrogens, and their vertices are assumed to be a certain element. For the point, name this field which studies and synthesizes compounds containing a carbon backbone.
organic chemistry
22) One complication of this condition characterized by low platelet count and hemolytic anemia is HELLP syndrome. Postpartum depression is an unexpected emptiness after going through this condition, during which the placenta serves as a filter to the umbilical cord. For the point, name this condition that lasts around 9 months in humans during which a baby develops from an embryo.
pregnancy (accept being pregnant; prompt on "expecting" or other euphemisms; prompt on "birth" until "9 months")
27) A form of this quantity due to electromagnetic radiation can be calculated by dividing the time-averaged Poynting vector by the speed of light. This quantity is equalized throughout an incompressible fluid by Pascal's principle. This quantity remains constant in an isobaric process. This quantity is proportional to temperature according to Gay-Lussac's law, and proportional to volume according to Boyle's law. For the point, name this quantity, a measure of force per area, typically reported in torr or pascals.
pressure (accept radiation pressure)
One of these events in 1572 was recorded by Tycho Brahe. These events are classified based on spectral emission; in particular, hydrogen spectral lines are missing from Type I examples of these events. A silicon-iron core collapse can lead to this event, resulting in the creation of a neutron star or black hole. In 1054, one of these events was observed by the Chinese; the remnants of that event became the Crab Nebula. For the point, name these massive explosions at the end of a large star's life.
supernova (do not accept or prompt on "nova"
2) The pair-instability type of these events occurs in stars with low metallicity. Bursts of neutrinos are emitted from the Ia [one-A] type of these events, which occurs when a white dwarf star exceeds 1.4 solar masses, known as the Chandrasekhar limit. The core-collapse types of these events can lead to the r-process, in which atomic nuclei heavier than iron are created. For the point, name these events in which a star explodes.
supernovae
3) These substances are trapped by a stable one called TEMPO in EPR spectroscopy. These substances, which are created by homolysis, are drawn with single barbed fish-hook arrows. These substances, such as superoxide, cause damage when they build up in cells. For the point, name these highly reactive substances with unpaired electrons that are protected against by anti-oxidants.
free radicals
Close-packings in the shape of a cube and this shape are held by Kepler's conjecture as the most efficient packing system for spheres. No regular polygon with more sides than this shape can tessellate the plane, and this is the regular polygon with the fewest sides that cannot be the face of a Platonic solid. A truncated icosahedron has faces made of pentagons and this shape, as seen on soccer balls. For the point, name this polygon whose regular version has internal angles of 120 degrees between each of its six sides.
(regular) hexagon
15. The first Peano [[pee-ahn-o]] axiom is about the existence of this number. This value is the total length of the Cantor set. In the von Neumann [[noy-man]] ordinals, the empty set represents this number, and this integer represents false in Boolean algebra. This integer raised to its own power is often left undefined, but any other real number to this power gives a value of one. This integer is the additive identity. For the point, name this number that cannot be divided by.
0
21. Powers of this number are the only positive integers that are not trapezoidal numbers. If n is a perfect number, then its factors sum to this number times n. This number is equal to the geometric series "one plus one-half plus one-fourth an so on". Writing an integer as a sum of powers of this number can be used to find its representation in binary, a system that uses this number of digits. For the point, name this smallest prime number.
2
23) Bose-Einstein condensates only exist at points near this condition. The third law of thermodynamics states that at this value, crystals have no entropy. This condition, the lowest on the Rankine and Kelvin scales, cannot be reached by a physical apparatus. For the point, name this coldest possible temperature.
Absolute zero (accept zero Kelvin)
(4) In mammals, vinculin [[VINK-yoo-lin]] is involved in linking this protein with integrin [[in-TEH-grin]] adhesion molecules. One structure formed from this protein is regulated by thymosin [["THIGH"-moh-sin]] and (+) profilin [[pro-FIH-lin]] and another structure of this protein is regulated by the Arp2/3 [[ARP-2-3]] complex. This protein comes in polymer filamentous and monomer [[MAH-no-mer]] globular varieties. (*) Cytoskeleton microfilaments are composed of this protein. For the point, name this protein that binds to myosin [[MY-oh-sin]] to facilitate muscle contraction.
Actin (accept F-actin or G-actin)
(5) A model of this process relates an ideal gas's fractional occupancy to its partial pressure at isothermal conditions and is named for Irving Langmuir [[LANG-mweer]]. Heterogeneous catalysts function through this process. Because of their high surface area, porous materials like zeolites and activated carbon use this process to remove compounds from the air. For the point, name this process in which molecules adhere to a solid surface but do not permeate through, which is contrasted with absorption.
Adsorption (do not accept or prompt on "absorption")
(2) Otto Lilienthal used the principles of this field to recreate characteristics of animals into his vehicles. Large trucks frequently have a deflector on the top of the cab to reduce this field's (+) namesake property. Vehicles are given this field's namesake property through streamlining. Wind tunnels are used in this field to examine (*) drag in powered flight tests. For the point, name this field, the study of the motion of air around solid objects.
Aerodynamics (prompt on "fluid dynamics" or "gas dynamics")
26) This man and his student Leo Szilard invented a refrigerator with no moving parts. This physicist explained Brownian motion using atomic collisions and he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. This scientist formulated the theories of relativity. For the point, name this physicist who formulated the equation E equals m c squared.
Albert Einstein
(23) This field's structure is equivalent to the non-empty set A. This field takes its name from the Arabic for the "reunion of broken parts" or "bone-setting." According to the fundamental theorem of this field, at least one complex root can be found for every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients. For the point, name this field of mathematics used to solve for unknown variables.
Algebra (or al-Jabr; accept Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
(15) Elements in this group release solvated electrons and appear blue when dissolved in ammonia. Cyclic "crown" ethers are used as phase transfer catalysts because they bind ions of elements in this group. The least electronegative elements are found in this group, whose members react violently with water to produce hydrogen gas. For the point, name this group found at the far left of the periodic table, which includes cesium, lithium, and sodium.
Alkali metals (or Group 1; or Group 1A; or Lithium group or family; do not accept or prompt on "alkaline" or "alkaline earth")
(16) Grubbs catalysts cleave bonds in these molecules in a reaction called their namesake "metathesis." Hydroboration-oxidation reactions convert one of these functional groups into an alcohol. The stereochemistry of these functional groups is described by E/Z (+) notation. These molecules follow the general formula "C n H 2n" and have sp2 hybridized orbitals. A polymer made from the simplest example of these molecules is the most common plastic in the world due to its use in packaging. (*) Ethylene is an example of, for the point, what hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon double bond?
Alkenes (or Olefins; accept Carbon-carbon Double Bonds; prompt on "Hydrocarbons"; do not accept or prompt on "Alkanes" or "Alkynes")
31) The "Fate has ordained" speech was prepared for but never delivered during this event. Jim Lovell was replaced by Michael Collins before this event; during this event, Collins was the Command Module pilot. Famous quotations from this mission include "The Eagle has landed" and "one giant leap for mankind". For the point, Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong traveled on what first mission to the moon?
Apollo 11 (prompt on anything referring to a moon landing or going to the moon)
(25) During this process, calcium and magnesium ion-dependent endonucleases [[en-doh-NOO-klee-ay-ses]] initiate karyorrhexis [["care"-ee-or-EK-sis]], spreading chromatin [[KROH-mah-tin]] through the cell. During this process, the proteins Bak [["BACK"]] and Bax [[BAKS]] trigger the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria. The intrinsic type of this process can be initiated by the accumulation of the tumor suppressor protein p53, which is produced when DNA is irreparably damaged. For the point, name this process of programmed cell death.
Apoptosis (prompt on "Programmed Cell Death" or "Cell Death" before mentioned)
12. This ancient mathematician found the area between a parabola and a line, as described in his treatise The Quadrature of the Parabola, and tried to estimate the number of grains of sand that could fit in the universe in his The Sand Reckoner. The first proof of the volume of a sphere within a cylinder was written by this man, who had the formula inscribed on his tombstone. This man was killed during the Roman siege of his hometown, Syracuse, in 212 BC. For the point, name this ancient Greek mathematician and physicist.
Archimedes of Syracuse
28. A side profile portrait of this man is on the Fields Medal. Stories involving this man's contributions to defensive war efforts include telling generals to not disturb his circles and building a namesake "heat ray" which operated by reflecting the sun's rays off mirrors and onto incoming Roman ships. Though he never actually invented it, this man's description of an Egyptian screw pump that could raise water efficiently for irrigation is today known as his namesake screw. This scientist names the relation that the force of a liquid on a body is equal to volume of the body multiplied by its density multiplied by acceleration due to gravity. For the point, name this Greek polymath from Syracuse known for discovering his namesake principal related to buoyancy, allegedly while shouting "Eureka" in his bathtub.
Archimedes of Syracuse
25) When these objects share an orbit with a planet or moon, they are termed Trojans. The search that resulted in the discovery of the first of these objects was triggered by a prediction made by the Titus-Bode Law, which predicted a planet about 2.8 AU [ay-yu] from the sun. In December 2018, the OSIRIS-REX mission reached Bennu, one of these objects, to collect samples and return them to Earth. For the point, identify these objects, most of which orbit the sun between Mars and Jupiter in a namesake "belt".
Asteroids
(12) The Torino or Palermo scales are used to assess the risks posed by some of these objects. Some of these objects that orbit in the L4 and L6 points of Jupiter and Neptune are known as Trojans. The largest and first-discovered example of these objects was predicted to exist by the debunked Bode's [[BOADS]] Law and is named Ceres [[SEE-rees]]. For the point, name these large, rocky masses that orbit the sun in a namesake "belt."
Asteroids (accept Asteroid belt; prompt on "minor planet" or "planetoid")
(34) Hetero-varieties of these solutions have phase diagrams with saddle-shaped miscibility [["miss"-"ability"]] gaps. One method for separating these solutions involves dissolving salts before distillation. Classic examples of these solutions include mixtures of 68 percent (+) nitric acid and 32 percent water as well as 94 percent water and 6 percent (*) ethanol. For the point, name these solutions which form when the constituent parts have similar boiling points, causing them to violate Raoult's [[rah-OOLS]] law and resist distillation.
Azeotropes (or Constant Boiling Point Mixture)
(6) The discovery of one of these objects in the Gliese [[GLEE-zuh]] system proved the existence of the T-type of these objects. The closest one of these objects to Earth is the Luhman-16 system, which is also where the iron rain of these objects was first observed. Rafael Rebolo [[reh-BOH-loh]] pioneered the lithium test for identifying these bodies, which do not undergo sustained hydrogen fusion. For the point, name these cool, very low luminosity stellar objects, commonly called failed stars.
Brown dwarfs (prompt on "star(s)")
Marian Smoluchovksy proposed that this phenomenon could power a ratchet-and-pawl system as a perpetual motion machine. This phenomenon can be described mathematically as a Wiener process, and it forms a fractal-like curve. This process was first discovered while its namesake was observing the movement of pollen grains in water. For the point, name this seemingly random type of motion of particles in fluids.
Brownian motion
27) PMOS and NMOS transistors both are used in a MOS scheme prefixed with this letter in Very Large Integrated Circuit design. A Swedish scientist names a temperature scale abbreviated with this letter. This letter prefixes SI units at the power of 10 to the negative two. A computer language of this name has "plus plus" and "sharp" successors. For the point, name this letter, the atomic symbol of carbon.
C (accept C sharp; accept C plus plus; prompt on "Celsius"; prompt on "Centi"; prompt on "Complementary")
(15) One variety of these organisms can leave behind hardened scars known as their namesake "boot." Gilded flickers form nests inside these organisms. Carmine dyes are made from a type of beetle that lives on these organisms, one species of which, Peyote [[peh-YOH-teh]], contains the hallucinogen mescaline [[MEH-skah-lin]]. Other examples of these plants include pincushion and saguaro varieties. For the point, name these desert plants that are covered in spines.
Cactus (or Cacti; or Cactuses; accept Cactaceae; accept Saguaro cactus; accept Pincushion cactus; accept Peyote cactus)
(8) This constellation names the closest dwarf galaxy to the Milky Way. This constellation's VY star, a red supergiant, was once the candidate for the biggest known star in the universe. The closest white dwarf to Earth is (+) in this constellation. A star in this constellation forms the "winter triangle" with Procyon [[PRO-see-on]] and Betelgeuse [[BEH-tel-"juice"]]. (*) Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is the alpha star of, for the point, what constellation that depicts a "great dog"?
Canis Major (prompt on descriptions of a big or large dog before mentioned: do not accept or prompt on partial answers or "Canis Minor")
1) Optical beams named for this mathematician solve Helmholtz's equation under the paraxial approximation. This mathematician names a technique of elimination for linear equations. A law named for this person's scientific work implies that the magnetic flux into any enclosed space should equal the magnetic flux leaving the enclosed space. A famous story involving this mathematician's youth involved him quickly summing all the integers under 100. For the point, name this German scientist who lends his name to the normal distribution.
Carl Friedrich Gauss
(23) This scientist inverted his benefactor's temperature scale to create the modern Celsius system. This scientist's major work popularized a scientific racist theory of classifying humans into four groups based on skin tone and alleged personality. This scientist's Systema Naturae is credited with standardizing binomial nomenclature and modern taxonomy. For the point, name this taxonomist who invented the modern Latin naming convention for organisms.
Carl Linnaeus (or Carl von Linné; or Carolus Linnæus; prompt on "Linnaean system" or "Linnaean taxonomy")
After this scientist chaired the committee that organized Voyager's Golden Record, he requested that Voyager 1 turn its camera around to take a picture of Earth from 6 billion kilometers away. This man then titled a book after that photograph, Pale Blue Dot. This man noted that galaxies are composed of "billions upon billions of stars" in a book and miniseries that was renewed under Neil DeGrasse Tyson in 2014. For the point, name this American astronomer who narrated Cosmos.
Carl Sagan
(19) The Marr-Albus model describes input to this structure along a series of climbing fibers that connect to its four deep nuclei. This structure's white matter is collectively called the arbor vitae [[VEE-tay]]. The destruction of Purkinje [[per-KIN-jee]] cells within the cortex of this structure can cause ataxia. This structure is located behind the brainstem and beneath the occipital [[ok-SIH-peh-tul]] lobe. For the point, name this part of the brain responsible for balance and motor control, whose name is Latin for "little brain."
Cerebellum (prompt on "Brain"; do not accept or prompt on "cerebrum")
(7) Elephant fish often present relatively larger than normal examples of this structure. This structure's cortex is home to namesake granule [[GRAN-yool]] cells, the most common type of neuron in the brain. This structure contains a set of GABAergic [[gah-bah-EHR-jik]] inhibitory neurons called the Purkinje [[per-KIN-jee]] cells. This structure, which sits behind the pons, regulates motor control and balance. For the point, name this region of the lower brain, the name of which comes from the Latin for "little brain."
Cerebellum (prompt on "hindbrain"; prompt on "little brain" or "brain" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "cerebrum")
2. According to the book The Right Stuf , this man replaced Chalmers Goodlin, who demanded $150,000 to attempt a feat that this man would later accomplish. This man, a World War II "ace in a day," only alerted his wife and fellow aviator Jack Ridley that he broke two ribs when thrown from a horse. That event occurred just days before this pilot used Glamorous Glennis, a Bell-X1 plane, to surpass 1 Mach. For the point, name this pilot, the first man to travel faster than the speed of sound.
Charles "Chuck" Yeager
2. The Samosely are a group of "self-settlers" who live within a 30 kilometer radius from where this event took place. In April 2020, wildfires raised concerns that material settled from this event would kick back-up again in the Red Forest. Electrical testing before this event required a drop in energy to 700 megawatts — unaware of potential poisoning due to Xenon-135. A Zone of Alienation that stretches over the abandoned town of Pripyat was a necessary consequence of this event caused by removing nearly all of the control rods, including 10 of the 28 fail-safe rods. For the point, name this disaster that occured in Ukraine in 1986 caused by a nuclear reactor meltdown
Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster [accept equivalents mentioning Chernobyl like "Chernobyl nuclear meltdown" or "nuclear accident at Chernobyl"]
(9) The pathogen that causes septoria leaf blotch is able to infect wheat plants by blocking a receptor for this protein. This protein is composed of repeated monomers [[MAH-noh-mers]] of N-acetylglucosamine [[en-ah-SEE-til-gloo-KOH-sah-meen]] with beta-4 linkages. After cellulose, this is the second most common polysaccharide on Earth. This protein provides toughness to cephalopod [[SEH-fah-loh-pod]] beaks and mollusk radula [[RAD-yoo-lah]]. For the point, name this protein found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungi cell walls.
Chitin [[KAI-tin]] (be lenient on pronunciation)
(11) A high-pressure solvent is forced through a bed of tightly packed adsorbing material in this technique's high-performance variety. This technique, which has a thin layer variety, uses a mobile and stationary phase and can be demonstrated with a coffee filter and marker. For the point, name this lab technique used to separate mixtures using namesake paper, which forms colorful bands.
Chromatography (accept High-performance or High pressure liquid chromatography; accept Thin-layer chromatography; accept Paper chromatography)
11. One of only two known organisms to emit red light, Siphonophores belong to this phylum. Myxozoa, parasitic members of this phylum, have polar capsules that are similar to nematocysts, which are used by members of this phylum such as Lion's mane. Sessile members of this phylum have a polyp body form, as exhibited by the class Anthozoa, while the class Cubozoa displays its mobile medusa form. For the point, name this phylum of radially-symmetric marine invertebrates that includes anemone, coral, and jellyfish.
Cnidaria
(13) These substances are more easily peptized if they have high values for the zeta potential at the double layer. DLVO theory uses the sum of van der Waals and electrostatic forces to determine whether these substances undergo flocculation [[flok-yoo-LAY-shun]]. These substances often appear blue, because they scatter low wavelength light via the Tyndall effect. Gels and emulsions are types of, for the point, what mixtures in which small particles are evenly suspended within another substance?
Colloids (or Colloidal suspensions; accept Gels before mentioned; accept Emulsions before mentioned; accept Aerosols before mentioned; prompt on "dispersions")
4) A scientist with this surname names a temperature above which ferromagnetism disappears. Two scientists with this surname discovered the element polonium. A woman with this surname studied at the Flying University, an underground educational institution in Poland. For her work, she won two Nobel prizes, and she coined the term radioactivity. For the point, name this last name of physicists Pierre and Marie.
Curie
36. After passing through Ursa Minor and Cepheus, the location of the North Star will be from this constellation. The first black hole discovered was an X-ray source found in this constellation. The largest star in this constellation plus Altair and Vega make up the summer triangle, while five of the stars in this constellation make up the Northern Cross. Deneb is the largest star of, for the point, which constellation depicting a swan?
Cygnus [prompt on "swan"]
12. Solexa developed one method of this task before being bought out by Illumina, who have been pioneering the "next gen" form of this task. Walter Gilbert shared the 1980 Nobel prize in chemistry with two time winner Frederick Sanger for developing a "Plus and Minus" technique for this task. This task is typically done on the order of 100-1000 bp's (plural of bp) and assembly is performed to obtain the final product. Chargaff's rules allow scientists to perform this task on a single strand and pair up bases for the other strand. For the point, name this process of reading out adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine nucleotides from a fundamental molecule to life.
DNA Sequencing [accept answers mentioning reading DNA; accept answers mentioning determination of base sequences in nucleic acids (or nucleotides); or determining base sequences in DNA]
(10) In the FLRW metric, this quantity is equal to a generalized cosmological constant symbolized "minus P C squared." The integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect is caused by the influence of this quantity. The existence of an increasing variety of this quantity, known as its phantom type, would cause the "big rip" end of the universe. For the point, name this unobserved quantity that drives the expansion of the universe and makes up the bulk of the universe's mass-energy, more than twice as prevalent as dark matter.
Dark energy (do not accept or prompt on "dark matter")
(16) One of these devices named for Clarence Zener allows for reverse flow below the breakdown voltage. A triangle whose point leads into a line is the standard circuit notation for these devices. The simplest kind of these devices is a single p-n junction. For the point, name these devices that only allow current flow in a single direction, which include a notable "light-emitting" variety.
Diode (accept Light-Emitting Diode; accept Zener diode; accept P-N diode; prompt on "LED")
22) To measure the contribution of time dilation to this effect observed in light, Ives and Stillwell set up an experiment using canal-ray tubes. In general relativity, this effect explains a cosmological effect described by Hubble's law. This effect, named for a Austrian physicist, was first hypothesized viewing binary stars and the color they emit. For the point, name this effect where an observer records a different frequency because the emitter is moving, best exemplified by a car driving past a stationary pedestrian.
Doppler effect (accept Doppler shift; prompt on redshift or blueshift)
19. The K-12 variety of this species is manufactured to be suitable for biological safety level one. This species's catabolite activator protein is controlled by cyclic AMP concentration levels which is useful for controlling its production of L-arabinose. François Jacob (Yah cohb) and Jacques Monod (Mo noh) received the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the Lac operon in this model organism. It isn't S. dysenteriae but Shiga-like toxins are produced by serotypes of this organism, including the enterohemorrhagic strain O157:H7. For the point, name this rod-shaped bacteria whose pathological strains in recent years have caused food poisoning with romaine lettuce.
E. Coli [or escherichia coli]
30) Inge Lehmann discovered that this region was actually split into two distinct parts. The presence of this region causes the P-wave shadow zone observed after an earthquake. This region's upper boundary is named for Gutenberg. The liquid part of this region is responsible for Earth's magnetic field. For the point, name this region of the Earth made up of iron and nickel, beneath the mantle, that has "inner" and "outer" parts.
Earth's core (do not accept or prompt on inner core or outer core)
(18) This region was discovered in 1992 by David Jewitt and Jane Luu with the aid of charge coupled devices. This region, a circumstellar disk, is thought to be the source of short-period comets, and this region is home to such bodies as Eris and Pluto. For the point, name this ring of small objects at the edge of the solar system named for a Dutch-American astronomer.
Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt [[KY-per]]
"Twotinos" exist at the far outer edge of this region, orbiting with a period of 330 years in an orbital resonance with the nearest planet. Cubewanos also orbit within this region, which is defined as between 30 and 55 astronomical units from the Sun. Bodies like Haumea, Makemake, and Pluto lie beyond Neptune in, for the point, what disc-shaped region of space beyond the solar system's planets that is far smaller than the Oort Cloud?
Edgeworth-Kuiper [ky-per] Belt
(24) A child with the Lennox-Gastaut [[gah-STOH]] variety of this condition is described in Anne Fadiman's [[FAD-ih-mans]] book The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. This condition can be treated with phenytoin [[feh-neh-TOH-in]] or phenobarbital [[fee-noh-BAR-bih-tahl]]. Severe, hemisphere-isolated types of this condition can be treated with a split-brain procedure. Episodes of this condition can be induced by slashing strobe lights. For the point, name this neurological disorder, the most common cause of seizures.
Epilepsy (accept Epileptic seizure(s); prompt on "seizures" before mentioned)
31) These functional groups are products of reactions named after Ullmann and Williamson. A cyclic variety of these compounds are known as their namesake "crown." Its diethyl type was commonly used as an anesthetic. For the point, name these compounds consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Ether
(7) Grignard [[green-YARD]] reagents are commonly stored in a ring-shaped solvent with this functional group called THF. This functional group is made by reacting an alkyl halide with an alcohol in a synthesis reaction named for Williamson. Three-atom cyclic examples of these molecules are called epoxides. For the point, name this functional group consisting of two carbon chains bonded to a single oxygen atom, whose "diethyl" type was formerly a common anesthetic.
Ethers (accept Diethyl Ether)
(24) In a book titled for [This Man] and His Modern Rivals, Lewis Carroll claimed that all subsequent mathematicians have only restated this man's ideas. This man names a mathematical operation also known as division with remainder. This man names a field of geometry that assumes a set of theorems before deducing further propositions. For the point, name this ancient Greek mathematician and geometer, the author of thirteen theorems presented in his Elements.
Euclid of Alexandria (accept Euclidean division; accept Euclidean geometry)
(35) Photoevaporation-driven mass loss prevents these objects from forming in the Fulton gap. The most common methods for detecting these objects include the radial velocity method and the transit method. When found in the habitable zone, these objects are said to be in the "goldilocks" zone. Examples of these objects include super-Earths and hot Jupiters. For the point, name these rocky or gaseous bodies that orbit stars other than our Sun.
Exoplanets (accept any answer indicating extrasolar planets; accept answers such as planets outside our solar system; prompt on "planet"s)
18) The radial velocity method of detecting these objects, involving small Doppler shifts, was the first successful method used to find these objects. In recent years, changes in brightness can help detect these objects by using variations of the transit method. Poltergeist and Phobetor [foh-beh-tor] were the first of these objects to be confirmed. For the point, identify these objects, of which over 4,000 have been discovered orbiting stars other than our sun.
Exoplanets (accept extrasolar planets)
(8) This is the number of carboxylic acid groups found in the common chelating [[KEE-lay-ting]] agent EDTA. This many carbon atoms are found in the simplest antiaromatic molecule, cyclobutadiene [["sigh"-kloh-byoo-tah-"DIE"-een]]. Steroids such as cholesterol contain this many fused rings, which is also the number of bonds to the central atom in molecules with see-saw and square planar geometries. For the point, give this number of hydrogen atoms found in methane, the simplest tetrahedral alkane.
Four
3. According to a story, this theoretical physicist once sat on a committee for the DOE Joint Genomics Institute where a Motorola spokesperson's rambling answer to "What is Six Sigma" prompted this physicist to render the spokesperson completely silent with the question "Can you at least define onesigma?" This scientist's QED work resulted in him lending his name to a perturbative series where each term is represented by Feynman diagrams. This scientist theorized a namesake genetically engineered tree capable of growing inside a comet. This scientist suggested searching for artificial stellar sources of infra-red radiation could result in finding civilization via looking for a type of megastructure named for this scientist built on top of stars. For the point, name this scientist who passed away in 2020 who developed the idea of capturing a star's energy with his namesake sphere.
Freeman (John) Dyson
36. This technology's L5 frequency was released to be used for life safety applications. Receivers for this technology often translate its signals into a WGS geodetic datum. There are currently 31 satellites used in this technology, including 12 in the newest Block II-F, and at least 9 are visible at any given time from most places on Earth. For the point, name this technology which relies on triangulated satellite transmissions to provide precise location data on Earth, such as in a smartphone's navigation tools.
GPS [accept Global Positioning System; prompt on GNSS or Global Navigation Satellite System]
This scientist used two types of lenses to create an upright-but-unfocusable image in a telescope. This man's observations of the phases of Venus shifted scientific support from the Ptolemaic [toh-leh-may-ick] model to that of Copernicus. This astronomer discovered the Medicean stars, later determined to be the four largest moons of Jupiter. For the point, name this supporter of heliocentrism, an Italian astronomer who was placed under house arrest in 1633.
Galileo Galilei
2) This author of The Assayer legendarily said "and yet it moves" at the end of his trial for heresy. This scientist was put under house arrest by the Inquisition for backing Copernicus's belief of heliocentrism. For the point, name this Italian scientist who noted two objects with different densities would fall at the same speed and collectively names the four largest moons of Jupiter.
Galileo Gallilei (accept either underlined name)
(29) Cancer of this organ is associated with the formation of a so-called "porcelain" on the walls of this organ by deposited calcium. This organ can be affected by cholesterolosis [[koh-leh-steh-RAH-loh-sis]], which is also known as "strawberry" [this organ]. This organ can be removed when it accumulates painful amounts of calcium salts and cholesterol, forming this organ's namesake stones. For the point, name this organ that receives and stores bile from the liver.
Gallbladder (accept Cholecyst)
This organelle is the site of O-linked glycosylation. In this organelle, lysosomal proteins are targeted with mannose-6-phosphate. The trans part of this organelle sometimes serves as early endosomes. This organelle consists of flattened stacked disks called cisternae, and it takes products from the endoplasmic reticulum and packages them for secretion out of the cell. For the point, name this organelle, named after its Italian discoverer.
Golgi body (apparatus, complex, etc.
26) The statistician Ronald Fischer found that this man's results were "shocking" because they were too exact, suggesting that this scientist falsified his ratios. Variations studied by this scientist include yellow, wrinkled, and smooth. This man discovered the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment. This scientist coined the terms dominant and recessive to refer to genetic traits. For the point, name this Augustinian monk, the "father of modern genetics," who studied pea plants.
Gregor Mendel
(24) Boards of this mineral are used in construction to make plasterboard. This flame-retardant mineral was the basis of the oldest mortars. This evaporite mineral can form translucent structures known as selenite. Satin spar and desert rose are crystalline desert formations of this mineral. This mineral component of Plaster of Paris is a two on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this soft mineral made of calcium sulfate dihydrate.
Gypsum
The Orionid meteor shower originates out of this object's debris field. The "dirty snowball" model was supported by observations of this body by the Vega and Giotto spacecraft. The Bayeux tapestry famously depicts one appearance by this celestial body, which "came in" and "went out" with Mark Twain. For the point, name this comet with an orbital period of 75 years, which made its most recent approach to Earth in 1986.
Halley's Comet
10. This scientist won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1953 for his work on discovering a set of biochemical reactions alongside Fritz Lipmann, who received the prize for his related work on Coenzyme A. This scientist gives the alternative name to a cycle that begins with the addition of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and occurs in the matrix of mitochondria as a precursor to oxidative phosphorylation. For the point, name this German-born British biologist who gives an alternate name to the Citric Acid cycle.
Hans Adolf Krebs
(10) An organism's field metabolic rate is commonly measured by treatment with this molecule, a type of DLW. The CANDU reactor uses this molecule as a neutron moderator to avoid the need for enriched uranium. This common NMR solvent has a mass of 20 daltons because of its two extra neutrons. For the point, name this molecule that contains two deuterium atoms bonded to an oxygen atom and has a larger mass than a similar universal solvent.
Heavy Water (or Deuterium Oxide; or D2O or 2H2O; prompt on "Deuterium"; do not accept or prompt on "water" or "H2O")
27) Salt printing was invented by a man with this first name, and another man with this first name discovered hydrogen and famously measured the density of the Earth. A prince whose name is usually translated to this name in English led the development of the caravel sailing ship. A man with this last name is the namesake of the SI unit for inductance. For the point, give this name, the first name of the man who popularized the assembly line at his automobile factory.
Henry
(28) Mutations to these genes cause the precancerous condition Barrett's esophagus. The presence of ghost loci [[LOH-kai]] suggests that placozoa [[play-ko-ZO-ah]] once had these genes but later experienced secondary loss. Ctenophora [[tih-NAH-foh-rah]] and (+) porifera [[poh-RIH-feh-rah]] are the only animal phyla to completely lack these genes. Mutations to these genes can cause drosophila [[droh-soh-FEE-lah]] body segments to (*) grow in the wrong places. For the point, name these genes that control anterior-posterior axis layout during embryonic development.
Hox genes (prompt on "homeobox" genes)
(34) Concentrated solutions of this compound known as "high-test" are often used as rocket propellant. A solution of this compound with iron salts called Fenton's reagent is used to treat wastewater, because this oxidizing agent readily disproportionates to form hydroxyl radicals. This is the simplest molecule with an oxygen-oxygen single bond. The enzyme catalase breaks down, for the point, what molecule with formula H2O2, which is a common antiseptic?
Hydrogen Peroxide (accept H2O2 before mentioned; prompt on "Peroxide")
26) A dipole event in this ocean sees the the eastern portion alternate between warming and cooling. In 2009, the Maldives government held an underwater cabinet meeting in this ocean to discuss the impact of climate change. Warm air from this ocean in the summer generates southwest monsoon rains over the Bay of Bengal through Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Bangladesh. For the point, name this ocean named for a subcontinent of Asia.
Indian Ocean
32) In 1991, Al Gore helped popularize calling this service a "superhighway" and promoted National Information Infrastructure for this service. In 2017, FCC chairman Ajit Pai proposed ending the "neutrality" of this service. For the point, name this critical invention to the information age, a global system of computer networks with features like the World Wide Web.
Internet (accept interconnected network; prompt on World Wide "Web"; prompt on "the net"; prompt on "Information Superhighway")
This celestial body's highest mountain is the Bo¨osaule Montes. This satellite is internally heated by tidal forces, powering over four hundred active volcanoes on its surface. This body is the innermost of the Galilean moons, and it is larger than Europa but smaller than Callisto. For the point, name this third-largest moon of Jupiter, named after a lover of Zeus who was turned into a cow.
Io
(26) In this country, an arena representing the Sun forms part of the world's largest scale model of the Solar System. The author of Systema Naturae [[NAH-tyoo-ray]] was from this country. A village in this country is the namesake of four chemical elements, including Ytterbium [[ee-TER-bee-um]]. The home country of Svante Arrhenius [[SVAHN-teh ah-REE-nee-us]] and Arvid Carlsson, for the point, what is this country in which the presentation ceremonies of all three science Nobel Prizes are held?
Kingdom of Sweden (or Konungariket Sverige)
(18) This thinker is the first listed in the title of a Douglas Hofstadter book subtitled "An Eternal Golden Braid." This thinker's best known result was published in response to Russell and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica, and in it this man showed that their project was impossible to complete. One of this thinker's theorems states that no field can be used to prove its own consistency. For the point, name this German-American mathematician and logician, who proved all mathematical fields will have true but unprovable results in his incompleteness theorem. .
Kurt Gödel [[GUR-dul]] (accept Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid; accept Gödel's incompleteness theorem(s))
22) The Buchner [bookh-ner] variety of this piece of lab equipment has a hose barb projecting from its neck which can be used to attach a vacuum. The Florence variety of this lab equipment requires a base to rest on since it is round bottomed. One of the more common types of this lab equipment is flat bottomed and conically shaped. For the point, identify these pieces of glassware used for holding or mixing chemicals, the most famous variety of which is named for its inventor, Emil Erlenmeyer.
Laboratory flasks
(17) A function named for this man gives the number of integers less than a given integer, his totient [["TOE"-shent]] function. With Mascheroni [[mah-skeh-ROH-nee]], this man names a constant symbolized with a lowercase gamma. This man's namesake number is defined as the limit of "one plus one over n all to the nth power" as n approaches infinity, roughly equal to 2.718. For the point, name this Swiss mathematician whose namesake number is the base of the natural logarithm.
Leonhard Euler [[OY-lehr]] (accept Euler's totient function or Euler's phi function; accept Euler-Mascheroni constant or Euler's constant; accept Euler's number; prompt on "e")
(28) This organ is made up of several hexagonal lobules [[LOB-yools]], which consist of this organ's namesake cells arranged around a central vein. In the Cori cycle, lactose is moved into this organ where it is converted into glucose. Cirrhosis [[sih-ROH-siss]] of this organ can cause jaundice, or the yellowing of skin, often resulting from long-term alcohol abuse. For the point, name this large abdominal organ which removes toxins from the blood and produces bile.
Liver (accept Liver cells)
An orbiter designed to study this object's climate crashed in 1999 because of a faulty conversion between metric and imperial units. In 2004, two spacecraft successfully landed on opposite sides of this object's equator, while a larger and more recent spacecraft is studying this object's Gale Crater. Spirit and Opportunity are rovers on, for the point, which planet where Curiosity is driving around looking for water?
Mars
13) One form of this process results in the formation of three polar bodies due to unequal cytoplasmic division. An error in this process leads to Turner syndrome and Down syndrome. Almost 90% of this process's total time occurs in Prophase I. For the point, name this method of cell division resulting in four non-identical gametes.
Meiosis
(7) Ammonia can be detected using a solution of this element's iodide called Nessler's reagent. A methylated calibration standard for NMR machines containing this element killed scientist Karen Wetterhahn when a drop of it seeped through her glove. (+) Calomel reference electrodes often contain the chloride of this element, whose primary ore is called cinnabar. An experiment performed by Torricelli [[toh-rih-CHEH-lee]] measured (*) atmospheric pressure using units of millimeters of this element. For the point, name this metal symbolized "Hg" that is a liquid at room temperature.
Mercury (accept Hg before mentioned; accept Quicksilver)
(18) This compound, which is the reduced form of carbon dioxide, could trigger a runaway feedback loop according to the "gun hypothesis." This greenhouse gas is commonly trapped inside ice clathrates [[KLATH-"rates"]] at the bottom of the ocean. This compound is the primary fuel found in natural gas. For the point, name this simplest hydrocarbon, a tetrahedral compound with chemical formula CH4.
Methane (accept CH4 before mentioned)
13. This scientist names a charged particle capturing device used in vacuums known as his namesake cup. An effect named for this scientist is mathematically expressed as the magnetic flux density, times the path length times Verdet's (vayr-DAY) constant for the material equals the angle of rotation. Maxwell wrote a version of this scientist's law as the curl of electric field equal to the negative partial derivative of the magnetic field with respect to time, where the negative sign was precursored by Lenz's law. This scientist's law describes how an electromotive force is created by a change in flux. For the point, name this English scientist who names an electromagnetic law of induction.
Michael Faraday
This object was independently discovered by its namesake and Johann Listing. Paradromic rings are formed by cutting this object, and joining a pair of them together can form a Klein bottle. These non-orientable objects are chiral; that is, it will look different if a clockwise or counter-clockwise half-twist is made before the two ends of the rectangle are joined together to create this shape. For the point, name this one-sided surface.
Mobius strip (or Mobius band
(19) Extended fatigue following an instance of this condition is Sopite [[SOH-pite]] syndrome. According to the nystagmus [[nih-STAG-muss]] hypothesis, this condition is caused by vagus [[VAY-gus]] nerve stimulation. One type of this condition caused by the body mistakenly believing that a hallucinogenic toxin has been ingested can be induced by virtual reality technology. This condition is caused by mixed signals between the vestibular [[veh-STIH-byoo-lar]] and visual systems. For the point, name this condition treated with Dramamine, characterized by nausea induced due to differences between actual and perceived movement.
Motion sickness (or Car sickness; or Sea sickness; or Air sickness; prompt on "nausea" or "dizziness")
(4) Obstructions caused by this substance can be reduced with the drug Dornase alfa, and the amount of water in this substance can be increased with drugs such as guaifenesin [[gwai-FEH-neh-sin]]. In the stomach, this substance is secreted by goblet cells. The delta-F508 mutation in patients with cystic fibrosis produces a dangerously viscous type of this fluid. For the point, name this thick bodily fluid, which allergies can cause to accumulate in the nose.
Mucus (or Phlegm; prompt on "Airway Surface Liquid")
(16) One of these events in Lituya Bay, Alaska caused the largest ever measured mega-tsunami. Increases in pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure in surface cracks are common causes of these events. The field of predicting these events is called slope stability analysis. These events, which are a form of mass wasting, are often preceded by heavy rains destabilizing the surface layer. For the point, name these potentially catastrophic movements of rock and sediment down a slope.
Mudslides (accept Landslides; accept Mudflows; accept Rockslides; accept Flow Slides; prompt on "mass wasting" before mentioned)
7. During development, members of this phylum can go into dauer stage, where larvae hibernate due to harsh environmental conditions. Members of this phylum possess a pseudocoelom, and one species in this phylum invades the small intestine in a disease called Trichinosis, which occurs due to the consumption of undercooked meat. UNC genes were discovered in a member of this phylum by Sydney Brenner, who established C. elegans, that member of this phylum, as a model organism for developmental biology. For the point, name this phylum that includes roundworms.
Nematoda (accept Nematodes; accept roundworms before mentioned)
20. The motto for the French Revolution lends names to the arcs of a ring that surrounds this object. James Challis, George Airy, and John Couch Adams predicted the location of, but failed to observe, this object. This object is home to visible storms such as the Scooter and the Great Dark Spot. The cryovolcanic moon Triton orbits this object. For the point, name this object discovered after anomalies predicted a planet outside of the orbit of Uranus.
Neptune
14. For a single charge, this equation can be derived by balancing diffusion due to Fick's Law and electromagnetic forces. Depending on whether the units are in moles or molecules, this equation can have a K over little q term or a R over F term multiplied by a T over Z term. This equation multiplies that whole term by the natural log of the ratio of concentration of the given ionic species on either side of a permeable barrier, such as a salt bridge or cell membrane to yield the namesake potential. For the point, identify this German-named equation which determines reduction potentials of electrochemical reactions.
Nernst equation
(9) These particles, which are said to have "left-handed" chirality [[kai-RAH-lih-tee]], were discovered to have mass by Takaaki Kajita [[tah-kah-AH-kee kah-JEE-tah]]. Beta-plus decay releases a positron, a neutron, and one of these one-half spin particles. These particles come in three flavors corresponding to electrons, muons [[MYOO-ons]], and tauons, between which they oscillate. For the point, name these neutrally charged leptons, which are nearly massless.
Neutrinos (accept Tau neutrinos; accept Muon neutrinos; accept Electron neutrinos; prompt on "fermions"; do not accept or prompt on "neutrons")
31. In January 2019, this spacecraft is scheduled to study Ultima Thule as part of NASA's KEM mission. While preparing for the launch of this spacecraft, astronomers discovered the moons Hydra and Nix. This space probe was the fastest ever to be launched from the Earth. This space probe discovered a large heart-shaped feature on its main target and also studied that target's companion, Charon. For the point, name this space probe that visited Pluto.
New Horizons
2) During this phase, the moon shares its ecliptic longitude with the Sun. A second instance of a moon of this phase in a month is referred to as a black moon. Solar eclipses can only happen during this moon phase. This phase of the moon is between the waxing and waning crescent phases. For the point, name this phase of the moon where the lunar disk is not visible to the naked eye.
New Moon (or Dark Moon)
(15) This force is the result of the Pauli exclusion principle at the surface of contact. In Gravitron carnival rides, this force opposes centripetal force to hold riders to the wall. Cosine of slope angle times mass times gravitational (+) field strength yields this force. Friction is equal to the product of this quantity multiplied by (*) mu [[MYOO]]. For the point, name this component of the contact force, which is always perpendicular to the plane of contact.
Normal force (prompt on "contact force" before mentioned; do not accept or prompt on "inertia")
30) One of these features, named for the Philippines, runs 1320 kilometers from Luzon to Halmahera. One of these features named for Puerto Rico runs about 800 kilometers and marks part of the boundary between the Atlantic and Caribbean. These features appear at convergent plate boundaries and mark the location where one plate subducts beneath another. For the point, identify these submarine features, the most famous of which is located off the coast of the Mariana Islands and bottoms out at Challenger Deep.
Oceanic trenches (accept submarine trench)
(27) This region is responsible for observed P wave speed anisotropies [[an-ih-SAH-troh-peez]] at its lower boundary. This region creates "shadow zones" by fully stopping S waves and slowing P waves. The upper boundary of this region is the Gutenberg discontinuity. Convection in this region is responsible for the Earth's magnetic field according to the geodynamo theory. For the point, name this liquid layer of the Earth which surrounds the inner core.
Outer core (prompt on "core")
(6) Long branch attraction is a systematic error that can occur when creating these constructs. The maximum parsimony method is used to construct the shortest one of these constructs possible. Nodes on these constructs indicate a speciation [[spee-see-AY-shun]] event and designate a clade [[KLAYD]]. Unlike cladograms, branches on these constructs indicate the amount of time since a species diverged. For the point, name these diagrams that illustrate evolutionary relationships.
Phylogenetic trees (or Evolutionary trees; accept Networks in place of Trees; accept Phylogeny; do not accept or prompt on "cladogram"]
Three, 5, 17, and 257 are the first few numbers named for this man in the form "2 to the 2 to the n, plus 1." A theorem named for this man was proved when the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture on elliptic curves was solved by Andrew Wiles; that theorem states that there are no positive integer solutions to a to the n plus b to the n equals c to the n, if n is greater than 2. For the point, name this French mathematician who claimed he didn't have enough space for the proof of his "last theorem."
Pierre de Fermat (accept Fermat numbers, Fermat primes, and/or Fermat's Last Theorem
This space project names the observation that thermal recoil force is unexpectedly slowing down its spacecraft, this project's namesake "anomaly." Two of this project's spacecrafts carried aluminum plaques with the image of a man, woman, and Earth's place in the solar system. The tenth spacecraft of this project was the first to leave the inner solar system. For the point, name this space exploration project that was the first to visit Jupiter and Saturn.
Pioneer program
(1) The patched conic approximation is often used when performing calculations for moving between two of these systems, and "Halo" types of these systems are around an unstable (+) Lagrange point. The vis viva [[VEES-VEE-vah]] equation is used to calculate the velocity of objects involved in these, and these systems are (*) elliptical according to the first of Kepler's three laws pertaining to them. For the point, name these trajectories of planets around a star.
Planetary orbits
Percival Lowell's work included imaging of this body, but that discovery was unappreciated until well after Clyde Tombaugh "officially" discovered it. In July 2015, eight years after gaining a gravity assist by flying by Jupiter, the New Horizons probe sent back detailed images of Nix and Charon, two of this body's moons. In 2006, the IAU reacted to the discovery of Eris by reclassifying this body. For the point, name this dwarf planet that was once considered the ninth planet from the Sun.
Pluto
6. For integer values, the gaps in a process named by this distribution's namesake gives an Erlang distribution. This distribution was popularized by statistician Ladislaus Bortkiewicz in his book The Law of Small Numbers, using it to model the number of Prussian soldiers killed by horse kicks each month. The binomial distribution approaches this distribution as n tends to infinity for a probability p equal to a certain rate over n. This distribution gives the probability of a random variable evaluated at k as [[read slowly]] e to the negative lambda times lambda to the power of k all over k factorial. This distribution models the number of arrivals over a given time interval. For the point, name this distribution named for a French mathematician.
Poisson distribution
24. Kenneth Livak introduced a delta-delta-CT method for determining the number of cycles needed for fluorescence from dyes like SYBR fluorophores to be detectable. In this technique, an eight-tube strip contains the sample and a portion of the "master mix" of dNTPs, magnesium chloride and enzymes. Kary Mullis was recognized with the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for inventing this technique whose real time variant makes use of TaqMan probes. Temperature is cycled in this technique during the Denaturing, Annealing, and Extension phases, and primers are used to extend nucleotide sequences. For the point, name this technique of amplifying a DNA sample.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
12) Carnelian, Citrine, [sit-reen] Jasper, and Agate are varieties of this mineral. The violet-purple variety of this mineral is amethyst. This mineral has piezoelectric properties, and was the basis of the many clocks and watches in the mid-20th century. This mineral's basic chemical formula is silicon dioxide. For the point, identify this mineral, which except for feldspar, is the most common mineral in Earth's crust.
Quartz
13. Complexes called hnRNPs suppress this process by binding to the polypyrimidine tract. Two transesterification reactions mediate this process, during which SR proteins help bind U2 to the branch point. In this process, a unusual 2'-5' phosphodiester bond between two residues forms the lariat, which is released at the end of this process. This process can be self-catalyzed in Group I and Group II ribozymes. For the point, name this process, where snRNPs make a structure that removes introns from a pre-mRNA transcript.
RNA splicing
1) This scientist generalized the action principle of classical mechanics to suggest that a particle's quantum amplitude is a sum over all possible trajectories. This developer of the path integral formulation won a Nobel Prize in physics in 1965 for his contributions to quantum electrodynamics. This scientist represented photons with wavy lines on his namesake diagrams, which are pictorial representations of the interactions between subatomic particles. For the point, name this American physicist known for his educational insights while working as a professor at CalTech.
Richard (Philips) Feynman
(32) Variations in the upper and lower portions of these systems are described by Bradshaw's model. Biospheres located along these systems are classified as crenon, rhithron, and potamon [[poh-TAH-mun]]. Studies of these systems introduced Strahler [[STRAY-ler]] numbers for describing branch order. Riparian [["rye"-"PAIR"-ee-an]] zones form buffer areas around these systems. Cutting off sections of these bodies of water forms oxbow lakes. For the point, name these bodies of water that flow into the sea at deltas.
Rivers (accept more narrow synonyms such as Stream, Brook, Creek, or Rivulet)
24. This scientist worked with Roger Penrose to model singularities in spacetime. He built on Jakob Bekenstein's idea that black holes have finite entropy to show that virtual particles should be able to escape black holes in this man's namesake radiation. Until 2009, he served as the Lucasian Professor at Cambridge for 30 years despite having early-onset ALS. For the point, name this British physicist, author of A Brief History of Time, who passed away in 2018.
Stephen (William) Hawking
(30) One reaction of this type causes Walden inversion at a chiral [[KAI-ral]] center after backside attack. Activating groups favor this type of reaction at "ortho" and "para" positions in the Friedel-Crafts alkylation, which is an example of the "electrophilic (+) aromatic" type of this reaction. The SN1 and SN2 mechanisms for this type of reaction accept a nucleophile (*) and release a leaving group. For the point, name this type of reaction in which one functional group in a molecule is replaced by another.
Substitution reaction (accept Nucleophilic Substitution; accept Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution; accept SN1 reaction before mentioned; accept SN2 reaction before mentioned; accept Single Displacement reaction; accept Single Replacement reaction; prompt on "displacement"; prompt on "replacement")
2. A man from this country pioneered the use of an airtight, pressurized cabin, which he used while measuring cosmic rays. That man's grandson, Bertrand, is also from this country, and circumnavigated the world in the first nonstop flight by balloon. Aside from Auguste Piccard, this nation was home to a man who developed a principle stating that a rise in a fluid's velocity accompanies a fall in its pressure, a law that also helps explain how airplanes generate lift. For the point, name this European country, the birthplace of physicist Daniel Bernoulli.
Switzerland
24) A variable star in this constellation names a class of young variable "T stars" that are pre-main-sequence stars about to join the Hayashi track on H-R diagrams. The red giant star Aldebaran forms the red eye of this constellation which also contains the Pleiades [PLY-uh-DEES] cluster, the Hyades [HI-uh-DEES] cluster, and the Crab Nebula. For the point, name this constellation that resembles a bull.
Taurus
7. This language handles input by grouping letters into hboxes which are then put into a vbox with the goal of minimizing badness between lines. Leslie Lamport designed an extension to this language with more user-friendly macros and packages. Donald Knuth designed this language to make beautiful textbooks and has said the X should be pronounced like a Scottish person pronounces "Loch." For the point, name this markup language whose extension shares its spelling with the name for natural raw rubber.
TeX [accept LaTex]
(7) This thinker claimed that the majority of research conducted is "normal science," building on the ideas and theories of those who carry out pre-science. This thinker compared changes in scientific understanding to the gestalt [[geh-SHTAHLT]] switch that occurs when looking at the (+) duck-rabbit illusion. In one book, this thinker claimed that the title events happen when existing theories become incommensurable with observable data, leading to a (*) paradigm shift. For the point, name this American philosopher, the author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
Thomas Kuhn
11) Baily's beads are a visual phenomenon seen during one of these events. An alternating pattern of dark and light lines called shadow bands are produced immediately before and after one of these events. A variation of one of these events is called total and results in the darkening of a daytime sky. For the point, name these astronomical events in which the Sun is at least partially blocked by the Moon.
Total solar eclipse (prompt on eclipse)
(33) Enzymes named for these entities are used in the tagmentation process of techniques such as ATAC-seq [["attack"-"seek"]]. Autonomous types of these entities contain their namesake enzyme or reverse transcriptase [[tran-SKRIP-tase]], while non-autonomous (+) types of these entities lack both. A type of these entities called P elements results in hybrid dysgenesis [[dis-JEH-neh-sis]] in Drosophila [[droh-SAH-fih-lah]]. The Activator/Dissociation system was the first of these entities identified, having been done so in (*) maize by Barbara McClintock. For the point, name these DNA sequences named for their ability to move around a genome.
Transposons (or Transposable elements or TEs; accept Jumping genes; prompt on "transposase" before "reverse")
21. These structures' substructure includes a transition function, an instruction table, and an infinite tape written and read by a head pointer. These constructs are the subject of the Busy Beaver Game. An effective method exists for a function over the natural numbers if it is computed by one of these machines according to Alonzo Church. These models are the subject of the halting problem. For the point, name this general-purpose computer model, a so-called machine named for a British computer scientist.
Turing Machine [accept TM]
23. This protocol's fourth iteration adapted from Thunderbolt 3 was released in August 2019 and supports 40 Gigabits per second of throughput. This protocol uses four pins, two pins for positive and negative voltage leads and two for positive and negative data transfer. This protocol is the most widely used to hotplug devices. Standard formats for connector plugs used in this protocol include type B, type C and micro. For the point, name this common standard for connecting flash drives, keyboards, mice, and other devices, which sometimes requires flipping the connector plug to fit it into the socket.
USB [accept universal serial bus]
(29) This is the largest body to have its existence predicted by the now-discredited Titius-Bode [[TIH-tee-uss-BOHD]] Law. When he discovered this planet, William Herschel proposed the name "George's Star." The moons of this planet are named for Alexander Pope and William Shakespeare characters, including Titania and Miranda. This planet's axis of rotation sits at a 90-degree angle relative to its orbit. For the point, name this seventh planet from the Sun.
Uranus
31) The Hubble Deep Field images show an area of the sky within this constellation. In Arab tradition, the "three leaps of the gazelle" mark the legs of this constellation, which also contains the Owl Nebula and Pinwheel Galaxy. In the northern hemisphere, it is the largest circumpolar constellation, and its most recognized asterism has pointer stars that direct the observer to the North Star. For the point, name this "Great Bear" constellation that contains the seven stars of the Big Dipper.
Ursa Major (accept Great Bear before it is mentioned; prompt on Big Dipper)
19. The Hubble Space Telescope took the Hubble Deep Field image from this constellation, also the home to the Pinwheel Galaxy. Mirza and Alcor are a pair of visual binary stars in this constellation. Two stars in this constellation, Dubhe and Merak, form a straight line towards Polaris. For the point, name this constellation whose seven major stars forms the shape of a plough or a dipper that is larger than a nearby companion.
Ursa Major [prompt on "big bear" or "big dipper" or synonyms, do not accept or prompt on answers that use the adjective "little", "minor", or its synonyms]
(30) This value is the same for all variables in a homoscedastic [[ho-mo-skee-DAS-tik]] data set. Bartlett's test, a type of F-test, compares two values for this quantity, which is also analyzed by a set of models developed by Ronald Fisher called ANOVA [[ah-NO-vah]]. The parameter lambda for a Poisson [[pwa-SAHN]] distribution symbolizes both the expected value and this quantity, which is the square of the standard deviation. For the point, name this measure of how spread out a data set is.
Variance (accept Analysis of variance)
15) One supplement of this vitamin is produced by irradiation of ergosterol [er-go-stare-all] in yeast, but a more common supplement is cholecalciferol [cole-lee-cal-suh-FAIR-all]. This vitamin is active as calcitriol [CAL-suh-TRY-all] and a deficiency in it can cause rickets. This vitamin is needed to digest calcium and is primarily obtained through skin cells reacting with ultraviolet light. For the point, name this fat-soluble vitamin essential for strong bones.
Vitamin D3
(13) This compound form is divided into driving and driven varieties based on whether it has the potential to condense out of the atmosphere. This compound form is the most abundant and potent greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere. Suddenly exceeding the saturation point of this compound form in the atmosphere can lead to cloudburst precipitation. Concentration of this compound form is measured as humidity. For the point, name this greenhouse gas which condensates to form clouds.
Water Vapor (accept Aqueous vapor; prompt on "water"; prompt on "H20"; do not accept or prompt on "Steam")
(32) Leptons carry a positive or negative one-half value for this force's isospin. Different effects of this force on matter and antimatter demonstrates CP violation. The 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for demonstrations that at high energies this force is indistinguishable from electromagnetism. This force is mediated by W and Z bosons. For the point, name this force that governs beta decay, which is named for being less powerful than the strong force.
Weak Force (or Weak Interaction; or Weak Nuclear Force; accept Electroweak Theory or EWT)
(4) When orbiting a larger body, these objects can undergo destructive carbon detonations. These objects, the most common stellar endpoint, are found in the lower-left corner of an HR diagram. These stars are supported from collapse by the degeneracy pressure of their fast-moving electrons. For the point, name these small stellar remnants, which are not massive enough to become a neutron star.
White dwarfs (accept Degenerate dwarf; prompt on "dwarf" or "star")
(19) This man falsely claimed to have executed a controlled landing after crashing with a parachute near a peasant man and his daughter. This man died along with Colonel Vladimir Seryogin [[seh-ree-OH-gin]] while piloting an experimental MiG-15 aircraft near the town of Novosyolovo [[no-vo-syo-LO-vo]]. During his most significant mission, this man allegedly said, "I don't see any God up here." The pilot of Vostok I, for the point, who was this Soviet cosmonaut, the first human to reach space?
Yuri Gagarin
(31) This element's oxide was historically known as "philosopher's wool" when made by alchemist's burning this element in the air. Over 95 percent of this element used in the world is extracted from sphalerite [[SFAH-ler-ite]], an ore formed from this element, iron, and sulfur. Steel can be protected from corrosion by galvanizing it with a layer of this element. For the point, name this metal that forms brass with copper, supplements of which have been shown to reduce the duration of common cold symptoms.
Zinc (or Zn)
This function on complex numbers can be called the "modulus." For a + bi [a plus b times i], this value is equal to the square root of a squared plus b squared. The slope of this parent graph is negative 1 for negative values of x and positive 1 for positive x. This function reports the magnitude of the distance of a number from zero. For the point, name this algebraic function that displays a V-shaped graph, which outputs "3" for the inputs of both "3" and "negative 3."
absolute value function (accept magnitude before it is read; prompt on "distance"(from zero
21. This variable can affect charged particles reflected of a magnetic mirror in a type of it named for Fermi. This quantity for revolving bodies is equal to velocity squared divided by the radius. By Newton's second law, this quantity can be expressed as force divided by mass. For the point, name this quantity, the rate of change of velocity which measures how fast an object is speeding up or slowing down.
acceleration
One method of producing this compound relies on an iridium catalyst and avoids the water gas shift; that is the Cativa Process, which adds a molecule of carbon monoxide to a molecule of methanol. An undiluted form of this compound is described as "glacial." This compound, whose chemical formula can be written CH3COOH [spell it out], is found in a liquid that creates carbonic acid when it reacts with baking soda. For the point, name this acid found in vinegar.
acetic acid (accept ethanoic acid; accept CH3COOH or other chemical formulas that involve exactly two carbons, two oxygens, and four hydrogens before the formula is read
Accomplishing this feat with a perfect crystal lattice places a system in its ground state. According to the Third Law of Thermodynamics, it is impossible to accomplish this feat within a finite number of operations. Accomplishing this feat would end all vibrational movement in the system. For the point, name this classically-impossible scientific task that would require cooling a system to negative 273.15 degrees Celsius.
achieving absolute zero (accept any description of cooling a system until it reaches absolute zero or zero Kelvin; note that just saying absolute zero is acceptable
3) The fluoroantimonic one is the strongest known example of these compounds in the world. Arrhenius defined them as increasing hydrogen ion concentration in water, while they are proton donors in the Bronsted-Lowry definition. Varieties of these compounds include nitric, sulfuric and acetic. For the point, name these compounds that have a pH of less than 7.
acids
13. PRDM16 is a transcription coregulator that controls development into a cell of this type. In this type of cell, apelin produces a positive feedback loop to increase insulin production. These cells are separated into three tissue types: WAT, MAT, and BAT. The large amount of mitochondria in one type of these cells give them a brown color and assist in thermogenesis. Enterocytes and these cells secrete leptin to help suppress the hunger response which regulates their size and storage. For the point, name these cells that specialize in storing lipid fat droplets.
adipocytes [accept adipose tissue; prompt on fat cells or fat tissues]
21. Using chemical potential's equilibrium point as a proxy for this process was modeled by Michael Polanyi based on his potential theory. Molecular gases can be separated in a "pressure swing" technique that takes advantage of the target gas undergoing this process. BET theory models the multilayer possibility of this process. The first empirical model published for this process sets the fraction of molecules it occurs to equal to pressure raised to one over some constant; that model was published by Kuster and Freundlich. By assuming the molecule undergoing this process is an ideal gas at isothermal conditions, one can derive the Langmuir model. This process can be physical if the electrons on the surface only hold the gas by Van der Waals forces. For the point, name this process of molecules adhering to a surface.
adsorption [check that the answer given is not "absorption"]
18) The rate of this process in C. elegans is regulated by DAF-2. Turritopsis dohrnii is known for its ability to reverse this process. A disease that causes this process to accelerate is due to a point mutation in Lamin A and is known as Hutchinson-Gilford progeria. This process is associated with the Hayflick limit, which puts a limit on the number of times a cell can divide due to telomere shortening. As this process occurs, the number of mutations accumulate until mortality. For the point, name this process of growing old.
aging (or senescence)
12) This quantity is displayed on two axes of a psychrometric chart, and the ratio of the two measures of quantity can be used to determine humidity. This quantity is plotted on the vertical axis of the "hockey stick" graph, so-called due to this quantity's recent increase as shown by past reconstructions of this quantity. This quantity decreases with altitude in the troposphere, but not in the stratosphere, leading to its namesake inversion. For the point, name this quantity which can be measured using a thermometer.
air temperature
32) The direction of these objects can be changed by elevators, while the angle of attack is important property of the foils of these objects. The coordinates of these objects are specified by roll, pitch, and yaw. Lift, thrust, and drag are essential factors in this mode of transportation, commercial examples of which include Airbus and Boeing. For the point, name these vehicles that travel through the air.
airplanes (accept airfoil; accept aircraft; accept airplane wings; prompt on "wing"s)
The Emerald Tablet was a central text to this field, whose proponents were inspired by the writings of Hermes Trismegistus. Paracelsus described mercury, sulphur, and salt as this field's universal elements. The search for the Philosopher's Stone was central to this field, whose practitioners attempted to transmute metals. For the point, name this early form of chemistry, made difficult by the fact that lead cannot physically become gold.
alchemy
22) In a reaction named for Fischer, carboxylic acid and one of these compounds react to form an ester. Salt and one of these compounds added to a test tube can cause DNA to precipitate out of solution. The "wood" type of this compound can cause blindness if ingested. These compounds have a hydroxyl group, or -OH. For the point, name this group of compounds that include methanol and ethanol.
alcohols [accept hydroxyls before mention]
2. The chloralkali process produces a sodium type of this mixture as a byproduct, which is continuously drawn out of the cell to be neutralized with water. This sort of mixture is the active ingredient in a Jones reductor. Hydrochloric acid and one of these mixtures with Zinc are used to reduce ketones in a Clemmensen reduction. In dentistry, these mixtures with around 25% silver and 10% copper are controversially used for some fillings. The protective layer of aluminum oxide is quickly corroded by mercury forming one of these mixtures. For the point, name these mixtures, the uniting of mercury and another metal.
amalgams [prompt on mercury mixtures or mercury solution and similar]
2. This sort of mixture is the active ingredient in a Jones reductor. Hydrochloric acid and one of these mixtures with Zinc are used to reduce ketones in a Clemmensen reduction. In dentistry, these mixtures with around 25% silver and 10% copper are controversially used for some fillings. The protective layer of aluminum oxide is quickly corroded by mercury forming one of these mixtures. For the point, name these mixtures, the uniting of mercury and another metal.
amalgams [prompt on mercury mixtures or mercury solution and similar]
Copals are an intermediate stage in the formation of this substance. Within this substance, terpenes and alcohols serve as dehydrating agents, allowing the preservation of organic material. PCR can sometimes be used to amplify DNA found within this material, as done in science fiction films like Jurassic Park. For the point, name this type of fossilized resin in which plant or animal material is often preserved.
amber
16) The Strecker synthesis forms these organic compounds by the reaction of an aldehyde and ammonium chloride. These compounds are zwitterions at biological pH. A carboxylic [car-box-sill-ic] acid and an amine group are on opposite ends of these organic compounds. The sequence of these compounds is responsible for the formation of beta sheets and alpha helices. For the point, name these organic compounds that include arginine and tryptophan, the basic building blocks of proteins.
amino acids
7) The phi and psi ["sigh"] dihedral angles of this group of molecules are plotted against each other on a Ramachandran plot. Molecules like dopamine and adrenaline are derived from an aromatic one of these compounds called tyrosine. AUG encodes one of these molecules called methionine. Peptide bonds form between two of these molecules. For the point, name these building blocks of protein.
amino acids
10) Members of this cultural group underwent enkoimesis when they sought a healing sleep. This group's practice of "pharmakeia" was regarded as sorcery. One scientist from this culture was the first to propose the four humors theory. A serpent wrapped around a pole is known as the Rod of Asclepius, after a legendary healer from this cultural group who was the father of Hygeia and Panacea. For the point, an oath to abstain from all harm is named for a member of what ancient culture, Hippocrates?
ancient Greeks (accept ancient Greece)
During World War II, the Vollum strain of this bacterium was developed and weaponized; Iraq may or may not have used that strain during the Gulf War. In addition to a rabies vaccine, Louis Pasteur claimed the invention of a vaccine against this bacteria. The Ames strain of this bacteria was taken from a cow in 1981 and used in terror attacks following 9/11. For the point, name this infectious bacteria whose spores were mailed to politicians in 2001.
anthrax (or Bacillus anthracis
NOD 32 was an early one of these products which reached its 10,000th update in 2014. The namesake of one of these products candidly responded "I have no idea" to the question of how to uninstall this product. SAM is one of these products for Macintosh hardware released by Symantec, and popular free examples of these products include avast! and AVG. John Mcafee and Peter Norton produced, for the point, what type of software that protects a computer against virtual threats?
anti-virus software (accept any software that defends against viruses, malware, etc.
Most available forms of these drugs possess a beta-lactam ring. A form of Staphylococcus aureus has evolved a resistance to this type of compound, leading to the spread of MRSA in hospitals; as a result, doctors stress completing the full course of these medications. Amoxicillin and penicillin are common examples of, for the point, what class of medicinal compounds that fight bacterial infections?
antibiotics (or antibacterial
9. Framework regions of these molecules are more resistant to the hypersomatic mutations that affect their complementarity determining regions. The "12/23" rule is enforced when these molecules undergo VDJ recombination. Monoclonal types of these proteins bind to the same epitope. In class-switching, these proteins' heavy chains are changed so that their '"M" or "D" types can become "G," "A," or "E" types. For the point, what Y-shaped proteins bind to antigens during the immune response?
antibodies (accept antibody, immunoglobulins, or Ig)
12) The Fv region of this class of proteins contains the paratope section and loops that make up the complementary determining region. One of these compounds called adalimumab [addAh liMoo mab] is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis; that "monoclonal" type only binds to one epitope. The heavy and light chains of these proteins are arranged into a Y shape. For the point, name these immune system proteins that bind to antigens.
antibody (or antibodies)
A famous one of these structures uses a one-percent grade on much of its journey to Segovia. One of these constructs in France that is made of limestone is known as Pont du Gard. The Tunnel of Eupalinos is an underground construct of this type that served ancient Greece. Roman examples of these maintained latrines and public baths but, unfortunately, used lead piping to prevent evaporation. For the point, name these systems that carry water.
aqueducts
The determinant of a two-by-two matrix is equal to this quantity for the parallelogram formed by the vectors encoded in that matrix. The definite integral of a function can be interpreted as the net value of this quantity between that function's graph and the x -axis. Heron's formula can find this quantity for a triangle. For the point, name this quantity that expresses how much space a two-dimensional figure takes up, equal to s squared for a square with side length s.
area
23) The statement that every number has a unique prime factorization is the fundamental theorem of this field. The "modular" form of this type of mathematics deals with remainders from division. This type of mathematics names a type of sequence with constant difference. For the point, name this foundational mathematics that deals with operations like addition and subtraction.
arithmetic
The associative type of this data structure stores key-value pairs. Accessing a value in this data structure takes constant time, since its elements can be referenced by their index; an out-of-bounds exception is thrown whenever the index is less than 0 or larger than the length minus 1. In most programming languages, this one-dimensional data structure is declared with square brackets. For the point, name this term in computer science for an ordered list of data.
arrays
10) Fowler's solution, a compound containing potassium, oxygen, and this element was once used as a tonic. With the element gallium, this element forms a common semiconductor. A test using zinc and nitric acid is used to detect the presence of this element. That test is the Marsh test. This element was used in the so called "magic bullet" drug Salvarsan, the first effective treatment for syphilis. For the point, name this toxic element once used as a rat poison with symbol As.
arsenic (accept As before it is read)
17) This element forms a gas with hydrogen if it is present in a Marsh test. This is the most common Group 7 element used to dope semiconductors like gallium. Paul Ehrlich developed a "magic bullet" that used an organic compound containing this metalloid to treat syphilis, even though it's poisonous. For the point, name this yellowish metalloid with atomic number thirty-three and chemical symbol As.
arsenic (prompt on As until mentioned)
One of these bodily structures becomes the medial umbilical ligament after its host gives birth, before which it carries blood from the fetus to the placenta. Another of these blood vessels carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs using thick, elastic walls that can harden in atherosclerosis. Most of these blood vessels carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, as exemplified by the aorta. For the point, name these large blood vessels contrasted with veins.
artery (or arteries; accept umbilical artery before "" is read; do not accept or prompt on "veins"
26. The biopharmaceutical etanercept is approved to treat plaque psoriasis and this condition. Targeting tumor necrosis factor with inhibitors like adalimumab and infliximab are among the DMARDs used to treat a form of this condition. Colchicine is used to treat one form of this condition caused by build up of uric acid crystals. This overarching condition includes gout and an "osteo-" form where cartilage between bones grinds away. White blood cells invade synovial tissue in a form of this condition characterized by high levels of rheumatoid factor. For the point, name this condition of painful and inflamed joints.
arthritis [accept specific forms like gout; or osteoarthritis; or rheumatoid arthritis]
One member of this phylum spreads the Lyme disease bacteria to humans. The organism in which Batesian mimicry was first observed is in this phylum, which also includes the model organism Drosophila melanogaster. These organisms have exoskeletons made out of chitin. The extinct trilobite belongs to, for the point, what large invertebrate phylum of crustaceans, arachnids, and insects, making up about 80% of all known species?
arthropods or arthropoda
Forms of this mineral include crocidolite, its blue form, and chrysotile, the most commonly used form. According to legend, Charlemagne owned a tablecloth made of this material which was cleaned by throwing it in the fire. This friable material is used in Bunsen burner mats, even though inhalation of the dust of this substance is linked to mesothelioma. For the point, name this substance whose long, white fibers are still used in building insulation even though they are strongly linked to lung cancer.
asbestos
The downside of this process is explained by Muller's Ratchet. In this process, gametes do not fuse; instead, for many organisms that undergo it, haploid spores are produced. Many algae alternate between this process and its opposite; that ability is called heterogamy. Parthenogenesis is one example of, for the point, what type of reproduction, used by most single-celled organisms, in which an organism passes its genes to offspring without the use of a second parent?
asexual reproduction (anti-prompt on "parthenogenesis" until "spores" is read by asking "can you be less specific?"; do not accept or prompt on "parthenogenesis" after "spores" is read
24) This medicine can increase a child's risk for Reye's syndrome. This nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug has a precursor that was extracted from willow tree bark. In 1899, Bayer gave the common trade name to this salicylate that reduces the risk of stroke and heart attack. For the point, name this anti-inflammatory drug that is often used to treat pain, fever, and headaches.
aspirin (accept acetyl-salicylic acid)
27. On August 23rd, 2019, Jet Propulsion Laboratory activated a "Deep Space" mercury-ion variant of this type of device. Isidor Rabi used magnetic resonance to propose the first use of these devices. Two instances of this device were used to test special relativity in the Hafele-Keating experiment. A modern version of this device can be made using the over 9 billion cycle transition between the two hyperfine energy levels in the ground state of cesium-133 which is used to define the SI unit of the second. For the point, name these devices that use electron energy levels to keep time.
atomic clock [prompt on clock]
When the mass of this structure reaches certain "magic numbers," it is believed to be found on the island of stability. George Gamow proposed a model of this structure as a drop of liquid. The discovery of this structure disproved the plum pudding model, and this structure was found in an experiment that fired particles at gold foil. This structure is held together by the strong force and makes up most of the mass of the atom. For the point, name this structure made of protons and neutrons, found at the center of the atom.
atomic nucleus
8. An approximation involving the "linear combination" of these structures is used to calculate similar, more complex structures that can include "bonding" and "nonbonding" types. These structures, which can have radial and angular nodes, are labeled as "degenerate" when they all have the same energy levels. These structures mix during hybridization, and the Aufbau principle describes the order in which they are filled. For the point, name these regions of space, such as s, p, and d, where electrons can be found.
atomic orbitals
8. Carl Størmer tracked over 12,000 of these events and helped determine their altitude of occurence. The namesake ovals of this phenomenon are most prominent at the time referred to as "magnetic midnight." Birkeland currents driven by solar wind and the earth's magnetic field help stir the electrons and protons in the ionosphere to emit photons of various colorful wavelengths, creating curtains and wavy patterns over the arctic and antarctic. For the point, name these light shows caused by ionization of gas in the earth's atmosphere, which, in the northern hemisphere, are referred to with the additional word borealis.
auroras [accept aurora borealis; accept magnetosphere storms or substorms of the magnetosphere; prompt on northern lights]
9. An inability to identify where Sally will look for her marble after Anne has moved it is linked with this disorder; that Sally-Anne test implementation was spearheaded by Simon Baron-Cohen who hypothesized this disorder could be caused by development of an "extreme-male brain." In a book titled Infantile [This Disorder], Bernard Rimland attacked Bruto Bettelheim's hypothesis that "Refrigerator Mothers" who are emotionally distant from their child can spur on this disorder. Asperger's syndrome is considered a "high functioning form of," for the point, what spectrum disorder characterized by difficulties socially interacting and communicating?
autism spectrum disorder [accept ASD]
27. Quercetin and Genistein are naturally occurring inhibitors of the transport mechanism of this class of hormones that makes use of PGP proteins and PIN proteins. TIR1 is a receptor for this class of hormones that moves via a namesake polar transport. This class of hormones is responsible for the activation of expansins which causes an efflux of protons into the apoplast according to the acid growth hypothesis. The most abundant member of this class of hormones in indole-3-acetic acid. This class of hormones regulates phototropism and gravitropism. For the point, name this class of plant hormones responsible for apical dominance as well as stimulating stem growth alongside gibberellins.
auxins
15. A parameter of this name in thermodynamics is equal to one over Boltzmann's constant times temperature. Penicillin is part of a class of antibiotics named for lactam rings of this letter. Abnormal heart rhythms can be treated with a class of medications named [this letter]-blockers. A form of decay named for this letter releases a particle equivalent to a Helium nucleus. For the point, name this letter that names a sheet motif common in protein folding alongside alpha-helices.
beta
15. In Quantum Field Theory, a function of this name is the partial derivative of the coupling parameter with respect to the log of the energy scale. A particle accelerator originally conceived by Rolf Wideroe contains this letter in its name. A parameter of this name in thermodynamics is equal to one over Boltzmann's constant times temperature. Penicillin is part of a class of antibiotics named for lactam rings of this letter. Abnormal heart rhythms can be treated with a class of medications named [this letter]-blockers. A form of decay named for this letter releases a particle equivalent to a Helium nucleus. For the point, name this letter that names a sheet motif common in protein folding alongside alpha-helices.
beta
28. A tree named for this algorithm can be constructed from a list of weighted nodes by finding three nodes x, y, and z such that x and y are less than z, creating a parent node x + y, and placing that to the right of the first value in the list greater than x + y. The Garcia-Wachs algorithm constructs a tree named after this algorithm, which cannot be modified in the static optimality problem. A tree with this algorithm's property has each node's children on the left smaller than the current node and each node's children on the right larger than the current node. A search algorithm with this name operates on a sorted list and compares the search element to the middle element before searching above or below. For the point, name this type of search where the search space is iteratively divided in two halves.
binary search [after reading "SEARCH" accept binary]
Overflowing Roche lobes in one of these systems can cause gases to accrete from the more massive to the less massive member. In one of these systems, the first discovered white dwarf orbits in an ellipse around the brightest star in the nighttime sky. Sirius AB is one of these systems in which a common barycenter is the center of mass for both components. For the point, name these systems consisting of two nearby stars affecting each others' orbits.
binary star system
17. In their BRIDGE study, Jules Angst and colleagues identified that 47 percent of patients with MDD met the specifier criteria for this disease. The highest risk of cyclothymia is from the type 1 form of this disorder. Opposite pole symptoms commingle in the "mixed state" specifier for this disease. Rapid cycling is a severe form of this disease characterized by four or more mood episodes in a year. Lithium is commonly used to treat this psychiatric disorder that can cause symptoms of euphoria for periods followed by periods of dysphoria. For the point, name this disease characterized by bouts of mania and depression.
bipolar disorder [accept manic-depressive disorder or manic depression]
25. Retinal cells work with a cluster of cells in the forebrain to help execute this process at night. Both restlessness and increased food take can occur before this process, where northerly winds can cause its namesake "fallout" along the Gulf Coast. While the "reverse" type of this process can affect juveniles, proper navigation during it involves Earth's magnetic field. This process is longest for the Arctic tern. For the point, flocks go south for the winter during what large-scale seasonal journey?
bird migration
7) Vinkensport is a competition among members of this class of animals in traditional Flemish culture. The greater honeyguide is a member of this class of animals often used by humans in Africa. Magnetoreception is thought to be responsible for the "homing" behavior of some members of this class, which has been exploited for message delivery. Peregrines are one species in this class used for hunting. For the point, name this class of animals, used by humans in such activities as falconry and cockfighting.
birds (accept Aves)
34. Most of these animals possess a bilobed sebaceous gland known as uropygial gland. For hematopoiesis, these animals make use of a specialized organ called the Bursa of Fabricius. The largest order of these animals, the passerines, is distinguished by the organization of the toes on the feet, with three facing forward and one facing backwards. Because some of these animals do not molt, the Humphrey-Parkes classification system was developed. All species of these animals use a ZW sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Because they evolved from small theropods, some taxonomists consider these animals to be "living dinosaurs." For the point, name these feathered vertebrates who lay eggs, many of whom are capable of flight.
birds [accept aves; accept avians]
According to the no-hair theorem, these things possess only three physical quantities: mass, charge, and angular momentum. If these things rotate, they give off Hawking radiation from near their event horizons, but that radiation is so faint as to be unobservable. The gravitational collapse of massive stars can create, for the point, what regions of space with gravitational pull strong enough to prevent light from escaping?
black hole
15) The mass, charge, and angular momentum of these objects completely describes them, according to the no-hair theorem. One of these objects in M87 was the first to be pictured in 2019. These objects can be thought of as singularities in space-time. Hawking radiation occurs at these object's event horizons. For the point, name these objects which not even light can escape.
black holes
19) Two of these objects merging resulted in the first recorded instance of gravitational waves by LIGO. Roger Penrose proposed extracting energy from the ergospheres of these objects. They lose mass through Hawking radiation, and a supermassive one exists at the center of our galaxy. For the point, name these astronomical bodies that have a gravitational singularity so strong that light cannot escape past their event horizon.
black holes
20) These objects decay by emitting Hawking radiation, and active galactic nuclei are powered by accretion of gas into these objects. An image of one of these objects at the center of M87 was taken by a global array of radio telescopes known as the Event Horizon Telescope in 2019. Their Schwarzschild radius is where the escape velocity equals the speed of light. For the point, name these astronomical objects that are so massive that not even light can escape their gravitational pull.
black holes
8) These objects are the subject of the no-hair theorem which holds that they can be characterized by only their mass, charge, and angular momentum. The mass of one of these objects determines its Schwarzschild radius and thus its event horizon or "point of no return." For the point, name these astronomical objects with singularities at their centers that let nothing, even light, escape.
black holes
26) Denial of this condition, despite evidence for it, is termed Anton-Babinski Syndrome. This condition partially names a disorder experienced by those who fail Ishihara's test. This condition can be onset by age-related macular degeneration. Damage to the optic chiasm can cause this condition. For the point, name this condition of near or complete vision loss.
blindness (accept color blindness; prompt on "vision impairment" or related answers of "lack" of "eyesight")
13) The Starling equation describes how this material becomes extravascular in the body. FFP is a type of this material collected through apheresis, which separates and returns erythrocytes and leukocytes back to the body. A universal donor for this material is of the AB type, a reversal of what is expected from whole blood donation. For the point, name this yellow-colored fluid made of primarily water, in which other components of blood are suspended.
blood plasma
2) Arsenic gives off this color when burned in a flame test. This is the color of hydrated copper sulfate salts, as well as a pigment containing iron and cyanide that is named for the country Prussia. Titrations often use a bromothymol derivative of this color as an indicator. Litmus paper turns this color in solutions with a pH greater than 7, which act as bases. For the point, name this color of cobalt, as well as the natural dye indigo.
blue
28) Altitude lowers the temperature needed for this process to occur due to decreasing vapor pressure. Adding salt to water increases the temperature needed for this process to occur. This process occurs at high temperatures for water due to hydrogen bonding, typically at 212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius. For the point, name this rapid vaporization, a phase transition from a liquid to gas.
boiling (accept boiling point; prompt on "vaporization")
Trouton's rule predicts that, regardless of this value, a substance's entropy of vaporization will fall in a narrow set of ranges. An ebulliometer can be used to find this value, whose elevation is an important colligative property. On the periodic table, this value is lowest for helium, at roughly 4 Kelvin, while for water, this value is roughly 100 degrees Celsius. For the point, name this temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas.
boiling point (accept vaporization point; accept temperature for point
11. Borohydrides are modelled using the 3c-2e variant of this structure. A variety of these interactions cannot occur at bridgeheads according to Bredt's rule. Lewis acids are responsible for the dative type of this interaction. The inductive effect occurs through these interactions. The bent variety of these interactions cause high ring strain, occur in molecules like cyclopropane, and are alternatively named for resembling bananas. These types of structures form when electrons are shared between two atoms or when one atom rips the electron off another. For the point, name this structure formed between two atoms which include covalent and ionic variants.
bonds [accept covalent bonds; accept double bonds]
5. This tissue can be reabsorbed by cells that reside in small depressions called Howship's lacunae. Hematopoiesis occurs in the cancellous type of this tissue, whose Volkmann's canals connect the periosteum with blood vessels of Haversian canals. This tissue, which replaces cartilage at the epiphyseal plate during growth, is made up of a mineralized matrix that includes hydroxyapatite and collagen. For the point, what connective tissue makes up the skeletal system and is weakened in osteoporosis?
bone tissue (or osseous tissue)
To avoid mercury poisoning, this element's compounds with sodium are often used to extract gold, and can also be used in detergents. A silicate glass using this element's trioxide is very heat-resistant and used in Pyrex lab equipment. Group 13 of the periodic table is sometimes named for this element, whose common isotopes have 10 or 11 neutrons. For the point, name this element with atomic number 5 and chemical symbol B.
boron (accept B before mentioned
15) The wurtzite [vurt-SITE] form of this element's nitride is harder than diamond. Oxygen, silicon, and this element are the three most common in Pyrex glass. This element commonly only makes three valence bonds, violating the octet rule. This element is the lightest metalloid on the periodic table, found just to the left of carbon. For the point, name this element with atomic number five and elemental symbol B.
boron (accept borosilicates; prompt on B) (
21) A modular steel version of one of these structures was created by Donald Bailey and was often used during wartime. Counterweights help to open and close the bascule version of these structures. Abutments and piers in these structures help to balance compression and tension as gravity and load act on their spans. Arches help to support one type of, for the point, what structures that may also come in cantilevered, cable-stayed, and suspension varieties, designed to cross an obstacle such as a river or roadway?
bridges
Ithiel Town developed an inexpensive form of these structures known as his lattice truss. Emily Roebling provided engineering support for the design of one of these structures. A type of resonance is thought to have been responsible for the collapse of one of these at the Tacoma Narrows. For the point, name these engineering projects, such as one between Brooklyn and Manhattan over the East River.
bridges
16) In 1883, John Augustus Roebling designed one of these structures as a cable-stay hybrid to provide extra support to the deck. The suspended span is supported by anchor arms in the balanced cantilever variety of these structures. Akashi Kaikyo is the longest suspension variety of these structures. For the point, name these structures that include the international orange painted Golden Gate one in San Francisco.
bridges (accept Golden Gate bridge; accept Brooklyn Bridge)
26) In mass spec, this element is indicated by an M-plus-2 peak of the same height as the M peak. This element names a test for detecting unsaturation in hydrocarbons. This halogen is a reddish brown liquid at room temperature. This element can exist in a +2 oxidation state like its neighbor Krypton. For the point, name this element with atomic number thirty-five and chemical symbol Br.
bromine (prompt on Br until mentioned)
3) Dark green spots appear in this material's "disease" due to a reaction with chlorides. August Rodin was accused of casting a live model to create a sculpture named for this material. The age named for this material was between the Neolithic age and the Iron age. Despite containing zinc, brass is often confused for this alloy. For the point, name this material, an alloy of 90% copper and 10% tin.
bronze
6. A modification of this algorithm that reverses its behavior on the second pass is named for a cocktail shaker. Like insertion sort, this algorithm has a Big O of n squared runtime. This algorithm operates by repeatedly passing through an entire list, checking each adjacent pair of elements, and requires a final pass that makes no changes before it will terminate. For the point, name this highly inefficient sorting algorithm, named for the tendency of values to float to the top of the list.
bubble sort (prompt on sort before "sorting" is read)
6) The dynamics of a spherical one in an incompressible infinite fluid is encoded in the Rayleigh-Plesset equation. According to legend, Donald Glaser got the idea for a chamber of these things to detect particles from watching them foam at the top of a beer glass. They hold together due to surface tension balancing the pressure which can cause them to pop. For the point, name these pockets of air trapped in a liquid.
bubbles
29) MES, ADA, and Bicine are three examples of these systems that meet Norman Good's selection criteria. Carbonic acid in the blood serves as one of these systems. The pH of these systems can be calculated with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. These systems are commonly made by mixing a weak acid and conjugate base. They typically have a pKa within the range of 6 to 8. For the point, name these compounds that resist changes in pH.
buffers (or buffer solutions; or buffer agents; buffer systems)
7) In order to provide ventilation for these structures, Cresson Kearny designed an efficient air pump. "Earthquake bombs" were designed as a "buster" to these structures. They're not block houses, but World War II and the Cold War saw extensive building of these civilian structures, the latter for fear of nuclear fall out. For the point, name these fortified shelters designed to protect people from bombs, nuclear weapons, and enemy attacks.
bunker (prompt on "shelter" until mentioned)
23) The magnitude of this force is equal to the product of density, volume, and gravity. This force is the result of increasing pressure at lower depths. It was legendarily used by a Greek mathematician to determine if a crown was gold. "Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid" by this force according to Archimedes' principle. For the point, name this tendency of an object to stay afloat.
buoyancy (accept upthrust; accept buoyant force)
26) The largest family of these animals is the Nymphalidae, also known as the brush-footed example. Birdwings are examples of the swallowtail variety of these animals. One of these animals of the genus Danaus is also named for its consumption of milkweed. Mimicry is commonly displayed in these animals, such as the viceroy. For the point, name these colorful flying insects that include the migrating orange "monarch" variety.
butterfly (accept butterflies)
11) The introduction of the Ribwort Plantain led to one type of this insect, the Edith's checkerspot, nearly dying out. A rash named for this insect is a tell-tale sign of lupus. The wings of this insect, like Heliconius, warn off predators using Mullerian mimicry. Along with moths, this insect makes up Lepidoptera. Caterpillars metamorph into, for the point, what insect exemplified by the viceroy and monarch?
butterfly (or butterflies)
Parafollicular cells in the thyroid secrete a hormone that reduce levels of this element in blood. Deficiency in certain vitamins or this element can cause rickets. Clam shells and pearls are largely made up of this element's carbonate. This element, found to the right of potassium on the periodic table, is commonly found in dietary supplements for sufferers of osteoporosis to boost the strength of their bones. For the point, name this with element with chemical symbol Ca.
calcium (accept Ca before mentioned
7) Verapamil is one "channel blocker" of this ion. At fertilization, there is a spike in the concentration of this ion in the cytosol, known as its namesake "bomb" or "wave." This element's plus 2 cation [CAT-i-ON] is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells. Sunlight helps the body produce vitamin D, which helps absorb this element that is also found in milk. For the point, name this element that is found in bones and has symbol Ca.
calcium (prompt on Ca)
2) This is the principal ion to aid in exocytosis of neurotransmitter vesicles. By activating vitamin D, parathyroid hormone increases the supply of this ion in the bloodstream. This ion is released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When it binds to troponin, this ion activates muscle contraction. Osteoporosis can occur when this ion is deficient. For the point, name this ion, which is mainly stored by humans in their teeth and bones.
calcium ion (prompt on "Ca"; prompt on "Ca2+)
19) The Euler-Lagrange equations are central to one type of this field dealing with changes. The theorems of Stokes and Gauss are generalizations of a theorem in this field. One founder of this field formulated fluxions and dot notation, though those were replaced by an alternative formulation. Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton independently discovered, for the point, what branch of mathematics dealing with integration and derivatives?
calculus
The fundamental theorem of this branch of mathematics requires a function to be continuous on a closed interval. An important tool used in this branch of mathematics considers the difference quotient as the limit of the denominator approaches zero. This branch was independently developed by Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton in the 17th century. For the point, name this branch of mathematics that studies change with tools like integrals and derivatives.
calculus
16) Defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius, this quantity is approximately equal to four-point-two joules. A gram of protein or a gram of carbohydrates has a value of four for this quantity, but a gram of fat has a value of nine. For the point, name this unit of energy often found at the top of nutrition labels.
calories; accept kilocalories; accept food calories; accept small or large calories)
The Joule effect is used to calibrate the Calvet type of these devices. An aluminum pan is used in the differential-scanning type of these devices; another type of these devices that holds constant volume under intense pressure is called a bomb. Antoine Lavoisier co-designed an early example of this lab equipment, which typically uses a combustion chamber and a thermometer. For the point, name these devices used to calculate heat capacity and the heat given off by a reaction, thus named for a unit of heat energy.
calorimeters (accept specific types of calorimeters like bomb calorimeter or differentialscanning calorimeter
The fact a large proportion of patients who have this class of disease have a mutation in the TP53 gene has resulted in that gene being referred to as the "guardian of the genome." Types of this disease include melanoma and leukemia. Metastasis is the "spread" of this disease, which is studied by oncologists. For the point, name this class of disease that involves uncontrolled cell growth, usually starting as a tumor.
cancer
32. In the Shockley model, P-MOS and N-MOS transistors are modelled with effective resistance and a circuit element measured with this quantity. The base and collector of transistors causes an amplification of this quantity's parasitic form due to the Miller effect. The impedance of the simple circuit element that is measured in this quantity is equal to the reciprocal of the imaginary number times angular frequency times this quantity. In the simplest geometry, this quantity, whose reciprocal is elastance, is equal to kappa times epsilon times area over distance where kappa is the dielectric constant and the geometry is parallel plates. This quantity's units can be written as coulombs per volt because this quantity equals charge over voltage. For the point, name this quantity whose SI unit is the Farad.
capacitance
13) These compounds can be depicted using Hayworth or Fischer projections, and they have a 1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Examples of these compounds in plants include cellulose and starch. Calories primarily come from fats, proteins, and these macromolecules. Glucose, sucrose, and fructose are sweet examples of, for the point, what macromolecule making up most of bread?
carbohydrates (or sugars; accept polysaccharides; accept monosaccarides; anti-prompt on "glucose" with "Can you be less specific?")
3) The largest molecule known to exhibit wave-particle duality contains 60 atoms of this element. An allotrope of this element with a hexagonal lattice first found in meteorites is called lonsdaleite. Another allotrope of this element comes in "single-walled" and "multiwalled" forms; those are their namesake "nanotubes." Graphite, graphene, and diamond are all made of this element. For the point, name this element that forms the basis of organic chemistry, symbolized C.
carbon (prompt on C, accept buckminsterfullerene or buckyball in the first line]
12) The concentration of this compound in the atmosphere is plotted on the Keeling curve. When this gas is dissolved, it forms the compound responsible for ocean acidification. Along with oxygen gas, this is the only compound formed in a complete combustion. This compound is produced during respiration. For the point, name this compound that is exhaled during breathing and whose formula is CO2.
carbon dioxide (accept CO2 before mention)
17) By the Haldane effect, hemoglobin carries this molecule more readily in low presence of oxygen. The concentrations of this molecule have been measured at Mauna Loa Observatory since 1958 and plotted on the Keeling Curve. Water and this molecule in supercritical form are one way of extracting caffeine from coffee beans. The solid form of this molecule is dry ice. For the point, name this linear molecule, the most significant greenhouse gas which is produced alongside water in combustion reactions.
carbon dioxide (accept CO2)
9) The longest year by year record of concentrations of this molecule in the middle troposphere is plotted on the Keeling curve. In the atmosphere, this molecule is the major contributor to an effect where the sun's rays are absorbed by the atmosphere rather than reflecting back out into space. The majority of greenhouse emissions are caused by, for the point, what molecule referred to as "dry ice" in solid form?
carbon dioxide (accept CO2)
5. Mazuku are pockets or layers of this gas that collect in low-lying areas, often killing vegetation or unlucky humans. A limnic eruption can release this gas into the atmosphere, perhaps having concentrated from the decomposition of organic matter. Degassing is the primary contributor of this compound into the atmosphere from the mantle. Ash and aerosols released from volcanoes along with this gas can often cancel its infamous atmospheric heating effects. For the point, name this greenhouse gas released from volcanoes at a rate of about half a billion metric tons each year.
carbon dioxide [accept CO2 ]
24) After hydrogen, this is the most abundant compound in the universe. This compound reacts with water in a shift reaction. A mixture of this gas with hydrogen gas is called synthesis gas. It is formed alongside with water in an incomplete combustion reaction. This gas causes oxygen deprivation due to its strong affinity for hemoglobin. For the point, name this poisonous gas with formula CO.
carbon monoxide (accept CO before mention)
22. The lack of terrestrial or aquatic fossils spanning the beginning of this period followed by the transition from placoderms to ray-finned fish is known as Romer's Gap. During this period, predatory predecessors to the modern-day dragonfly with a 2 foot wingspan were thriving. Tree fern based ecosystems dominated following the Rainforest collapse of this period which divided into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods.For the point, name this geological period that followed the Devonian period, during which global formation of coal beds occurred.
carboniferous period
22. The lack of terrestrial or aquatic fossils spanning the beginning of this period followed by the transition from placoderms to ray-finned fish is known as Romer's Gap. During this period, predatory predecessors to the modern-day dragonfly with a 2 foot wingspan were thriving. Tree fern based ecosystems dominated following the Rainforest collapse of this period which divided into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods.For the point, name this geological period that followed the Devonian period, during which global formation of coal beds occurred.
carboniferous period
Platinum and palladium serve as this type of substance in a converter that scrubs car exhaust for pollutants. These substances make it easier to reach the transition state by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. Enzymes are biological examples of these substances. For the point, give this term for a substance that takes part in a chemical reaction, often making it proceed more quickly, but that is not consumed by the reaction.
catalyst
2) One of these substances named for Robert Grubbs containing ruthenium is used in olefin metathesis. Fuel cell membranes use plastic black as one of these substances. Toxic emissions from cars can be reduced using a "converter" named for these substances. These substances do not affect chemical equilibrium and are not consumed during a reaction, but they do lower the activation energy. For the point, name these substances that increase the rate of reactions.
catalysts
29) Lindlar names a compound of this type that is "poisoned." A convertor named for this class of compounds reduces the toxicity exhaust gases in a vehicle. They are heterogenous in a different phase than the reaction. This class of compounds lower a reaction's activation energy, but are not themselves consumed in the reaction. For the point, this class of compounds that accelerate the speed of a reaction.
catalysts
5) The speed of these substances can be measured by their turnover number, and they are "homogeneous" if they are in the same phase as the reactants. Iron serves as one of these substances in the Haber-Bosch process. Enzymes are biological examples of these compounds that lower activation energy of a reaction. For the point, name these compounds that speed up a reaction without being consumed.
catalysts (prompt on enzymes before it is read)
22) These structures can form out of demineralized pockets known as incipient lesions. It's not trauma-related, but gutta percha and a crown are used in a surgery to fill a deep one of these structures. An untreated one of these structures can require root canal surgery. Build up of plaque can cause the formation of these structures in the enamel. For the point, name these holes that form from tooth decay that dentists fill.
cavity (accept cavities; accept dental caries; prompt on "tooth decay"; prompt on "holes" in the teeth)
31. GPCRs pass through this structure 7 times. The protein whose mutation causes cystic fibrosis is found within this structure. This structure can be described using the fluid mosaic model. Embedded in this structure include proteins called aquaporins. In plant cells a similarly named wall made up of mainly cellulose surrounds this structure. For the point, name this phospholipid bilayer that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
cell membrane (accept plasma membrane; prompt on "membrane")
1) Components of this structure can be moved around more readily with flippases and scrambelases. An imbalance of phosphatidyl [phos - fa - tiddle] serine in this structure is an "eat me" signal for macrophages. S.J Singer and G.L Nicolson described this structure as a "two-dimensional liquid" that allows lipid rafts and receptors to move around; that is the fluid mosaic model of this structure. For the point, name this portion of the cell made up of proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer, which functions to separate the cell from its environment.
cell membrane (accept plasma membrane; prompt on membrane; prompt on phospholipid bilayer)
24) The endoplasmic reticulum uses translocons to synthesize proteins that will be placed across this structure. The motility of this structure is controlled by cholesterol and fatty acid tail length. This structure is described by the "fluid-mosaic" model and consists of proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer. For the point, name this semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cell's cytoplasm.
cell membrane (prompt on phospholipid bilayer; do not accept or prompt on cell wall)
19) Apoplastic transport occurs within this structure. A middle lamella can be found between two of these structures. Beta-lactam antibiotics inhibit the synthesis of this structure. Gram staining distinguishes between different thicknesses of these structures in bacteria. This structure is found in plant and bacterial cells but not animal cells. For the point, name this rigid structure that surrounds cells and is made of cellulose in plants.
cell wall
21) Gaps in this structure are called plasmodesmata. Bacteria have peptidoglycan in this structure, and in fungi it is composed of chitin. Cellulose is the main protein that makes up this tough structure in plants which gives them their rigidity. For the point, name this structure that surrounds the cell membrane that is not found in animal cells.
cell wall (do not accept or prompt on cell membrane)
15) This computer component uses registers to quickly access data. They can be overclocked to yield additional performance. Parallel programming allows several of these components to work on a problem at a time using multi-threading. Modern ones are "micro" and fit on a single integrated chip. For the point, name this computer component that commonly goes by a three-letter abbreviation, responsible for carrying out instructions.
central processor (accept central processing unit or CPU; accept microprocessor; accept main processor)
13) Theodor Svedberg's 'ultra' type of this device allowed him to study the structure of colloidal proteins. One of these devices named for Zippe is used to purify uranium-235 gas for use in nuclear reactors. One of these devices is used in medical laboratories to run hematocrit tests, which determine the proportion of blood volume made of red blood cells. Human-scale versions of, for the point, what devices are used to train astronauts by rapidly rotating to simulate strong g forces?
centrifuges (accept ultracentrifuge until "Zippe")
1) In the process of making one type of this food, Proprionibacterium freudenreichii is used to generate carbon dioxide. An enzyme called rennet is used in the production of this food, though rennet's derivation from ruminant stomachs is troubling for many vegetarians. Molds may be purposefully added to some varieties of this food for flavor and ripening. The primary component of this food is the protein casein, which coagulates and separates from the liquid whey in the presence of lactic acid. For the point, name this food made from the curds of milk.
cheese (accept Swiss cheese before "molds")
4) The constant named for this state is calculated with the law of mass action and is denoted with a capital K. Le Chatelier's principle describes how this state can shift due to addition of product or reactant. This state describes a reaction whose forward and reverse rates are equal. For the point, name this general term describing a system that is balanced.
chemical equilibrium
Le Chˆatelier's principle describes what happens when systems in this situation are disrupted. In this situation, the Gibbs free energy is minimized. This situation is characterized by a value known as Keq ["K sub E Q"]. This situation is typically dynamic rather than static, with forward and reverse reaction rates being equal. For the point, name this situation in which the concentrations of reactants and products do not change.
chemical equilibrium (14
12. Typically, a compound containing aluminum and this element form the strong Lewis acid used in the Friedel-Crafts reactions. Oxygen and four moles of this element's acid react to form two moles of water and two moles of this element's dimer in the Deacon process. A common NMR solvent using a solvent containing four atoms of this element bound to a central carbon atom was banned by the Montreal Protocol. This element reacts less violently than the element above it on the periodic table, but is less selective than bromine when used in halogenation reactions. Nitric acid and this element's acid are used to make "aqua regia." For the point, name this element that forms an ionic bond with sodium to make table salt.
chlorine
27) This element bonds to oxygen and sodium in bleach. Its diatomic form is a yellow gas, which was the first gas used in chemical warfare in World War I. This halogen is below fluorine and above bromine on the periodic table. It is often used to clean swimming pools and its ion is bound to sodium in table salt. For the point, name this element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl.
chlorine (accept Cl before it is read)
21) This element was originally produced in the Deacon process. This is the element with the highest electron affinity. Mercury bonds with this element in a two to two ratio, rather than a one to one ratio as expected. This element's ion is used to disinfect swimming pools and with sodium it forms common table salt. For the point, name this element with chemical symbol Cl.
chlorine (accept chloride; prompt on Cl before mention)
Rather than requiring cell walls, animal cells rely on this substance to maintain the fluidity and structure of cell membranes. Atherosclerosis, a thickening of vascular tissue, is caused by buildup of this molecule, which is transported by both high- and low-density lipoproteins. For the point, name this waxy steroid that moves through blood in the aforementioned HDL and LDL, commonly called the "good" and "bad" kinds of this substance.
cholesterol
2) These five letters begin the number that describes the total number of colors needed for a graph such that no two adjacent vertices share the same color. The main additive in stainless steel to iron is an element that begins with these five letters. These five letters begin element number 24. For the point, name these five letters that begin a web browser produced by Google and "osomes" of DNA.
chrom (accept chromium; accept chromatic number; accept chromosomes; accept chrome)
8. In one type of this process, the Van Deemter equation relates factors involved in band broadening to the height equivalent to a theoretical plate. This technique's results are often visualized with iodine vapors or ultraviolet light. Silica gel is used as a stationary phase in the "thin-layer" type of this process, whose retention factor measures the ratio between distance traveled by the sample and distance traveled by the solvent. For the point, what chemical process is used to separate mixtures?
chromatography
Molecular weight and a namesake quantity are central to the "size-exclusion" type of this technique. The retention factor relates the amount of time that the central solution of this technique is spent in its mobile and stationary phases, the latter of which is typically a silica gel. There are column and gas types of this technique, which can purify a mixture or simply study its components. For the point, name this class of techniques that separate a mixture, often done in school labs with ink through paper.
chromatography (accept additional information, like size-exclusion chromatography, etc.
This technique is often performed with a column packed with silica. This technique was first used by botanist Mikhail Tsvet to analyze plant pigments. The distance that spots travel in this technique is based on how similar in polarity they are to a mobile and a stationary phase. A common setup for this experiment uses a piece of paper suspended above a solvent, which can be used to demonstrate whether an ink is made of one or more dyes. For the point, name this separation technique named for the fact that it commonly separates mixtures of colors.
chromatography (accept column chromatography; accept paper chromatography
19) For this technique, ThermoFisher offers instruments that are customized for its HPLC and hydrophilic interaction variants. The gas form of this technique has higher retention times when the liquid and analyte have similar polarities. In the setup to one form of this technique, the bottom of the stationary phase is placed in water for a period of time. Colors of ink can be separated using, for the point, what technique used for separating mixtures?
chromatography (accept more specific answers like high performance liquid chromatography; gas chromatography; thin-film chromatography; column chromatography; or paper chromatography)
18) Lyonization can convert one form of these structures into a Barr body. To avoid death, cancer cells extend the ends of these structures, which are called telomeres. Spindle fibers bind to centromeres on these structures to pull them apart during anaphase. A karyotype can visualize the 23 pairs of these structures found in human cells. Males have one X and one Y form of, for the point, what genetic structures which contain packaged DNA?
chromosomes (accept X chromosome; accept Y chromosome)
Telomerase lengthens the ends of these structures. Aneuploidy is the state of having an abnormal number of these structures, which are displayed in a karyotype. Down's syndrome is caused by the presence of a third copy of one of the 21st of these structures. Human cells have forty-six of, for the point, what structures, found in the nucleus, which contain an organism's DNA and whose subtypes include X and Y?
chromosomes (accept specific chromosomes before "Down's syndrome" is read; after that, accept chromosome 21
25) Wladimir ["Vladimir"] K¨oppen [KUR-pen] developed a classification scheme for these systems that splits them into five groups. Rising CO2 levels have caused a greenhouse effect which cause a namesake change in these systems, a phenomenon synonymous with "global warming." For the point, name this seven-letter word that defines the general weather patterns of a particular region.
climate
29) Due to this phenomenon, ocean levels have risen 0.3 centimeters per year over the last twenty years. Though this phenomenon has recently accelerated, it has been occurring for the last 25,000 years. The greenhouse effect causes this phenomenon by trapping carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. For the point, name this phenomenon in which the Earth's temperature is rising over time.
climate change (or global warming)
Edmund Denison created his double three-legged gravity escapement while constructing one of these objects. Isma'il al-Jazari invented an "elephant" one of these devices. The Greeks used a version of these items called clepsydra. Christiaan Huygens' [hoy-gens] version of this type of device used pendulums. The National Institute of Standards and Technology uses cesium to control an atomic one of these devices. For the point, name these timekeeping instruments.
clocks (accept water clock; accept elephant clock; accept castle clock; accept atomic clock
9) Kurt Vonnegut's brother Bernard received a patent for this process in 1975, which may have inspired elements of the novel Cat's Cradle. "Make mud, not war" was the slogan for Operation Popeye, which enacted this process over Vietnam. Silver iodide is the most common chemical used during this process, though dry ice and salt can also be effective nuclei. For the point, name this controversial process in which small particles are dropped into the sky to stimulate condensation.
cloud seeding
12) These objects can be placed into three principal categories based on work by Luke Howard, who developed the common Latin nomenclature used to describe them. Types of these objects include lenticular, nacreous, and contrails. Common classifications include cirrus, stratus, or cumulus. For the point, name these puffs of air and water vapor which form in the sky
clouds
17) Iridescent PSCs are known as "nacreous" types of these objects. A cellular "mammatus" type of these objects may form with anvil shaped ones. Silver iodide and dry ice are used to "seed" these objects with their namesake "condensation nuclei." Jet engine exhaust can produce artificial types of these objects called contrails. Classifications of these objects include cirrus, stratus, and cumulus. For the point, name these fluffy-looking objects in the sky made of water.
clouds
29. The lenticular type of these objects are created by waves of air rising along mountainsides. These objects are named by combining words for five forms, defined by convection patterns, with prefixes for three altitude-based levels. These objects can be created by humans using silver iodide in a process known as "seeding," or they can be created by water vapor released by factories, power plants, or airplanes. For the point, name these objects in the sky which are collections of condensed water droplets.
clouds
10) Hilt's law relates the quality of this substance to the depth at which it is found. This substance's bituminous form can be processed into coke, while impurities may remain in the lignite form. This substance led to the naming of the Carboniferous period, as much of it was generated by the decomposition of forests during that period. Miners of this substance often contracted black lung from the inhalation of this substance's dust. For the point, name this solid fossil fuel often burned in early steam engines.
coal
5) Forty-five percent purity is the cutoff between this substance's sub-bituminous [sub-bitTOO-muhNIS] and bituminous [bit-TOO-muhNIS] types. One method of cleaning this substance is called molten-caustic leaching and removes harmful impurities like sulfur. Peat is a common precursor to this substance, types of which include lignite and anthracite. For the point, name this carbon-containing black rock used as a fossil fuel.
coal
15) While a prisoner of war, John Edmund Kerrich ran an experiment where he performed this action 2000 times and showed it follows a random walk around 0.5. Perci Diaconi claimed to prove this discrete random event with two outcomes is 1% more biased to the side facing up at the start of this action. For the point, name this action, a textbook example of a 50-50 event because, in theory, heads and tails are equally likely.
coin flip (coin tossing; accept specific coins or synonyms for toss like throw)
34. A Texas Norther is one of these phenomena which moves very quickly and appears ominous. These phenomena often follow squall lines, and they generally move from northwest to southeast in the U.S. Along this type of weather front, denser air lifts less-dense air, resulting in cloud formation and a following low-pressure zone. When this type of front overtakes another type, the result is called an occluded front. For the point, name this type of weather front, drawn using blue triangles, that is often followed by rain or storms.
cold front [accept just cold once "front" is read; prompt on front before "front" is read]
2) Hydroxy-lysine and hydroxy-proline are key amino acids in the structure of this protein. Vitamin C is a cofactor for the synthesis of this protein which has a glycine at every third residue, causing it to form three left handed helices that wind up into one tensile triple helix. Mutations in the production of this protein can cause Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, characterized by loose joints and stretchy skin. This protein is hydrolyzed to make gelatin. For the point, name this most common protein in the human body, found in connective tissue and cartilage.
collagen
29. The rate at which these systems are stabilized is directly proportional to the valence of oppositely-charged ions, according to Schulze-Hardy rule. These systems, which are studied by the DLVO theory, include an inner Stern layer and an outer slipping plane, where zeta potential is measured. Particles in these systems come together in flocculation, and these systems scatter light in the Tyndall effect. For the point, particles are dispersed in another in what systems that include aerosols and milk?
colloids
30. In 2016, Ma. et. al. outlined methods for extracting compounds that give off this property when it naturally occurs in silk, identifying it in compounds like all trans-lutein in NCS samples. Granulocytes in mast cells were discovered after they obtained this property from TBO. Back in 1855, before discovering his "magic bullet" to treat syphilis, Paul Ehrlich wrote an monograph on using alizarin and indophenol to give a cell this attribute in areas of high oxygen saturation. Paul Ehrlich also found a methylene compound that attributes this property to bacteria, which is used along with bromothymol and phenolphthalein in some titration techniques. For the point, name this property of staining reagents and dyes which helps with visualizing samples.
color [accept pigmentation; or pigments; BEFORE MENTIONED： accept dyes; accept stains; anti-prompt on blue, yellow, or pink "Can you be less specific?" ]
4. When preceded by the word "linear," this term describes an expression produced by adding together terms with constant coefficients. The calculations for the total number of possible lottery tickets or possible poker hands follow this type of calculation, whose formula involves three factorial signs and is often described as "n choose k." For the point, give this mathematical term for a selection of objects without care for their order, unlike a permutation.
combination (accept binomial coefficients; prompt on "choose" or "n choose k" before mentioned)
25) Hiram Moore's 1834 version of this machine needed to be pulled by an animal team, and a later development saw the use of a steam engine powered by burning the straw leftover by the use of this machine. Such straw was often pulverized by the rotary version of these devices, such as the Axial Flow model from International Harvester. The grain platform can be changed to a more specialized header in these machines to cut crops such as wheat and corn. For the point, name this agricultural machine that winnows, threshes, and reaps, all in one pass through a field.
combine harvester
2) In one competition at the World Games, competitors find control points using the "thumb" and "protractor" varieties of this device. This device works using a magnet's tendency to align with the Earth's magnetic field. For the point, name this device that helps explorers determine which direction is north.
compass (accept thumb compass; accept protractor compass; accept magnetic compass)
11) A visitor pattern is used by walkers and changers in these computer programs. The "just-in-time" variety of these computer programs often relies on a virtual machine which can execute bytecode. These programs begin by scanning tokens to create an intermediate representation, which is then optimized before this program turns an input into machine-readable binary code. For the point, name this type of computer program that translates between programming languages, such as Clang, LLVM, or GCC.
compilers
2) Terry Welch improved on one method of this process by taking advantage of high-usage patterns organized around a translation table or extended dictionary. This process is the subject of four algorithms developed by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv. Huffman coding is one method of performing the lossless variant of this process. The extensions .rar [dot "rawr"] and .zip [dot zip] are used for files that have undergone this process. For the point, name this process of decreasing the amount of storage space needed for a file.
compression (accept lossless compression; prompt on LZW; prompt on Lempel-Ziv-Welch)
37. Translation lookaside buffers link virtual and physical forms of this entity. In C, the "malloc" command dynamically allocates this, while "free" releases it. Mismanaging this entity can lead to segmentation faults. External sources of this include floppy disks and USB drives, while two major internal ones are "read only" and "random access". The ROM and RAM of a computer are example of, for the point, what information of a computer?
computer memory [or storage, prompt on "space"]
In a 1968 letter lamenting the difficulty of working with some of these things, Edgar Dijkstra bashed the GOTO statement, instead preferring the development of structures like subroutines and "for" loops. Procedural examples of these things include COBOL and BASIC, while object-oriented ones include Ruby. For the point, name these invented systems that formalize the process of giving instructions, or source code, to a computer, such as C++ [C plus plus].
computer programming languages (or computer languages; accept descriptions of computer source code before mentioned
14) These devices control the flow of operation with a "kernel." John Von Neumann names an architecture for these devices. These devices whose invention was theorized by Charles Babbage use registers to perform quick computations. RAM is used on these devices to store bits in memory. Linux and Windows are two operating systems for these devices. For the point, name these devices that can run programs which can be written using a keyboard.
computers (accept operating system; accept equivalents like laptop)
1) This process shares its name with a class of reactions also called dehydration synthesis. Reflux is a chemical technique that repeatedly performs this process. When this process involves dust, snow can form, while the opposite of this process is vaporization. This process occurs below the dew point and is responsible for foggy windshields. For the point, name this process in which a gas turns into a liquid.
condensation
Radiation is detected in a cloud chamber when this process occurs around the ions in the supersaturated environment. Clouds form via this phase change, as does fog when air cools to the dew point. The white trails left behind by jets, called contrails, are formed when exhausted water vapor undergoes this process. Evaporation is reversed by, for the point, what phase change that occurs when a gas changes into a liquid, as seen on the outside of a glass of ice water on a hot day?
condensation (accept word forms
1) Basement rocks, shields and platform varieties of cratons make up the core of these structures. In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed these structures have "drifted" across ocean beds. The "super" variety of these structures include Pangaea, which split into the modern variety of these land masses. For the point, name these giant land masses, examples of which include Asia and North America.
continents (accept continetnal drift; accept continental crust; prompt on "crust"; prompt on tectonic "plate"s; prompt on "lithosphere"; prompt on "craton" before mentioned)
25. A cycloaddition reaction that is the hallmark of click chemistry is catalyzed by this metal, which reversibly binds oxygen in hemocyanin. A red-colored compound containing this metal precipitates out of solution when reducing sugars are detected in Benedict's test. Bronze is an alloy made of tin and this element. This element is the lightest one to borrow an electron from the 4s orbital in order to completely fill the 3d orbital. For the point, name this transition metal with symbol Cu.
copper
17. One proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers uses the fact that any two Fermat numbers have this property. An integer a has a multiplicative inverse modulo n when a and n have this property, and the number of integers with this property is counted by Euler's totient function. The least common multiple of two numbers with this property is their product. For the point, identify this property in which two integers share no common prime factors.
coprime or relatively prime (do not prompt on or accept "prime")
29. Thermal-stress events can cause Symbiodinium to disassociate from these organisms or lose their chlorophyll. Zooxanthellae are dinoflagellates that preferentially interact with these organisms. Charles Darwin's first monograph discusses the structure and distribution of these organisms' habitats. Some stony members of these anthozoans use calcium carbonate to strengthen their colonies which are subject to threat from ocean acidification resulting in these organisms' namesake bleaching. For the point, name these marine polyp invertebrates which live in reefs like the Great Barrier Reef.
coral
27) In these ecosystems, single-celled dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae [ZOO-zan-thuh-LAY] live in symbiosis with Anthozoans. Atolls are a type of these ecosystems, and there is also a "fringing" type. Bleaching of these ecosystems causes organisms in them to lose color. Global warming is negatively impacting these systems because they are composed of calcium carbonate. For the point, name these marine ecosystems exemplified by the Australian Great Barrier one.
coral reefs
2. Twisted magnetic flux causes this region's namesake loops, which have been analyzed by NASA's TRACE observatory. Heavily-ionized iron explains this region's unique spectral lines, which were initially attributed to an element named for this region. This region's "streamer belt" is the origin for the slow form of a certain phenomenon, whose fast form is emitted from places of open magnetic field lines, called this region's "holes." Solar wind interacts with mass ejections of plasma that are released from this region. For the point, name this extremely hot, outermost layer of the Sun.
corona
24. This theory explains how parts of the universe that are not in causal contact can generally be in thermal equilibrium. This theory, which was first put forth by Andrei Linde and Alan Guth, explains the absence of magnetic monopoles, the horizon problem, and the smoothness of the cosmic microwave background radiation. For the point, name this theory which said that right after the big bang, the universe expanded very quickly.
cosmic inflation
25) The sulfurs in two cysteine residues can form this type of structure in protein folding. Direct overlap between orbitals creates the sigma type of this structure. Four dots between two atoms in Lewis dot notation represents this sort of bond. Carbon can make four bonds of this type. In this type of bond, electron pairs are shared between two atoms. For the point, name this type of bond contrasted with ionic bonds.
covalent bond (accept molecular bond; accept covalence; accept disulfide bond; prompt on bond)
16) One subject of this field of study, Mokele-mbembe, has been used to explain the lack of hippos in Lake Bangweulu. The now defunct International Society of this field used the okapi as its emblem. The surgeon's photograph and Patterson film were once considered key evidence in this field, whose researchers were embarrassed when the Mongolian death worm was proven to be a common sand snake. For the point, name this pseudoscience which seeks to prove the existence of creatures like Bigfoot and the Loch Ness Monster.
cryptozoology (prompt on zoology; prompt on folklore before "okapi")
This type of object can be classified in monoclinic and triclinic systems, which have very few symmetries. Face-centered cubic is another system for the arrangement of these non-amorphous solids. The somewhat-contradictory liquid type of these materials is often used in electronics displays. For the point, give this term for a solid that is regularly arranged at the microscopic level or, as in snowflakes, a larger level.
crystalline solids (accept liquid crystal or LCD after "liquid" is read
9) Pannus, or scud clouds, may appear underneath this type of cloud. Arcus clouds serve as accessories to this type of cloud. These clouds form as convection continues to expand a congestus cloud, where wind shear near the tropopause can give them their characteristic anvil-like tops. The maximum parcel level is reached in some of these types of clouds, creating a dome-like "overshooting top." For the point, name these large and menacing clouds that may develop into thunderstorms.
cumulonimbus clouds
1) A displacement form of this quantity was introduced by James Clerk Maxwell as a modification to Ampere's Law. An enclosed circulation of a non-zero amount of this quantity forms a magnetic dipole. Electrical engineers represent the imaginary constant with j instead of i because i is already used for this quantity. This quantity is equal to voltage over resistance, according to Ohm's Law. For the point, name this quantity reported in amperes, a measure of how fast charge carriers flow through a circuit.
current (or displacement current)
19) A phenylalanine residue is deleted in the Delta-F508 mutation causing this disorder. In infants, this condition is diagnosed via a bowel obstruction called meconium ileus. Pilocarpine is drawn under the skin to screen for this disorder in a sweat test. This autosomal recessive genetic condition occurs when a mutated CFTR protein cannot transport chloride ions, leading to thick mucus buildup in the lungs. For ten points, name this disorder abbreviated CF.
cystic fibrosis (accept CF before it is read)
Glycolysis occurs in this part of a cell. A tonoplast separates a vacuole's outer layer with this substance and can be used to maintain a cell's acidity. Calcium moves through this substance in order to perform cellular signaling. A cell's organelles are found suspended in this substance, which is mostly made up of water. For the point, name this gel-like substance that fills a cell.
cytoplasm
23. The maximum k for which a k-core exists in a graph denotes the k-[this property] of a graph and encodes how sparse it is. In mathematical biology, this word refers to overlap between promoter sites. Semiconductors described by this adjective are so heavily doped that they begin to behave like metals. Matter described by this adjective can be modelled as an ideal Fermi gas and occurs in astrophysics problems due to gravitational pressure causing quantum mechanical effects. In molecular biology, codons have this property if they encode for the same amino acid. Two different quantum states are said to have this property if they give the same energy level upon measurement. For the point, name this concept that refers to overlap in states leading to simplification or to deterioration over time.
degeneracy [accept word forms like degenerate or degeneration]
24) In statistics, the phrase "of freedom" may follow this word to describe the number of data points that may vary in a set of data. For a given polynomial, this word is used to classify the polynomial by the highest exponent on its variables, such as quadratic or cubic. The unit with this name is equivalent to pi over 180 radians in trigonometry. For the point, give this word which is commonly used in math for a unit used to measure an angle, of which there are 360 in a full circle.
degrees
8) Asymmetric elongated protrusions called yardangs form in these biomes. Sailing stones may trace tracks in playas of this biome. Geologic features in these ecosystems include ergs and their namesake "pavement." These biomes are often found near mountains because they can be created by the rain-shadow effect. For the point, name these dry biomes that generally contain lots of sand, exemplified by the Sahara.
deserts
20. In 1933 and 1934, this substance was the basis for over 20 papers Gilbert Lewis published on its isolation and use in synthesis. Harold C. Urey won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of this substance through the distillation of liquid hydrogen. This substance's breakeven point with Helium-3 makes Helium-3 a reactant with one of the highest energy yield rates. Graphite, light water, and this isotope's oxide are used as moderators to mitigate the velocity of fast neutrons in uranium nuclear reactors. This is the lightest non-exotic isotope. Heavy water consists of two instances of this isotope connected to oxygen. For the point, name this non tritium isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons.
deuterium [accept D2; accept deuterium gas; accept deuterium oxide]
1. Potential therapeutics for maculopathy due to this disease include an anti-VEGF injection into the eye to treat the symptomatic blindness that results due to swollen vessels. This disease is diagnosed with a hemoglobin A1c test. Along with polycystic ovary syndrome, metformin is commonly prescribed as a treatment to this disease. The leading cause of blindness in young adults is this disease's retinopathy. One form of this disease occurs due to destruction of the Islets of Langerhans. For the point, name this disease caused due to insulin resistance or a lack of insulin production, which requires monitoring of blood sugar levels.
diabetes
1. This disease is diagnosed with a hemoglobin A1c test. Along with polycystic ovary syndrome, metformin is commonly prescribed as a treatment to this disease. The leading cause of blindness in young adults is this disease's retinopathy. One form of this disease occurs due to destruction of the Islets of Langerhans. For the point, name this disease caused due to insulin resistance or a lack of insulin production, which requires monitoring of blood sugar levels.
diabetes
21) Kussmaul breathing can indicate a complication of this condition in which harmful keto-acids accumulate in the bloodstream. In one form of this disorder, GLUT4 transporters do not respond to a hormone secreted from the Islets of Langerhans. Its "Type 1" or "juvenile" form occurs when beta cells in the pancreas cannot secrete insulin, leading to hyperglycemia. For the point, name this disorder marked by high blood sugar levels.
diabetes (accept diabetes mellitus; accept Type 1 diabetes; accept Type 2 diabetes; accept diabetic ketoacidosis)
One treatment for this disease is the drug Metformin. Not treating this disease is the primary cause of the production of ketone bodies. A treatment for this disease using a certain protein from the beta cells of the islets in the pancreas won Frederick Banting and Charles Best a Nobel Prize. The adult onset form of this disease, its "Type 2," involves resistance to insulin. For the point, name this disease in which patients suffer from high levels of blood sugar.
diabetes mellitus (accept Type 2 diabetes; accept Type 1 diabetes after "ketone" is read
Carbonado is a black, non-gemstone form of this mineral. Chemical vapor deposition is used to generate this mineral, and nano-sized specimens are formed in lab-controlled explosions. A type of igneous rock discovered in volcanic pipes in South America, kimberlite, is a common source of this mineral. This allotrope of carbon is capable of scratching corundum, according to its placement on the Mohs scale of hardness at rank 10. For the point, name this mineral, the hardest naturally-occurring mineral.
diamond
26. To perform this operation on expressions like "the square root of the sine of x," the chain rule must be applied; in doing so, it's helpful to know that this operation on sine gives cosine. Performing this operation on a constant value c gives zero, because the graph of y equals c is a horizontal line whose slope is zero. For the point, name this operation, the inverse operation of integration, a primary tool used in calculus.
differentiation (or finding the derivative; accept word forms and equivalents)
This phenomenon's occurrence at the edge of a half-plane can be depicted with a Cornu spiral. One technique for determining crystalline structure involves observing X-ray beams undergoing this process. Fresnel names a type of this phenomenon. It explains why one's shadow becomes more definitely outlined when the person is closer to it. For the point, name this phenomenon in which light bends around an obstacle.
diffraction
6. Uranium hexafluoride is enriched through a variant of this process, whose namesake coefficient is related to mobility, Boltzmann's constant, and temperature in the Einstein Relation. The rate of this process in gases is inversely proportional to the square root of their molar masses, according to Graham's Law. Fick's Law uses a concentration gradient to explain this process. For the point, particles move from areas of high concentrations to those of low concentrations in what process?
diffusion
19) The ratio of the rate of this process for two different gases is equal to the square root of their molar masses, according to Graham's Law of [this process]. William Sutherland derived a result commonly named for Einstein where a coefficient of this process is equal to "mobility times Boltzmann's constant times absolute temperature"; that coefficient first appeared in Adolf Fick's 1855 treatment of this process. Water undergoes osmosis, a special case of this form of passive transport. For the point, name this process of particles moving from high concentrations to low concentrations.
diffusion (accept effusion - a special case of diffusion described by Graham's Law)
3) The Einstein-Smoluchowski equation describes this behavior. The rate of this process is related to molar mass in Graham's law. The flux of this process is proportional to the gradient of phi by Fick's first law. When water undergoes this process due to a semipermeable membrane, it is called osmosis. For the point, name this process in which particles move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.
diffusion (accept osmosis before mentioned, accept effusion)
26) Chyme is an acidic material produced during this process whose pH is neutralized after the release of the CCK hormone in the duodenum. A crop is a specialized organ used for this process in some birds and insects, primarily for storage. Bile from the liver and lipase from the pancreas help to break down fats during this process, while pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids. For the point, name this process of obtaining nutrients from food via organs like the esophagus and stomach.
digestion (accept word forms)
12. The University of Liverpool promoted the use of a "snout-nosed pig" adapter that has three rotatable receiver flasks attached to Perkin's triangle for the vacuum form of this process. It's not related to chromatography, but one of the most common uses of calculating theoretical plates is for this process to increase its efficiency. A solution of 96% water and 4% ethanol forms when performing this process on ethanol, which cannot be extracted further as the solution is azeotropic. For the point, name this process of separating two liquids by raising temperature to a boiling point.
distillation
An episode of Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal showed amazement that this behavior is lost when every term with a nine is removed from the harmonic series, which normally has this behavior. This behavior is not exhibited by the series 1 plus one-half plus one-fourth, and so on, because that infinite series adds up to 2. For the point, name this infinite behavior in which a series does not converge to a single sum.
divergence (accept word forms and descriptions like divergent series
12) One form of this interaction can be detected using the bromine test. This interaction contains one sigma and one pi bond. Alkenes are characterized by having this type of interaction, while saturated compounds do not have this interaction. The carbon atom in carbon dioxide has two bonds of this type with both oxygen atoms. For the point, name this covalent bond in which four electrons are shared, contrasted with single and triple.
double bond
25) Oneirology is the scientific study of these phenomena. Composites known as interobjects may appear during these phenomena. One theory proposes that these phenomena help to process and 'clean up' memory. The lucid type of this phenomenon is under some active control of the person experiencing it. The interpretation of these phenomena was a major subject of study for Sigmund Freud. For the point, name this phenomenon in which a person experiences visions and other sensations, typically during REM sleep.
dreams
One of these events is said to have caused an increased presence of microcystin in the seawater shellfish of California. The hydrological type of these events has affected the Aral Sea. Slash-and-burn agriculture can worsen the effects of these periods. Plants with waxy surfaces are able to tolerate these periods, which, in Australia, can lead to bushfires. For the point, name these periods marked by lack of precipitation.
droughts
9.This animal counteracts microbacterial transfer to its infants with a protein called MLP whose crystal structure has an unusually dense amount of loops. These mammals share a sex classification system similar to avian ZW chromosome classification which is accomplished with five X and Y chromosomes. The male members of these animals have venom glands on their hind legs which do not fully develop in females. Captain John Hunter first discovered this mammal and sent sketches to naturalist George Shaw. Shaw believed this mammal could be a "deceptive preparation by artificial means." This animal, scientifically known as Ornithorhynchus anatinus, has according to one scientist "the perfect resemblance of the beak of a Duck engrafted on the head of a quadruped." For the point, name this monotreme, endemic to Eastern Australia, with an iconic duckbill.
duck-billed platypus [UNTIL MENTIONED: accept Ornithorhynchus antanius]
23) A fast spinning example of an object with this status is Haumea. Another object that was previously classified under this status was Vesta. Objects with this status have not cleared their orbit, but must be spherical in shape. Examples of objects with this classification include Eris and Ceres. Pluto was downgraded to, ftp what status, named for being smaller than being a planet?
dwarf planets
13) The derivative of this number to the x power is still this number to the x power. This value is the base of the exponential term used to calculate continuously compounding interest. This value raised to the product of pi and i equals -1, and it is approximated as 2.718. For the point, name this number, the base of the natural logarithm.
e (accept Euler's constant)
33. This value is the sum of the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine of 1 radian. Summing the reciprocals of the factorials, starting at 0, approaches this value, and the expression "1 plus 1 over x, all raised to the x power" approaches this value as x approaches infinity. This value is the base of an exponential term in an identity named for the same Swiss mathematician. For the point, name this irrational number, approximately equal to 2.718, that is the base of the natural logarithm.
e (accept Euler's number before his name is mentioned)
This quantity is equal to the sum of the hyperbolic sine of 1 and the hyperbolic cosine of 1. This number is the base of the exponent in the formula for continuously-compounded interest, and it is the base of the natural logarithm. The letter that represents this number was chosen to honor the man who showed it to be irrational, Leonhard Euler [oiler]. For the point, name this number approximately equal to 2.718.
e (accept Euler's number or Euler's constant before his name is said
6) Part of this organ is underdeveloped in microtia. In another part of this organ, the organ of Corti sits on top of the basilar membrane, picking up stimulus from hair cells. This organ's outer portion is the pinna, while across the typanum, it has three of the smallest bones in the human body: the males, the incus and the stapes. For the point, name this organ that controls hearing.
ears (accept inner/middle/outer ear; accept pinna before mentioned; prompt on "cochlea")
15. The primary signal of these events cannot be detected between 104 and 140 degrees due to refraction, a region referred to as the "shadow zone." The Flinn-Engdahl regions are helpful for identifying the starting location of these events. These events can be regularly caused by movement along Benioff zones. Harry Fielding Reid proposed that these events were caused by stored strain being released in an elastic rebound. They can occur frequently at strike-slip or dip-slip boundaries. During these events, longitudinal P waves are followed by slower transversal S waves. These events are measured on the Richter scale. For the point, name these catastrophic events studied by seismologists.
earthquakes
3) In 1755, the Marquis of Pombal helped establish the study of these events with a survey asking about damages following the one in Lisbon. In 1906, another one of these events with a Mercalli intensity of XI ["eleven"] caused the death of over 3,000 people living in San Francisco. P and S waves occur as a result of these events that are measured on the Richter scale. For the point, name these seismic events caused by the shaking of the Earth's surface.
earthquakes
4) While studying these events, H.F. Reid of Johns Hopkins coined the term "elastic rebound" to describe the weaker events that follow. The S and P waves from these events propagate from a hypocenter. The magnitude of these events is measured on the Richter scale. For the point, name these seismic events which occur when tectonic plates rapidly slip past each other along faults, which causes the ground to shake.
earthquakes
The Rossi-Forel scale was an early way of measuring the intensity of these events. A sonic boom-like effect can occur during the supershear type of these events when a rupture travels faster than the shear wave. The depth of focus measures how far underground these events occur. Aftershocks are smaller versions of, for the point, what seismic events measured on the Richter scale that can cause buildings to topple over?
earthquakes
7) Arthur Eddington used one of these events to prove Einstein's prediction of gravitational lensing. These events, which can be annular or partial, are a special form of occultation involving a body orbiting the Earth and the body the Earth orbits. Staring at one can still damage the eye. For the point, name these events whose solar variety sees the moon block out the sun.
eclipses (accept solar eclipse;prompt on answers describing occultation or occult before mentioned; do not accept lunar eclipse)
12) Uneven distribution of a substance in these cells is termed telolecithal [teLOh less uh THuhl], which leads to their meroblastic cleavage. The follicular phase and luteal phase are parts of a process that releases this type of cell. Polar bodies are formed during oogenesis, which produces these cells. These cells are arrested in prophase I in the ovaries. For the point, name these female sex cells fertilized by sperm that may contain yolk.
egg cells (or ovum)
5. A spectrum of an operator contains scalars of this prefix by the Spectral theory. Roots of the characteristic polynomial of a matrix have this prefix. Both x in the equation A x equals lambda x and the scalars it contains are prefixed by this word for a given matrix A. This prefix comes from the German for "characteristic" and lambda is used in Linear Algebra to represent scalars with this prefix. For the point, name this prefix of certain values and vectors of matrices.
eigen [accept eigenvectors; accept eigenvalues]
5. Using a decomposition technique with this prefix helps find two mathematical structures with this word in their name, which is made easier by transforming the problem via the Lanczos algorithm. A spectrum of an operator contains scalars of this prefix by the Spectral theory. Roots of the characteristic polynomial of a matrix have this prefix. Both x in the equation A x equals lambda x and the scalars it contains are prefixed by this word for a given matrix A. This prefix comes from the German for "characteristic" and lambda is used in Linear Algebra to represent scalars with this prefix. For the point, name this prefix of certain values and vectors of matrices.
eigen [accept eigenvectors; accept eigenvalues]
16) This property names a class of thermoplastic polymers which are characterized by reversible crosslinking. A coefficient of restitution equal to one characterizes processes with this property. This property describes collisions where kinetic energy is conserved. Rubber bands are a canonical example of objects with this property. For the point, give this term for an object that can return to its original state after being stretched.
elastic collision (accept elastomer; accept perfectly elastic; accept elasticity)
14) This fundamental value for this quantity was measured in the Millikan oil drop experiment. Capacitors are devices used to store this quantity. The rate of change of this quantity over time is equal to current. Coulomb's law states that force is inversely proportional to distance squared. For the point, name this quantity measuring the presence or absence of electrons.
electric charge
7) Wires with non-zero values for this quantity produce a magnetic field. The same amount of this quantity must enter and leave a junction according to Kirchhoff's law for this quantity. By Ohm's Law, voltage over resistance is equal to this quantity. This quantity is symbolized I and is measured in Amperes. For the point, name this quantity that measures the flow of electric charge per second, and can either be alternating or direct.
electric current (accept alternating current; accept direct current)
25) Two linear partial differential equations named for this device describe the change in voltage and current during transmission. Charles Wheatstone and W.F. Cooke created an early version of the needle system for this device. The single-wire version of this device was invented by Samuel Morse. For the point, name this early form of long-distance transmission of messages whose name is Greek for "far off writing."
electric telegraph (accept telegrapher's equations; accept telegraph equations; accept telegraphy) (
12) One type of these materials that exist only at very low temperatures is named for Nevill Mott. These materials have a large bandgap. Capacitors often consist of two parallel plates surrounding one of them called a dielectric. Below their breakdown voltage, these materials have very high resistivity. Glass and rubber are examples of, For the point, what materials that block the flow of electric current, which are contrasted with conductors?
electrical insulators
In a wire, this quantity depends on the length and cross-sectional area of the wire. The circuit component that provides this quantity is represented in diagrams by a zigzag line. This value is equal to voltage divided by current, according to a law named for the namesake of the SI unit for this quantity, Georg Ohm. For the point, name this electric analog of friction, a quantity that describes how hard it is for a current to pass through a conductor.
electrical resistance
2) For a wire, this quantity varies inversely with cross-sectional area and directly with length. The inverse of this quantity is measured in siemens [SEE-mens] and is called conductance. The ideal circuit component related to this quantity is represented by a zigzag on a circuit diagram. This quantity is measured in ohms. For the point, name this quantity that describes how much a device opposes electric flow.
electrical resistance (accept resistor; do not accept "resistivity")
29. Fleischmann and Pons thought they had discovered cold fusion by using this process on heavy water over a palladium substrate. The Tafel equation can be used to calculate the overpotential of water when reacted over a platinum substrate. The Hall-Heroult process uses this method to extract aluminum from aluminum oxide.Water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen if this process is driven at the correct voltage. For the point, name this process of producing chemical reactions at cathodes and anodes by applying a direct current.
electrolysis
29. Kroll predicted that a process of this type would replace his titanium extraction method within 15 years, but the high melting point of titanium has made that process difficult. Fleischmann and Pons thought they had discovered cold fusion by using this process on heavy water over a palladium substrate. The Tafel equation can be used to calculate the overpotential of water when reacted over a platinum substrate. The Hall-Heroult process uses this method to extract aluminum from aluminum oxide.Water is broken down into hydrogen and oxygen if this process is driven at the correct voltage. For the point, name this process of producing chemical reactions at cathodes and anodes by applying a direct current.
electrolysis
12) Mulliken's scale of this property takes the average of the electron affinity and the first ionization energy. Differences in this property determine whether a bond is ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent. A common scale for measuring this property is named for Pauling. Fluorine has the highest value of, for the point, what property, the tendency of atoms to attract electrons?
electronegativity
14) Robert Mulliken devised a scheme for calculating this quantity that takes the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy and electron affinity. Polar bonds occur when the difference in this quantity between bonded elements is greater than 0.8. Linus Pauling developed the idea of this quantity, and gave fluorine the highest value for it. For the point, name this quantity that represents an atom's tendency to attract electrons.
electronegativity
18) The Allred-Rochow form of this quantity is related to the effective nuclear charge. This dimensionless quantity - symbolized chi [kai] - generally ranges from about 0.7 to 4. One type of this quantity named for Mulliken is calculated as the mean average of electron affinity and first ionization energy. On Pauling's scale for this quantity, fluorine is assigned the highest value. For the point, name this quantity which measures the ability of an atom to attract electrons.
electronegativity
27. Large values of this quantity allow for the stabilization of conjugate bases through charge delocalization, according to the inductive effect. In one definition of this quantity, Sanderson suggested that it is proportional to atomic size and was equalized in molecular compounds. A method devised by Mulliken calculates this quantity from the average of first ionization energy and electron affinity. The Pauling scale measures this quantity. For the point, fluorine has the highest value for what quantity, the ability of an atom to attract electrons?
electronegativity
These systems are subject to Kirchhoff's laws, one of which notes that the sum of directed potential differences around one of them must be zero. An inductor joins with a capacitor in the "LC" type of these systems. These systems may be created out of copper wiring connecting elements like capacitors and resistors on "boards" found in computer hardware. For the point, name these pathways through which electric current can flow.
electronic circuits (accept specific types of circuits; accept electrical networks
30) Some flat panel variants of these devices work via electroluminscence. These devices commonly use liquid crystals or light emitting diodes. Resolution is a measure of the accuracy of these devices, which is often reported in pixels. Capacitors react to skin contact to make these devices interactive in phones and tablets. For the point, name these devices used to provide a visual output for an electronic device.
electronic visual displays (accept screens; accept touchscreens; accept flat panel displays; accept ELDs or electroluminscent displays; prompt on television or TV with "What part of the TV?")
10) John Wheeler proposed the hypothesis that all instances of this particle were actually one universal entity. Positrons are equivalent to this particle travelling backwards in time. The Paul Exclusion principle is the reason only one spin up and one spin down instance of this Fermion can share all other quantum numbers as they fill atomic orbitals. For the point, name this fundamental particle that circles the atomic nucleus.
electrons
17) John Wheeler proposed that all of these particles were actually the same particle moving backwards and forward in time in a phone call to Richard Feynman. The Davisson-Germer experiment determined that this particle has wave-like behavior. This fermion is lighter than its tau and muon counterparts. The Millikan oil drop experiment was the first to experimentally determine the charge of this particle that was discovered by J.J. Thomson. For the point, name this fundamental particle whose antiparticle is the positron.
electrons
8) Lise Meitner found that a "core" one of these particles gets removed during the Auger effect. In the photoelectric effect, photons hitting metals cause the emission of these particles. Imagining a delocalized "sea" of these particles can explain why metals are conductive. The antiparticle of this subatomic particle is the positron. For the point, name this negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus.
electrons
The charge of this particle was determined in the Millikan oil drop experiment. J.J. Thomson discovered these particles in a cathode ray tube. These particles are respectively lost and gained in oxidation and reduction reactions. Covalent bonds share these particles. An atom is neutral when the number of these particles is equal to its atomic number, since these particles balance the positive charge of protons. For the point, name this negatively charged particle.
electrons
22) Pairs of these particles are opposed to these particles similarly named holes. These leptons are less massive than muons and tauons.The positron is the antiparticle of these particles. These particles actually make up a probability distribution and do not cleanly orbit around the atomic nucleus. For the point, name these elementary particles that carry negative charge.
electrons (prompt on e)
Marcus theory explains interactions that result in the transfer of these particles between chemical species. For two of these particles in an atom, at least one of the four quantum numbers for these fermions must differ, according to the Pauli exclusion principle. If these particles are found in the outermost shell of an atom, they are described as valence. For the point, name these particles that orbit an atom's nucleus.
electrons (prompt on fermions before read
7. This force only manifests on scales above 246 Giga electron volts and was supported by the Gargamelle collaborations discovery of neutral currents. Glashow, Salam and Weinberg won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their contribution to the unification of the two fundamental forces that underlie this force. One of the two fundamental forces in the theory of this force is mediated by W and Z Bosons while the second fundamental force was earlier unified by James Clerk Maxwell. For the point, name this force, a combination of the force carried by the photon and the force that causes radioactivity, with the latter being contrasted with the strong force.
electroweak force [or electroweak interaction; prompt on electromagnetic force or electromagnetism; prompt on weak force]
The eccentricity of this shape is always a positive number less than 1. The area of this shape is equal to pi times a times b, where a and b are the semi-minor and semi-major axes. This shape can be drawn by pinning two ends of a string at the desired focal points, then tracing with the string taut. Planetary orbits generally take the shape of, for the point, what conic section that looks like an elongated circle?
ellipse
This figure can be constructed through de la Hire's method, by the trammel of Archimedes, or - because this closed shape is defined as the locus of points where the sum of the distances to two points is constant - by pinning the two ends of a piece of string and drawing the string taut with a pen. This conic section has eccentricity less than one, and its two focal points are contained within it. For the point, name this shape that, like an oval, is more elongated than a circle.
ellipse (prompt on oval before mentioned
10. Rijndael S-boxes are used during the SubBytes step of an algorithm that performs this task; that algorithm then performs a ShiftRows step followed by a MixColumns step. 14 rounds of the AES algorithm for this task is required for 256-bit keys. Because it can find a prime factorization in polynomial time, Shor's algorithm may make the RSA algorithm for performing this task obsolete. In the RSA algorithm, the public key performs this task while the private key performs the inverse operation. For the point, name this task of rendering plaintext into ciphertext so that only those with a key can read the information.
encryption [accept word forms such as encrypting]
19) In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian operator describes the total sum of this property for a system. The first law of thermodynamics holds that this property is always conserved. This property is measured in Joules and is defined as the ability for a system to do work. Coming in "kinetic" and "potential" forms is, for the point, what property that gives a material the ability to move?
energy (accept kinetic energy; accept potential energy)
11) According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat minus work equals the change in the "internal" form of this quantity. One form of this quantity is equal to one-half m v squared where m is mass and v is velocity. This quantity is typically defined as a measure of "the ability to do work" and can be divided into kinetic and potential components. For the point, name this quantity whose SI unit is the Joule.
energy (accept potential energy; accept kinetic energy; accept internal energy; accept change in internal energy) (
28) Induction, compression, ignition, and emission are the four strokes of the four-stroke variety of this device. Sadie Carnot developed his namesake cycle for a theoretical one of these devices that takes heat and outputs mechanical work. Rudolf Diesel developed one of these devices that mechanically compresses air in the cylinder to ignite the fuel. For the point, name this device that converts energy into a mechanical form found prominently under the hoods of cars.
engines (or motor)
18. Local operations and classical communication can be used to transform states exhibiting this phenomenon. The states exhibiting this phenomenon give rise to Bell pairs. This phenomenon is the subject of a debate where two particles with unstable spins head in opposite directions. The EPR paradox brought up that potential violation due to this phenomenon. Einstein criticized this phenomenon with that paradox calling it "spooky action at a distance." For the point, name this quantum phenomenon where two quantum states are bundled into one.
entanglement [accept answers like entangled states]
10. This quantity remains constant in the Joule-Thomson effect. Born-Haber cycles are used to calculate this quantity for ionic solids with Hess's Law. The change in this quantity when one mole of a compound is made from the pure elements it is made up of is known as this quantity's standard of formation. Equal to internal energy added to the product of pressure and volume for a system, this state function is related to entropy and temperature by the equation for Gibbs free energy. For the point, name this thermodynamic quantity symbolized "H."
enthalpy (prompt on "H" before mentioned)
6) The change in this quantity associated with vaporization is around 10.5 R according to Trouton's rule. Boltzmann's definition of this quantity, carved on his gravestone, sets it equal to k times the natural logarithm of microstates. The second law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of this quantity never decreases. For the point, name this measure of disorder in a system, symbolized S.
entropy
A formula to describe this quantity in an ideal gas was developed independently by Sackur and Tetrode. This quantity is at a maximum at equilibrium, and is equal to zero for a perfect crystal only at absolute zero, according to the Third Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that, in a closed system, this quantity cannot decrease. For the point, name this quantity that measures the level of disorder in a system.
entropy (prompt on "S"
9) Maxwell's demon is a thought experiment where this value decreases. This quantity is equal to Boltzmann's constant times the natural logarithm of the number of microstates for a system. The third law of thermodynamics states that this value is zero for a perfect crystal at absolute zero, while the second law states that this value for a closed system must always increase. For the point, name this measure of disorder for a system.
entropy (prompt on S)
29) A Lineweaver-Burk plot graphs the activity of these molecules which are described by parameters such as Vmax and Km in Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Allosteric inhibition regulates these proteins. Emil Fischer's "lock-and-key" model explains the binding of substrates at the active sites of these proteins, which are often named with the suffix "-ase". For the point, name these biological catalysts that speed up metabolic reactions.
enzymes
12) These proteins "restriction" variety are useful for cutting DNA along defined sequences. Biomedical researcher Maud Menten helped Leonor Michaelis develop an equation to mathematically model the kinetics of these proteins. These proteins typically end in "-ase" such as lipases. For the point, name these proteins that serve as biological catalysts, speeding up reactions in the cell.
enzymes (accept restriction enzymes)
9. According to C.J. Adkins, the thermal category of this concept has two bodies with no net heat flow while reaching the thermodynamic category requires exchange of work. In chemistry, the constant of this concept is the ratio of a reaction's forward and reverse rate and is typically symbolized k. This state can generally be pushed to the right or left by following Le Chatelier's principle. For the point, name this concept of some variable achieving a balanced or steady state, which can be visualized as a balanced seesaw.
equilibrium
This quantity is directly proportional to concentration in the chelate effect. In the law of mass action, this quantity is used to relate the concentrations of products and reactants. The relationship between temperature and this quantity is explained by Le Chatelier's principle. This value, which is symbolized K, is equal to the value of the reaction quotient once the reaction reaches its namesake state. For the point, name this constant, important in studying reactions where the reverse and forward reactions occur at the same, balanced rate.
equilibrium constant (accept K before said
7. Two topological parameters L and S are among the six factors used to predict loss of one resource due to this process in the USLE. For that resource, this process typically advances through less severe forms like splash and sheet into more severe forms like rill and gully. The three forms of movement — suspension, saltation, and creep -- can occur when wind facilitates this process. Glaciers undergo this process via abrasion or plucking. Surface runoff or rainfall moving soil is an example of this process. For the point, name this process of transporting soil rock or material from one location and displacing it to another, contrasted with stationary weathering.
erosion [accept soil erosion]
The synthesis of this compound is catalyzed by aromatase. The plastic bisphenol A may be unsafe because it can mimic the effects of this compound. Antagonists of this compound include Fulvestrant and Tamoxifen. A small surge in this compound is seen in the luteal phase, while increasing levels of this compound in the follicular phase cause a spike in FSH and LH, leading to ovulation. For the point, name this hormone that is often studied with progesterone, the primary female sex hormone.
estrogen
26) According to Goldbach's conjecture, all integers with this property can be written as the sum of two primes. Functions described by this term are symmetric about the y-axis. Performing an exponential on a negative real number with a natural number that has this property is always positive. The smallest prime number is the only prime with this property. For the point, name this property present in numbers divisible by two.
even (prompt on descriptions like divisible by two until mentioned) (
One proof that the square root of 2 is irrational involves the contradiction that the numerator and denominator would both have this property. This property is held by the number of factors of any integer that is not a perfect square. A real number results whenever the imaginary number i is raised to an exponent with this property. When the size of a data set has this property, the median is the average of the two middle numbers. For the point, name these integers that are divisible by 2.
even numbers
These regions are the subject of the holographic principle, which notes that all information about objects within the three-dimensional space inside this region is encoded on this lower-dimensional space. Objects approaching this region appear, to an external observer, to slow down and become redshifted. Light emitted within this region will never reach an observer outside of this region, due to extreme gravitational pull. For the point, name this boundary surrounding a black hole that, once crossed, cannot be escaped.
event horizon (prompt on horizon; prompt on black hole before mentioned
8) This theory can help explain adaptive radiation as the filling of various niches. This theory was formulated in part from observations of finches on the Galapagos Islands. The formulator of this theory referred to it as "descent with modification" and outlined his discoveries in On the Origin of Species. Natural selection is an important mechanism in this theory. For the point, name this theory formulated by Charles Darwin.
evolution (accept natural selection until mentioned; prompt afterwards) (
10. A champion of this theory described by its central advocate as "the one living soul from whom I have constantly received sympathy" was named Joseph Dalton Hooker and helped defend it against Benjamin Brodie among others. John Draper gave a presentation on how intelligence was tied to this theory shortly before a debate best remembered for a bishop's question about his adversary's grandparents. Robert Fitzroy, a rebuker of this theory, helped the scientist who cemented it travel to the Southern Cone. In 1860 at Oxford University, Bishop Samuel Wilberforce debated the "bulldog" Thomas Henry Huxley over this theory seven months after the publishing of On the Origin of Species. For the point, name this theory which Charles Darwin proposed was caused by natural selection.
evolution [prompt on natural selection until mentioned; prompt on descriptive answers like descent of man or transmutation of species; prompt on speciation]
21) This type of number is multiplied times the coefficient and then decreased by one in a rule for taking the derivative. The degree of a polynomial is defined by the largest one of these numbers. Roots can be written using fractional types of these numbers, and simplified fractions never have negative numbers of this type. The operation named for these numbers can be thought of as repeated multiplication. For the point, name these numbers written using superscript that define the number of times the base is multiplied by itself.
exponents (accept powers)
15) An abnormally high concentration of iridium suggests a possible interpretation of this event according to the Alvarez hypothesis, which is based on evidence at Mexico's Chicxulub [CHIK soo LOOB] crater. The Paleogene began after this event. The population of ferns spiked after this event, which may have been caused by a giant asteroid. This event marked the end of the Mesozoic era, which was about 65 million years ago. For the point, name this event that wiped out a group of large reptiles.
extinction of the dinosaurs (accept Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) or Cretaceous Tertiary (K-T) extinction)
14) One possible alternative to a widely held hypothesis of this event is supported by giant lava flows from the Deccan Traps. The iridium metal coating at the K-Pg layer gives evidence to the Alvarez hypothesis of how this event occurred, which is further supported by the giant Chicxulub [CHICK-shuh-LOOB] crater. For the point, name this event that happened around 66 million years ago that wiped out a class of giant reptiles.
extinction of the dinosaurs (accept K-T extinction (or Cretaceous-Tertiary) event; accept Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event; accept K-Pg extinction until mentioned; prompt on "K-Pg extinction event" after mentioned; prompt on "extinction" with "The extinction of what?")
25. The spin-orbit angles of these objects and binary stars can cause an anomalous Doppler shift, a phenomenon known as the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect. The Spitzer space telescope helped detect seven of these objects in Trappist-1 using the TTV method. NASA expects to discover thousands of these objects via the TESS mission launched in 2018. The first confirmed discovery of one of these objects was Pegasi 51b, which falls under a class of these objects within the frost line known as "Hot Jupiters." Before being retired in 2018, the Kepler space telescope discovered many of these objects by the transit method when they orbited in front of a bright star. If they exist in the habitable zone, these objects are potential sources for life. For the point, name these planets that circle stars other than our Sun.
extrasolar planets [or exoplanets]
22) Theodor Leber names two diseases affecting this organ, one of which is his namesake congenital amaurosis. Drusen in this organ are an early sign of macular degeneration. Aqueous and vitreous humor are found in this organ, which contains rods and cones in the retina. Cataracts can form in the lens of this organ, which uses vitamin A. Irises and pupils are found in, for the point, what paired organs responsible for vision?
eyes
28) The length of these molecules in the aliphatic chain is used to characterize them as short-chained, medium-chained, or long-chained. These macronutrients on average have nine calories per gram. Triglyceride is an example of this type of compound. For the point, name this macronutrient, structurally similar to oils, but more specifically refers to lipids that are solid at room temperature.
fats (accept lipids before mentioned, prompt afterwards; accept fatty acids)
The presence of cataclasite can help identify the center of these features. A vertical plane above an area in one of these features is called the dip angle. In collapsed calderas, ring dikes can form from the passage of magma through these locations. Horizontal motion characterizes the transform type of these locations, which may also be classified as strike-slip. For the point, name these fractures in the Earth's surface, exemplified by the San Andreas in California.
faults (accept transform faults; accept strike-slip faults; accept ring faults
Description acceptable. A number is raised to a power, then this operation is performed on it to encrypt messages in the RSA system. Fermat's little theorem relates a number a and that number raised to a prime power, a to the p, after performing this operation on a to the p. Two numbers are considered congruent with respect to a modulus if the result of this action is the same for both numbers. For the point, name this action that, when the dividend is 20 and divisor is 6, returns a value of 2.
finding the remainder after dividing (accept equivalents; accept modulo or modulus or equivalent descriptions of modular arithmetic before "modulus" is read
8) This quantity is the analog of the work function for a single atom. Mulliken's electronegativity calculation is equal to the average of this quantity and electron affinity. This quantity is similar to electron affinity and decreases as one moves to the bottom left of the periodic table. For the point, name this quantity equal to the amount of energy required to strip an element of one electron to create a charged species.
first ionization energy
Skerries form at the outflows of these features, whose depth is often deeper than that of the surrounding sea. The world's largest of these features, Scoresby Sund, is found on the eastern coast of Greenland. These features are formed as glaciers carve out a valley on their path to the sea. For the point, name these geographic features, characterized by narrow inlets of water surrounded by steep cliffs, which are prominent on the coastline of Norway.
fjords [f-YORD]
Samuel Rowbotham wrote The Inconsistency of Modern Astronomy and its Opposition to the Scriptures in support of this theory, having hypothesized a massive wall of ice. A popular myth holds that intellectuals in the Middle Ages held this belief, though evidence like ships disappearing over the horizon had properly been studied by the Greeks. For the point, name this theory that believes Earth is a 2-dimensional plane.
flat Earth theory
33. Samuel Shenton founded an international research society for this position. Samuel Rowbotham's review of data published on the Bedford Level experiment resulted in him spreading the modern conception of this position with the creation of the Zetetic Society. The WCBD radio was originally founded by Wilbur Glenn Voliva to advocate for this position which he had pushed to have taught alongside creationism at Zion, Illinois Catholic Church schools. Explanations like "heat" and "photoshop" have been given against evidence of this position by placing a boat on water and watching indicators on the back of the boat disappear below the horizon as the boat travels farther away. For the point, name this position held by some where the earth is believed to be 2D rather than spherical.
flat earth [accept logical equivalents]
17) The ATTZ near a river has an ecology based on the "pulse" of these events. Statistical measurements of recurrence of these events have led the biggest ones to be dubbed "100-year" events. Slow infiltration rates may cause these events, such as where asphalt or concrete makes soil impermeable.Arroyos are susceptible to the "flash" type of these events. Levees are built to protect areas from, for the point, what hydrological events in which water rises far above normal levels?
floods (accept word forms)
32) Based on how they react to shearing forces, these substances can be described as rheopectic or thixotropic. These substances are described by an equation whose smooth solutions are the subject of a Millennium Prize problem. The Navier-Stokes equations describe these substances that are non-Newtonian if they disobey Newton's law of viscosity. For large Reynolds numbers, flow in these substances can transition from laminar to turbulent. For the point, name these substances which can exist as a gas or a liquid and are characterized by their ability to fill a vessel.
fluids (do not accept or prompt on liquid or gas)
31) A compound containing six atoms of this element attached to uranium is created during nuclear power generation. The is the only stable element in its group that does not form a strong acid when bonded to hydrogen. This element sits to the left of Neon on the periodic table. For the point, name this lightest halogen with atomic number nine and chemical symbol F.
fluorine (prompt on F before mentioned)
28) The upslope form of this phenomenon occurs in the Great Plains due to humid winds moving from the Mississippi to the Rocky mountains. Advection and radiation forms of this phenomenon can cause visibility problems in cities like San Francisco. This phenomenon is caused by clouds whose base is at, or close to, the ground. For the point, name this phenomenon which can sometimes be mistaken for smog.
fog
27) Norman Borlaug helped developed security in this good for several nations with his developments in agronomy. The Green Revolution helped increase the global production of this general good. Thomas Malthus thought population would exceed the production of this good, leading to a population trap. For the point, name this good that can be characterized by macro- and micronutrients and are necessary for preventing hunger.
food (accept wheats until "protein"; prompt on "plants")
Rachel Carson described biomagnification using one of these models to explain how using DDT resulted in a lower robin population. Autotrophs lie at the lower levels of these models. A keystone species is particularly interconnected within one of these models; predators are usually keystone species due to their direct influence on the population of the levels below them in these systems. For the point, give this term for an ecological model that describes what species eat what other species in an ecosystem.
food web (or food chain
1. Edward Lorenz's work on numerical methods to perform this task using pressure, wind speed and other metrics led him to determine that the phenomena involved in this task are non-linear. Due to the atmosphere behaving as a chaotic system, this task is often only accurate for up to two weeks at most. Air precipitation, temperature and cloud movement can help with this task. For the point, name this task of determining atmospheric conditions.
forecasting the weather [accept weather prediction; or predicting the weather] ACCEPT: logical equivalence like "inferring weather patterns"; or "meteorology" REJECT: more specific weather-related phenomena prediction such as "Tornado predicting" or "Temperature prediction"
23) Lodgepole pines are one example of a species that requires this phenomenon to reproduce. Plats known as resprouters dominate after this phenomenon, such as occurs in the California chaparral landscape. In late 2018, President Trump incorrectly reported that Finland reduces this phenomenon through raking. This phenomenon causes soil to become more basic, thought to be due to the ash it creates. For the point, name this phenomenon that is used to create new farmland in the "slash and burn" procedure.
forest fire (accept wildfire; prompt on burning)
11) These objects were the subject of a "War" to find them between Othniel Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope. Coprolite is a type of these objects. "Living" examples of these objects greatly resemble extinct species, while "index" examples are used for dating purposes. These objects also name a type of fuel that is nonrenewable. For the point, name these preserved remains of prehistoric organisms.
fossils
11) Dmitry Belyayev ran an experiment that showed that these animals could be selected to show affection to humans; that experiment resulted in the first successful taming of the silver variety of these animals. It's not dogs, but this genus of Canidae's [CAN-uh-DAY-ees] most common variety is referred to as red [this animal], due to the color of its fur. For the point, name these animals whose true variety is classified as Vulpes.
foxes (accept Vuples before mentioned)
27) The complex quadratic "f-of-z equals z-squared plus c" defines one of these sets. One of these geometric constructs named for Sierpinski is produced by removing an equilateral triangle from each larger iteration. These constructs were first introduced in the paper "How Long Is the Coast of Britain?" by Benoit Mandelbrot. For the point, name these self-similar geometric figures that contain an infinite number of copies of themselves.
fractals (accept Mandelbrot sets until 'Sierpinski' is mentioned)
D'Alembert's Principle allows the omission of certain inertial components from these diagrams. One of these diagrams with an arrow pointing straight down and another pointing perpendicularly out of a ramp can be used to demonstrate static friction. A object remains at rest when the sum of the vectors on this depiction is zero; those arrows frequently stand for tension and gravity. For the point, name these diagrams that show all of the forces on an object.
free body diagram (accept force diagram before the word "forces" is read
Mixtures can undergo this process below the eutectic point. Liquid nitrogen is often used in the "flash" form of this process, common in the meatpacking industry. Supercooling is when this process's namesake point is crossed without the occurrence of this process; for water, that happens below zero degrees Celsius. For the point, name this process by which a liquid becomes a solid, the opposite of melting.
freezing (accept word forms; accept descriptions of turning into a solid before "solid" is read
12) The strength of this force is proportional to the applied load according to Amonton's first law. Corresponding coefficients accompany the static and kinetic forms of this force. Newton's first law that an object in motion tends to stay in motion is acted against by this force. For the point, name this force that resists the movement of an object which is low on slippery surfaces like ice.
friction
7) This force is described by Amonton's law and is proportional to the normal force on an object. Drag is the aerodynamic equivalent of this force which comes in static and kinetic forms. This force often opposes change in motion and can be reduced with lubricants. For the point, name this resistive force, that generates heat when you rub your hands together.
friction
John Fanning names a quantity that describes the effects of this force on pressure in pipes. Guillaume Amontons [ghee-yom ah-mon-ton] names a set of three laws for this force, one of which states that it is unaffected by apparent area of contact. Sliding velocity does not impact the kinetic form of this force, whose static form keeps objects stationary. An object on an inclined plane may stay put due to, for the point, what force that opposes motion along a surface?
friction (accept static friction or kinetic friction
(4) This force is described in pipes by the Darcy factor. The magnitude of this force does not depend on surface area according to Amonton's second law. A coefficient denoted mu describes this force which comes in static and kinetic types. Drag is an example of this force in fluids which is decreased in magnitude by lubricants. For the point, name this force that resists changes in motion.
friction (prompt on "drag" until mentioned)
Some organisms in this order secrete neurotoxins from their parotid glands. A ploidy series in a genus of this order includes a model organism used for its large embryos. This order contains the family Bufonidae and the model organism Xenopus laevis, a "clawed" species from Africa. Brightly colored members of this order include the "poison dart" ones. For the point, name this order of amphibians that includes toads and have young known as tadpoles.
frogs (or anura
30) Within this organ is a structure whose number of cotyledons is used for classification. These organs are typically edible, but phyloclades prefer genetic-transfer through latching their product onto animal fur. These organs develop from the ovaries of flowers and store a specialized embryo that will later germinate in the soil to grow a new plant. For the point, name these seed-bearing organs like bananas, blueberries, and apples.
fruits
10. Hirsch names a taller variant to one named variant of this lab equipment with a smaller fritted plate. A stopcock is used to control the rate at which they function in the dropping variety of this lab equipment. The separatory variety of this lab equipment is used in liquid-liquid extraction. The Buchner variety allows for fast filtration with this piece of lab equipment. This simple piece of plastic, glass, or stainless steel lab equipment in wider scale operations typically has a channel that of liquid that feeds into the wide end with filter paper placed near the narrow end. For the point, name this device which can aid in guiding liquid into a narrow opening of a container.
funnel
28. A stopcock is used to control the rate at which these devices function in the dropping variety of this lab equipment. The separatory variety of this lab equipment is used in liquid-liquid extraction. The Buchner variety allows for fast filtration with this piece of lab equipment. This simple piece of plastic, glass, or stainless steel lab equipment in wider scale operations typically has a channel of liquid that feeds into the wide end with filter paper placed near the narrow end. For the point, name this device which can aid in guiding liquid into a narrow opening of a container.
funnel
35. The Large Area Detector is designed for this phenomenon which records onto the Central Electronics Unit of the BATSE instrument. In 2017, after detection of gravitational waves from a neutron star merger nearby galaxy NGC 4993, this form of radiation was followed by a rapid fading UV signal and no x-rays detected by the Swift observatory. While searching for nuclear weapon signatures, a Ray Klebesadel-led Los Alamos team discovered an unusual signal caused by this radiation using Vela satellites. Magnetars are thought to be the source of "Soft Repeaters" of this radiation. The brightest events in the known universe are caused by "bursts" of this radiation. For the point, name this high frequency radiation named after a greek letter.
gamma ray [accept gamma ray bursts; prompt on GRB with "what form of radiation is involved?"]
"Wildcat" types of these structures are built where little is known geologically about the surrounding area, as was done in Titusville, Pennsylvania. High levels of reservoir pressure in these constructs can lead to "blowout." Offshore platforms provide a space for building these structures, which may be hydraulically fractured, or "fracked," to increase their production of hydrocarbons. For the point, name these structures where a deep hole is drilled in the Earth to find oil or natural gas.
gas and/or oil wells
13) The Van der Waals equation extends an equation used to describe a certain form of this type of substance. These substances can be modeled as hard spheres, while in another formulation they are assumed to have no mass and completely elastic collisions. That formulation is the "ideal" for of this type of matter, while the "greenhouse" variety is responsible for global warming. For the point, name this phase of matter exemplified by substances like carbon dioxide and water vapor.
gases
25) This state of matter has on average the lowest thermal conductivities. The majority of the members of "HONClBrIF [HUN- KUL - BRIFF]" are in this state of matter. The ideal form of this matter is modelled by the law V times P equals n times R times T. For the point, name this state of matter where the element or compound is free to move around and are not loosely bound together like liquids.
gases
23) Proteins are taken out of one of these materials and put onto a nitrocellulose membrane during a Western blot. Sodium dodecyl [do-dek-al] sulfate is commonly used in one of these materials to isolate proteins. Polyacrylamide, silica, and agarose are commonly used in these materials. These colloids are typically liquids dispersed in a solid medium. Larger macromolecules takes longer to run through these materials than smaller macromolecules. For the point, name these materials used in an electrophoresis technique that separates DNA.
gels
5) Epistasis occurs when one of these units depends on the presence of another. The locus gives the position of these units and can help determine whether two of these units are linked. The ratio of these units in offspring can be determined using a Punnet Square, and laws of their inheritance were formulated by Gregor Mendel on pea plants. For the point, name these units of DNA that encode phenotypes.
genes (accept genotype; prompt on locus before mentioned)
19) The Laschamp event was an excursion of this phenomenon which dropped it to about 5% of its current strength. The Van Allen belts are held in place by this phenomenon, which creates a bowshock where it meets the solar wind. The declination of this phenomenon has varied and even reversed over time, though it is currently titled about 11 degrees from the axis. The result of the geodynamo is, for the point, what phenomenon generated by convection of iron in the Earth's core?
geomagnetic field (accept Earth's magnetic field; prompt on magnetic field)
29. This entity's strength is measured in units called teslas, although Gauss was the first scientist to accurately measure it. This entity is generated by the movement of molten iron in the Earth's core, an effect known as a geodynamo. A major anomaly in this system near Kursk in Russia has been attributed to a large deposit of iron ore. This entity is currently tilted about 11 degrees off from the Earth's rotational axis, meaning that compasses do not point to the geographic north. For the point, name this entity, a component of Earth with north and south poles.
geomagnetic field [accept Earth's magnetic field; prompt on "magnetic field"]
29) In lung physiology models, the condition named for these structures is an assumption of perfect gas exchange. A genus of Amoeba can cause a potentially fatal disease by covering these structures with mucus, which has impacted Atlantic salmon populations. Zoologists refer to these structures as Branchia. For the point, name these respiratory organs that allow fish to extract dissolved oxygen.
gills (accept Branchia before mentioned)
16. Seracs are blocks or columns formed within these objects as crevasses intersect. Cup-like valleys known as cirques are created by these objects on mountainsides, while moraines are made up of the debris left behind by these objects' movement. These objects often appear blue, largely due to the absence of air bubbles, an effect caused by the density of ice. For the point, name these large, dense sheets of ice that cover about 10% of the Earth's surface and contain much of its fresh water.
glaciers
8) Tuyas are volcanoes that erupt through these objects. Erosion of bedrock by these objects occurs through plucking. Lands affected by these objects go through cycles of isostatic depression and rebound. These objects shrink in zones of ablation and create landscape features like cirques, drumlins, and moraines. For the point, name these giant, slow moving bodies of ice.
glaciers
32. This material in its molten form is fed through an "isopipe" in a fusion process developed by the Corning company. In that industrial process, this material is then cut from a "mother sheet" to be fed into an ion-exchange process to form this material's sturdy "Gorilla" variety. Using random network theory, W.H. Zachariasen developed four empirical rules for this material. A layer of titanium dioxide added to this material creates a "self-cleaning" variety. The properties of polymers drastically change after undergoing a transition named for this material. These vitreous solids are often formed from the rapid quenching of molten material. Natural varieties of this material include obsidian. For the point, name this amorphous crystalline material that can be formed from the silica in sand.
glass
32. This material in its molten form is fed through an "isopipe" in a fusion process developed by the Corning company. In that industrial process, this material is then cut from a "mother sheet" to be fed into an ion-exchange process to form this material's sturdy "Gorilla" variety. Using random network theory, W.H. Zachariasen developed four empirical rules for this material. A layer of titanium dioxide added to this material creates a "self-cleaning" variety. The properties of polymers drastically change after undergoing a transition named for this material. These vitreous solids are often formed from the rapid quenching of molten material. Natural varieties of this material include obsidian. For the point, name this amorphous crystalline material that can be formed from the silica in sand.
glass
The formation of this substance is called vitrification. Trinitite was a green example of this substance that formed after the Trinity nuclear test. This substance is drawn into wires to form optical fibers. This substance does not exhibit long-range order, so it is often considered an amorphous solid. This substance, which is commonly manufactured to be transparent, is primarily made from silicon dioxide. For the point, name this substance which can be made by applying heat to sand.
glass
31) Colloids containing nanoparticles of this element are produced in the Turkevich method. Alchemists used aqua regia to dissolve platinum and this element Rutherford discovered the nucleus while firing alpha particles at a foil of this element. Because of its malleability, this element is commonly used in jewelry. For the point, name this precious metal with atomic number seventy-nine and chemical symbol Au.
gold (accept aurum; prompt on "Au")
9) John Turkevich developed a method for synthesizing nanoparticles of this element. Aqua regia is principally used to make an electrolyte for the Wohlwill process by dissolving this metal. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus by firing alpha particles at a foil made of this element. Iron pyrite is sometimes called the "fool's" version of this element. For the point, name this shiny yellow metal, commonly awarded to first place finishers ahead of silver.
gold (prompt on Au)
This value is equal to two times cosine of 36 degrees, and it is also the positive solution to x squared minus x minus one equals zero. A continued fraction consisting entirely of ones evaluates to this value, which is equal to one plus its inverse. For the point, name this mathematical constant that is approximately equal to 1.618, is usually written as the fraction 1 plus root 5 all over 2, and is denoted by the Greek letter phi.
golden ratio or golden mean (accept any combination of the words [golden or divine] with [ratio, mean, section, cut, or proportion]
30) It's not basalt, but this felsic rock names a composition of igneous rocks that have a lower melting point than rocks with andesitic composition. This intrusive rock is coarse-grained, unlike its extrusive equivalent rhyolite. This rock is the major component in the domes it names at Yosemite National Park. For the point, name this rock whose name comes from its grain-like texture.
granite
The Three Utilities Problem has no solution because one of these objects is nonplanar. Leonhard Euler [oiler] used one of these objects to solve the Seven Bridges of K¨onigsberg problem, showing that no walk used each edge exactly once. A different kind of object with this name is the subject of the Vertical Line Test and plots points with the input and output measured along the horizontal and vertical axes. For the point, name these diagrams that represent functions in the xy-plane.
graphs
14. A widely studied counterexample to many problems in the theory that studies these constructs was given by Julius Petersen; that example of one of these constructs has a Hamilton path, but no Hamilton cycle, a crucial requirement of the travelling salesman problem. Euler helped establish the theory of these constructs by proving that the seven bridges of Konigsberg could be reduced to a problem on one of these constructs. For the point, name these constructs with vertices whose relation is shown through connected edges.
graphs Description Acceptable
14. The weighting of these constructs is measured by the Roman domination number. Proving a clique of size n exists on one of these structures is an NP-complete problem. A widely studied counterexample to many problems in the theory that studies these constructs was given by Julius Petersen; that example of one of these constructs has a Hamilton path, but no Hamilton cycle, a crucial requirement of the travelling salesman problem. Euler helped establish the theory of these constructs by proving that the seven bridges of Konigsberg could be reduced to a problem on one of these constructs. For the point, name these constructs with vertices whose relation is shown through connected edges.
graphs Description Acceptable
30) When the magnitude of this force and drag are the same, an object reaches terminal velocity. This force is proportional to the product of two masses over the square of the distance between them. The acceleration due to this force on Earth is approximately 9.8 meters per second squared. For the point, name this force which Newton apocryphally discovered when an apple fell on his head.
gravity
2. Experimentation with this color was important to a Nobel Prize in Chemistry won by Martin Chalfie, Osamu Shimomura, and Roger Tsien. Vervet monkeys and other members of the Chlorocebus genus are sometimes erroneously referred to as the African [this color] monkey. A protein from Aequorea victoria, a bioluminescent jellyfish has this color in its name because it emits a wavelength in the 500 range after being excited with blue light. A molecule with a porphyrin ring and a central magnesium ion is found in thylakoids and is responsible for giving off this pigment for organisms that undergo photosynthesis. For the point, name this color reflected by chlorophyll responsible for giving leaves and grass their characteristic hue.
green
20. Vervet monkeys and other members of the Chlorocebus genus are sometimes erroneously referred to as the African [this color] monkey. A protein from Aequorea victoria, a bioluminescent jellyfish has this color in its name because it emits a wavelength in the 500 range after being excited with blue light. A molecule with a porphyrin ring and a central magnesium ion is found in thylakoids and is responsible for giving off this pigment for organisms that undergo photosynthesis. For the point, name this color reflected by chlorophyll responsible for giving leaves and grass their characteristic hue.
green
This process alters the balance of radiation that is reflected back toward the surface instead of being radiated out to space. As atmospheric gases absorb radiation that would have otherwise escaped, the temperature rises in this process. This effect creates a feedback loop that proceeded out of control on Venus. The burning of fossil fuels has increased the power of, for the point, what atmospheric effect, one of many mechanisms of global warming?
greenhouse effect (prompt on global warming before mentioned
18) This process is inhibited by the hormone somatostatin. Once the epiphyseal plate closes, this process likely ceases forever. The pineal gland releases GH to stimulate this process which occurs mostly during sleep. Steroids can cause this process in muscles. For the point, name this process that is stunted in people with dwarfism.
growth (or growing; accept word-forms and synonyms; accept muscle growth; do not accept other forms of tissue growth)
22) One early published recipe for this substance included both honey and the toxic realgar. This substance was discovered by alchemists looking for an elixir for immortality per the Taoist tradition. A man named Iron Li is legendarily said to have used this substance inside a ceramic bottle to scare foxes, while its original use may have been in so-called "fire arrows." For the point, name this substance, a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and saltpeter discovered to be explosive by Chinese inventors around 850 AD.
gunpowder (accept black powder)
24) The radial variant of this system is one of two possible potentials with bound and closed orbits, according to Bertrand's theorem. The quantum analogue of this system has energy levels h-bar times omega apart. Each atom behaves as one of these systems in the Einstein model of a solid. The Q-factor determines how much damping occurs in these systems. A classic example of one of these systems is a mass attached to the end of a spring that can be described by Hooke's law. For the point, name these systems that experience sinusoidal, periodic motion.
harmonic oscillator (accept simple harmonic oscillator; accept quantum harmonic oscillator; accept radial harmonic oscillator accept SHO; accept QHO; acceot RHO; prompt on oscillator; prompt on spring)
31. As a means for taking measurements from this organ, Willem Einthoven invented a namesake Triangle that runs from the wrists to the left ankle. That breakthrough helped him win the 1924 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for a galvanometer instrument designed for this organ. The Frank-Starling law describes how increase in volume leads to an increase in stroke volume from this organ. A namesake cycle of this organ can be measured from two consecutive R peaks, which makes up the largest spike on a QRS complex measured from this organ on an ECG. This organ cycles between filling diastolic phases and contracting systolic phases. For the point, name this organ that serves as a pump circulating blood throughout the body.
heart
1) Fourier names an equation that models the conduction of this quantity. In addition to conduction, this quantity can also be transferred by radiation or convection. Temperature can be constant but this quantity's flow can still be exchanged between two bodies in thermal equilibrium. For the point, name this quantity, often symbolized Q, that flows from hot temperatures to cold temperatures.
heat
32) The flux of this quantity is related to conductivity by Fourier's Law. The fluctuationdissipation theorem explains why Johnson-Nyquist noise is related to generation of this quantity in resistors. This quantity remains zero in an adiabatic process. In thermodynamics, this quantity is symbolized Q and has units of joules. This quantity is commonly transferred via conduction, convection, or radiation. For the point, name this quantity, the amount of energy transferred along a temperature gradient.
heat (accept resistive heating or Joule heating; do not accept or prompt on "temperature")
30. The internal resistance of this process can be ignored if the Biot number is sufficiently small. This process is aided by the diffusion of free electrons and can be modelled as the vibration of phonons. A law describing the rate of this process sets the flow due to it equal to negative k times area times d big T over d little t. Fourier's law describes this mode of heat transfer. The three principal forms of heat transfer include this one, convection, and radiation. For the point, name this form of heat transfer that occurs between two solid objects in contact.
heat conduction [prompt on heat flow; prompt on heat transfer]
13) This element, like Nitrogen, can achieve a liquid form at 4.2 Kelvin and is often used for overclocking processors. Alpha particles are identical to nuclei of this element, the second most abundant in the universe. For the point, name this element, often used for inflating balloons, symbolized He.
helium (accept He before it is read)
31) At temperatures near absolute zero, one form of this element obtains superfluidity. Three nuclei of this element fuse in triple alpha process, while the proton-proton chain in stars converts hydrogen into this element. This element has the highest first ionization energy and is the lightest noble gas. For the point, name this element with chemical symbol He that is used to fill balloons.
helium (prompt on He before mentioned)
22) The name for this element was given by Lockyer and Frankland after performing spectral analysis on the sun. When cooled below four Kelvin, this element becomes a superfluid with no viscosity. Nuclei of this element are equivalent to the alpha particle. This element is the lightest of the noble gases. For the point, name this element used to fill balloons and can create a high pitched voice effect.
helium (prompt on He)
24) This element transitions to superfluidity at its lambda point. Georges [JOR jay] Rayet [RAY-uh] detected this element as an unknown yellow spectral line from the sun. Alpha particles are nuclei of this element's most abundant isotope. This is the second-most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen. For the point, name this second-lightest element used in balloons.
helium (prompt on He)
29. Crocodile icefish are the only known vertebrates to lack this compound as adults. The giant tube worm uses this molecule to transport hydrogen sulfide. Disorders known as thalassemias result from the abnormal production of this molecule, which confers a survival advantage against a disease when exactly one defective gene for this molecule is possessed. Its "S" form is the cause of sickle-cell anemia. For the point, name this iron-rich protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen.
hemoglobin (or Hb)
5) Improper versions of this protein can lead to thalassemia. The behavior of this protein in acidic conditions is characterized by the Bohr effect. This protein contains porphyrin rings with central iron atoms. This protein includes two alpha and two beta subunits. Sickle-cell anemia occurs due to a mutation in this protein. For the point, name this protein that transports oxygen in red blood cells and contains heme groups.
hemoglobin (or Hb)
3. This substance can be used to treat people with mutated SHOX genes. IGF-1, a compound similar to insulin, is produced in the liver in response to this hormone, which is stimulated when ghrelin binds to its G-protein coupled receptor. Somatostatin prevents the release of this hormone from the pituitary gland, which produces too much of it in a condition called acromegaly. For the point, name this hormone that, as its name suggests, stimulates cell production and is also often used by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug.
human growth hormone or HGH
13) The scientific name for this classification of birds is Trochilidae [TRO-kill-uh-DAY-ee]. The smallest bird species falls under this classification of birds of American-origin, who are the only birds capable of hovering and flying backwards. For the point, name these birds who use their beaks to drink nectar of flowers and whose fast flapping of 79 kilometers per hours lends them their name.
hummingbirds
32) Efforts to weaken these events include an attempt to do so with silver iodide in Project Stormfury. Major category 5 occurrences of these events as measured on the Saffir-Simpson scale include Kenna and Patricia. The division of the National Weather Service that monitors these events is located in Miami. Primarily hitting countries in the Caribbean Sea and states like Florida are, for the point, what tropical cyclones that occur in the Atlantic Ocean?
hurricanes (accept tropical cyclone until mentioned, prompt afterwards; prompt on typhoon with "What is that event called when it occurs in the Atlantic Ocean?")
14) These events measure a 12 or more on the Beaufort scale. These events occur after tropical depressions and tropical storms, and are classified on the Saffir-Simpson scale. They form from numerous thunderstorms swirling around an "eye" which, unlike a tornado, is typically quiet. For the point, name these strong rotating storms that include Wilma, Maria, and Katrina.
hurricanes (accept typhoons; prompt on tropical cyclones; prompt on tropical storms; prompt on cyclonic storms; prompt on storms)
10) Biogeography has developed primary and secondary zones named for this type of offspring that are analyzed for speciation data. This type of living creature usually exhibits polyploidy, incomplete dominance of both parental species, and sterility. Pizzlies are a rare example of, for the point, what type offspring, such as a mule or liger [LYE-gur], a mix between two species?
hybrids
20. Nitroglycerin was used in the "exploding torpedo," a drier, early version of this process. The substances used during this process include slickwater and proppants such as sand or ceramics. Horizontal drilling allows access to a higher output from a single site of this process. Flowback and formation brine are byproducts of this process which are sometimes disposed of by re-injecting them into the same wells used for this process. For the point, name this controversial process in which pressurized liquid is injected into rock to help extract fossil fuels.
hydraulic fracturing [accept fracking]
23) This element's hyperfine transition produces the 21-centimeter line. Hydrazine contains two nitrogen atoms and two atoms of this element. Bonds named for this element exist between two antiparallel strands of DNA and form between this element and oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen. The antiparticle of this element consists of a positron and antiproton. For the point, name this lightest element with atomic number 1.
hydrogen
19) Bubble chambers most frequently make use of this element's liquid form. Schrodinger was able to explain the Stark effect components of this element by using his namesake equation to solve it as a quantum system. To explain the Paschen, Balmer, and Lyman series that can be viewed from this element's emission spectra, Rydberg developed his namesake formula. Rydberg's formula was based on a planetary model developed by Niels Bohr of this element. For the point, name this element, described in quantum mechanics as a single proton orbited by a single electron.
hydrogen (accept liquid hydrogen or H2; accept hydrogen gas)
3. Amide groups in enzymes can take advantage of this phenomenon to create "oxyanion holes" in order to stabilize charged transition states. Three atoms share four electrons in this interaction's "symmetric" type," which occurs in the bifluoride ion. Antiparallel beta-sheets are slightly more stable than parallel ones due to this interaction that defines the secondary structures of proteins. For the point, name this dipole-dipole interaction between electronegative atoms and a namesake element.
hydrogen bonding (accept H bonding; prompt on "hydrogen" or "H" alone)
31. This condition decreases GATA2 levels and promotes recruitment of p300/CPB and expression of ET-1 to form a namesake response complex. In addition to acidosis, this condition can trigger neutralization of the Von Hippel Lindau tumor suppressor protein. Elevated levels of EPO are associated with this cellular condition, which is regulated by namesake inducible factors. Kaelin Jr, Ratcliffe, and Semenza won the 2019 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on how cells sense this condition. Freediving blackout can occur due to the cerebral form of this condition, which is also caused by hypocapnia, a related condition to a different respiratory molecule. For the point, name this condition of local or generalized deprivation of oxygen from tissue.
hypoxia [accept low concentrations of oxygen; accept anoxia]
17. Multiplying by this number is equivalent to a 90 degree counterclockwise rotation in an Argand diagram. This number is represented by the point (0,1) [[zero comma one]] in the complex plane. This fourth root of unity is multiplied by a square root in the quadratic formula whenever the discriminant is negative. This solution of "x squared plus 1 equals 0" is multiplied by b in the standard form of a complex number. For the point, name this imaginary number, the square root of negative one.
i
9) A "little" one of these periods started in the sixteenth century. Interglacial periods occur during these events, one of which was caused by the Great Oxygenation Event. Saber-toothed cats and woolly mammoths lived during one of these events, which can lead to a "Snowball Earth" effect. For the point, name these extended periods of time of low Earth temperature.
ice ages
12) A National Laboratory named for these objects in Colorado stores about 17 kilometers worth of these objects. The official stratigraphic boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs is defined by evidence from one of these objects from Greenland. Dating of isotopes and impurities found within air trapped inside these objects has helped us understand ancient climates. For the point, name these long vertical tubes which are cut as samples from the frozen landscape in places like Antarctica.
ice cores (prompt on cores; prompt on ice samples)
16. This statement is modified by the acentric factor in the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation. Maxwell's equal area rule is used below critical temperatures to correct an equation that generalizes this law. In that equation about this law, the variable "a" accounts for intermolecular attractions. Corrected by the van der Waals equation, this law is most accurate at high temperatures and low pressures. For the point, rules named for Avogadro, Charles, and Boyle are combined in what law written PV equals nRT?
ideal gas law
A ghost town near Beatty, Nevada is named for the abundance of one example of this rocktype called rhyolite. This type of rock is classified as intrusive if it forms below the Earth's surface. Magnesium and iron are heavily concentrated in mafic examples of this rock, such as basalt, while felsic examples include granite. For the point, name this type of rock formed by cooling magma or lava, unlike sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
igneous rocks
29. The developer of a coefficient for this process, Sewall Wright, also defined the effective population size by a one-generation increase in either variance or this quantity. Before transplanting a pack of new wolves, Isle Royale only had two wolves left with a high coefficient of 0.438 for this process, a key contributor to the collapse of the population. The Westermarck effect helps explain why it doesn't occur often in humans. Plants enforce outcrossing via self-incompatibility in an effort to inhibit this process. A namesake depression occurs due to this process where deleterious recessive mutations are accumulated. This process results in increased homozygosity in a population. For the point, name this process where genetically similar organisms mate with each other.
inbreeding [prompt on incest]
1) It's not "guide" or "indicator," but fossils described by this word, such as ammonites and trilobites, had wide geographic distribution. Those fossils described by this word are used to date strata because they were present for a short time. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium is, for the point, a value called what word of refraction?
index
Trigonometric functions can be written as polynomials generated by a type of these mathematical objects named for Brook Taylor. The value of one type of these objects is equal to its first term divided by one minus its common ratio; that is the geometric type. For a given sequence with terms an [a sub n], this concept is written as "sigma of a sub n." For the point, give this term for the sum of the terms of a sequence.
infinite series (do not accept or prompt on sequence
3) It's not communication, but in the book A Mathematical Theory Of Communication, Claude Shannon outlined ideas for a theory related to this other word. The space this concept takes up can be measured using its namesake entropy. For the point, name this 10-letter word related to knowledge, such as possessing facts, an important concept in communication and data science, commonly abbreviated to just "info."
information (prompt on "info")
16) A NASA space telescope for observing this portion of the spectrum is called WISE. Night-vision goggles can detect the near-form of this radiation from heat imaging, which is why this type of radiation is popularly known as "heat radiation." For the point, name this portion of the spectrum with wavelength shorter than radio waves and longer than visible light.
infrared
For a logical proposition "P implies Q," this name is given to the proposition "not P implies not Q." For a function, this object can be constructed by reflecting the function's graph across the line y equals x. The functions "y equals the square root of x" and "y equals x squared" have this relationship to each other. The multiplicative type is often called a reciprocal. For the point, give this term for mathematical objects that undo operations, whose additive type for a number x is negative x.
inverse (accept inverse statement or proposition, accept inverse function, etc.
Lugol's solution of this element can disinfect drinking water and is used as a stain in cell microscopy. This element's isotope 131 is radioactive and particularly dangerous when absorbed in the thyroid. Deficiency of this element causes Graves' disease and goiter, so for public health purposes, this element is often added to table salt. This solid halogen is found directly above astatine on the periodic table. For the point, name this chemical element with atomic symbol I.
iodine
16) This is the largest element that forms a natural dimer. Potassium and this other element are found in the common disinfectant, Lugol's solution. Ions of this element react with H+ and hydrogen peroxide in a namesake clock reaction. Deficiencies of this element cause an enlargement of the thyroid gland known as a goiter. For the point, name this element with atomic number fifty-three and chemical symbol I.
iodine (prompt on I before mentioned)
8) For a crystalline structure made up of these types of bonds, the enthalpy change can be calculated from the lattice energy using the Born-Haber cycle. This type of bond most readily occurs between weakly electronegative atoms and strongly electronegative atoms like alkali metals and halogens. For the point, name this type of bond, typically stronger than a covalent bond, where one atom completely gives up an electron to the other.
ionic bonds
30) Two atoms of this type share a bond in ylides [ill-ides]. SN1 reactions precede via the production of this type of carbon atom. Adding a "common" compound that shares this characteristic with a product already in solution will decrease solubility of a solute and usually shifts pH. In addition to being the conjugate base to acetic acid, acetate is this type of molecule. This type of atom usually has a plus sign or a negative sign written next to it. For the point, name this type of atom with net electric charge.
ions (accept ionic or cation [cat-"eye"-on] or anion [an-"eye"-on]; accept any indication of non-zero charge until "electric" is read)
The energy used to create one of these species is measured by an atom's electron affinity. Molecules formed by combining two of these species, especially via the neutralization of an acid and a base, will form a salt; salts are held together by strong bonds named for this type of compound. For the point, name this type of compound in which the electron count differs from the proton count, thus giving the compound a positive or negative charge.
ions (accept specific types of ions like cations or anions; accept ionic bond(ing) after "bond" is read
A highly venomous species of this animal in class cubozoa is found off the coast of Australia. These cnidarians [nih-dare-ee-uns] do not have a respiratory system and possess a nerve net, rather than a more standard central nervous system. The Lion's Mane and Umbrella are specific species of this animal, which may travel in blooms. The Medusa is another type of, for the point, what sea creatures known for stinging tentacles?
jellyfish (or Medusozoa
A gland that sits on top of this organ secrets aldosterone, which regulates sodium reuptake. The glomerular capillaries are adjacent to the Bowman's capsule of this organ. Nephrons perform the basic function of this organ, which is connected by ureters to the bladder. Patients with renal failure, or the failure of these organs, may undergo dialysis. For the point, name these bean-shaped organs that are used to remove waste products.
kidney
22) This organ produces an important hormone that regulates blood pressure with angiotensin and aldosterone. The functional unit of this organ includes notable features such as Bowman's capsule and the glomerulus; that functional unit is the nephron. The adrenal glands sit above this organ which most people have two copies of. For the point, name these bean-shaped renal organs that filter blood and produce urine.
kidneys
29) This unit was recently redefined through measurements of Planck's constant, until then this was the only SI unit defined by a physical device. The standard units for moment of inertia are derived by multiplying this unit by meters squared. Balances measure this SI unit, typically by one thousandths of it. For the point, name this SI unit for mass approximately equal to 2.2 pounds.
kilogram (do NOT accept or prompt on gram) (
Bryan Kibble's watt balance seeks to redefine this SI unit. This unit of measure appears in the denominator of the definition of molality, in which it applies to the solvent. This unit to the first power is found in the numerator of an expression for joules, where it's multiplied by meters squared and divided by seconds squared. This is the only base SI unit that employs a prefix, indicating a size 1,000 times greater than a related unit. For the point, name this SI unit of mass equal to about 2.2 pounds.
kilograms (accept kg; do not accept or prompt on gram; do not accept or prompt on mass alone, but prompt on descriptions of "the (SI) unit for mass"
1) For a spring this quantity is given by one half the spring constant times displacement squared. This quantity for an object can be calculated as the momentum of the object squared over twice its mass, but is more regularly calculated using one-half mass times the velocity of the object squared. The total energy is equal to potential energy plus this form of energy. For the point, name this energy of motion.
kinetic energy (accept kinetic after "energy"; prompt on "energy")
30) A quantity symbolized U is subtracted from this other quantity to give the Lagrangian, and U is added to this quantity to give the Hamiltonian. This quantity for an object is equal to momentum squared over two times the mass. Generally, this quantity equals one-half times mass times the velocity squared. A ball rolling down a hill has, For the point, what energy of moving objects which is contrasted with potential energy?
kinetic energy (prompt on energy)
18) This adjective names an isotope effect used to study reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry. Another branch of chemistry named with this term uses first and second order rate laws to classify reactions. A theory of gases described by this adjective assumes particles have negligible size, completely elastic collisions, and constant motion. For the point, name this adjective that labels a type of energy proportional to the temperature of a gas, in contrast to the potential energy.
kinetics
6. Briggs and Haldane provided a proof of one equation used in this study of enzymes that requires a steady-state approximation. Replacing hydrogen with deuterium slows down the speed of the reaction in the [this word] isotope effect. The two possible outcomes of a reaction typically favor either the thermodynamic product or a product by this name. The Michaelis-Menten equation describes this study of enzymes. This branch of physical chemistry can use first or second-order approximations of reactants to determine the reaction rate constant. For the point, name this adjective which describes the form of energy of objects in motion contrasted with potential energy.
kinetics
17. A variant of this organism known as TgPVR is studied for its ability to be infected by the poliovirus. Using pneumococcus strains, Frederick Griffith showed that transformation could occur by injecting type III-S virulent strains and type II-R strains into these animals. Mario R. Capecchi, Martin Evans, and Oliver Smithies won the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for developing a way to "knock-out" genes in this animal. The Ob/ob variety of this animal is prone to obesity, and a common species of this animal is Mus Musculus. For the point, name this most commonly used rodent in lab experiments, sometimes confused with rats.
laboratory mice or mouse [UNTIL MENTIONED: accept Mus Musculus; prompt on Musculus]
3) A prehistoric large example of one of these bodies was Agassiz. Isle Royale on one of these bodies of water was used to study wolf populations. The kettle type of these bodies can be formed by retreating glaciers. Erosion can create U-shaped examples of these bodies called Oxbow. For the point, name these large, closed bodies of water that include Michigan and Superior.
lake (accept Lake Superior after "Isle Royale")
These geographical features are called meromictic when their layers don't mix; if that status persists, a limnic eruption may occur, as happened at Nyos in 1986. One of these bodies under Antarctica is named Vostok. Like basins, these features are called endorheic if they do not have an outflow, and the "oxbow" type of these structures is formed when a meander is cut off from a river. For the point, name these bodies of water, such as five "Great" ones in North America.
lakes (prompt on general descriptions of bodies of water; do not accept ponds or other specific types
16. A sturzstrom is one of these events in which the horizontal distance is much longer than the vertical distance. One of these events in 1958 created the largest tsunami wave ever measured and is thought to have been triggered by an earthquake. When these events reach active streams, they can become much bigger thanks to the added water and debris. As a type of mass wasting, these events can be distinguished by their contents being largely soil or rock. For 10 points, name these sudden movements of earth down a slope which are similar to avalanches.
landslides
The sturzstrom type of these events undergoes a particularly large horizontal displacement. This type of mass wasting occurs at very high speeds. Ice can trigger a type of these known as a topple, while heavy rain can trigger mudflows as part of these events. Liquefaction can weaken slope stability, triggering these events on hillsides. For the point, name these events in which the unstable ground falls away.
landslides (accept landslips; prompt on mass wasting before it is said
18. Two of these elements experience strong Van Vleck Paramagnetism due to small spacing between ground and excited states. The short luminescence given off by ions off these elements is used in the DELFIA assay. A plus three oxidation state salt derivative of one member of these elements is commonly used as an MRI contrast agent. Due to poor shielding of the 4f electrons of these elements, they experience a namesake contraction in atomic radius. Members of this group of elements include Europium, Samarium, and Ytterbium. This group of elements begins at 57 and ends at 71. For the point, name this group of elements that sits below the transition metals on the periodic table above the actinides. .
lanthanides [accept lanthanoids]
26. Claude Cohen-Tannoudji proposed using two of these devices in the method of Sisyphus cooling. Arthur Schawlow and Charles Townes suggested a potassium lamp could serve as the basis for one of these devices. The Schawlow-Townes proposal for these devices was dismissed by Arthur Maiman in favor of a ruby crystal and a xenon flash lamp. Placing an attenuator can cause the Q factor of a component of this device to decrease while waiting for gain saturation and then turns off to allow for a high Q factor in the method of Q-switching to make giant pulses from these devices. For continuous wave operation, this device requires a pump source to maintain population inversion. For the point, name these devices that produce light via stimulated emission.
lasers [or light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation]
13) As bubbles form within this substance, scoria may be produced or amygdules may fill the gaps. Small blocky rocks within this substance are called clinker, while smoother "pillow" formations of this substance are common underwater. A coulee [koo-lee] may be formed when this substance forms a dome and then continues to slowly flow. This substance can be classified into pahoehoe [pa-howay-howay] and a'a [ah-ah] types based on its flow. For the point, name this substance, which is formed when molten rock called magma reaches the Earth's surface.
lava
20) Using this element and sulfuric acid, Gaston Plant´e made the first rechargeable battery. TEL, an anti-knocking agent, was phased out of gasoline for containing this element. This element's use and presence in pipes is a biological hazard, despite its Latin name inspiring the English word for "plumbing." For the point, name this element with atomic number eighty-two and chemical symbol Pb.
lead (accept plumbum before "plumbing," and prompt afterwards; prompt on Pb)
4) Palisade cells and mesophyll cells are part of these structures. Monocots and dicots are named due to their embryos having differing numbers of cotyledons, which are the proto form of these structures. Transpiration occurs through the stomata of these structures, which are attached to the rest of the organism by a petiole. The fronds of ferns are examples of these structures, some of which change color in the autumn on deciduous trees. For the point, name these green plant organs, the main site of photosynthesis.
leaf (accept leaves)
6) If these structures have no petiole, they are called sessile. The C4 pathway isolates carbon fixation to bundle sheath cells in these structures, though most other plants utilize the palisade and spongy mesophyll in them. A waxy cuticle coats these structures, which exchange gas through pores called stomata. These primary sites of photosynthesis change color and fall due to seasonal changes. For the point, name these flat plant structures.
leaf (accept leaves)
29. These structures are called sessile when they lack petioles. Midribs are the main vascular tissue bundles on these structures, whose vein patterns are generally "parallel" or "branched." Palisade layers in these structures lie below waxy cuticles, which protect these structures from losing too much water through transpiration. Guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stoma in these structures. For the point, name these green structures, the site of photosynthesis in plants.
leaves (or leaf)
8) These creatures of the subclass Hirudinea were used in a practice meant to restore the balance of "humours" in the body. These annelids create a Y-shape mark when they bite. To collect these creatures, old animals would be walked through wetlands so these creatures could bite them. For the point, name these bloodsucking parasites that were used to draw blood in medieval medicine.
leeches
18) In an effect named for this device, gravity causes the bending of light. A formula describing these objects simplifies when these devices are very thick or thin. That formula contains terms for two radii, thickness, and focal length. These objects produce real and virtual images depending on whether they are concave or convex. For the point, name these optical devices that focus light to a single point.
lens [accept word forms like lenses and lensing]
5) Imperfections in these devices can create spherical, coma, and chromatic aberrations. The power of these devices is measured in diopters and can be found by taking the reciprocal of their focal length. These devices come in concave and convex varieties and are usually made out of glass. For the point, name these curved optical devices found in microscopes, telescopes, and glasses.
lenses
5) This disease is classified as multibacillary [mult-ee ba-SILL-uh-ree] or paucibacillary [paw-see ba-SILL-uh-ree]. It's not tuberculosis, but multidrug therapy to treat this disease uses clofazimine [cloh-faz-ee-meen], rifampicin [ruh-FAMP-uh-sin] and dapsone [dap sohn]. Only armadillos and humans can be infected with this disease caused by a species in the Mycobacterium genus. This disease is sometimes referred to as Hansen's disease. For the point, name this disease that causes nerve damage and skin lesions, a highly contagious disease that led to people being quarantined in namesake colonies.
leprosy (accept leper colonies; accept Hansen's disease before mentioned)
6. These entities when present cause a decrease in the Racah interelectronic repulsion parameter due to the nephelauxetic effect. The way these entities interact with a central element can be analyzed with the CBC Method for determining whether a label of L, X or Z should be assigned to them. The number of contiguous atoms needed to coordinate one of these entities determines hapticity. Coordination chemistry studies the way these entities bind to a central complex. For the point, name these molecules and ions that bind to and form coordination complexes with metals
ligand
23) This phenomenon occurs when stepped leaders connect with upward streamers, and it may create fulgurites in the soil. Collisions between ice crystals and graupel, which then separate to different parts of a cloud, are thought to provide the charge for this phenomenon. Rapid expansion of surrounding air due to heat creates the sound that often accompanies this phenomenon. For the point, name this weather phenomenon, a visible flash of electrical current between the ground and a cloud.
lightning
Tubes of fulgurite can be formed when this phenomenon occurs in a desert. A rare form of this phenomenon is thought to consist of small amounts of spherical plasma. A common rule of thumb holds that the distance from the observer to this phenomenon is equal to one mile for every five seconds that elapse between seeing this weather phenomenon and hearing it. For the point, give this term for the bright electric discharges that cause thunder during storms.
lightning (accept ball lightning
The most common site for this phenomenon is outside the town of Kifuka in Africa, and it's also highly common at the mouth of the Catatumbo River in Venezuela. One type of this phenomenon triggers colorful high altitude illuminations known as sprites. Fulminology is the study of this phenomenon, whose dry form often triggers wildfires. Ben Franklin's kite proved that this phenomenon was electric. For the point, name this powerful discharge seen during thunderstorms.
lightning strikes, storms, etc. (prompt on thunderstorms; prompt on thunder
This quantity is the second time derivative of position. This quantity is equal to the rate of change of velocity, and according to Newton's second law, mass times this quantity is equal to force. On Earth, the type of this quantity due to gravity is equal to 9.8 meters per second squared. A body moving at constant speed has a zero value for, For the point, what physical quantity that describes the slowing down or speeding up of an object?
linear acceleration
One formula for kinetic energy sets it equal to the square of this quantity, divided by double the mass. Force is equal to the change in this quantity over time, called the impulse. This quantity is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions, unlike kinetic energy which is lost in inelastic collisions. For the point, name this quantity, equal to an object's mass times its velocity, which describes the strength of a moving body.
linear momentum (do not accept or prompt angular momentum
22) De Broglie wavelength is equal to Planck's constant divided by this quantity. Symmetry under translations imply the conservation of this quantity by Noether's theorem. Newton's second law can be written as "force equals the rate of change of this quantity." In metric units, this quantity is measured as kilogram-meters per second. This quantity and kinetic energy are conserved in a perfectly elastic collision. For the point, name this measure of how difficult it is to stop something, equal to mass times velocity.
linear momentum (do not accept or prompt on angular momentum)
10) An isotope of this element is bombarded with neutrons in a method for producing tritium. Salts of this element are frequently used to treat psychiatric disorders. This element is sometimes used to increase the efficiency of smelting aluminum. Ions of this element are frequently used in rechargeable batteries found in phones and laptops. For the point, name this element with atomic number 3 represented by the symbol Li.
lithium (accept Li before it is read)
This element and copper are found alongside other functional groups in Gilman's reagent. This element is commonly used as a treatment for sufferers of bipolar disorder. Ions of this element move between electrodes during discharge and charging of a namesake type of battery that, in 2016, caused numerous Samsung Galaxy phones to be recalled due to fire hazard. For the point, name this lightest alkali metal and third-lightest element on the periodic table, whose chemical symbol is Li.
lithium (or Li before mentioned
8. In this specific device, an electrolyte serves as a guard separating a certain positive ion and trapping it in graphite while electrons are able to flow back through a circuit. A separator helps prevent explosions in these devices which can sometimes happen when mistakes in the manufacturing process occur causing the cathode and anode to touch, as happened with some Samsung Galaxy Note 7s. For the point, name this rechargeable battery that makes use of the lightest alkali metal.
lithium ion battery [prompt on reusable / rechargeable battery; after "battery" accept lithium ion]
8. John B. Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino were honored with the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work done on the advancement of these devices. In this specific device, an electrolyte serves as a guard separating a certain positive ion and trapping it in graphite while electrons are able to flow back through a circuit. A separator helps prevent explosions in these devices which can sometimes happen when mistakes in the manufacturing process occur causing the cathode and anode to touch, as happened with some Samsung Galaxy Note 7s. For the point, name this rechargeable battery that makes use of the lightest alkali metal.
lithium ion battery [prompt on reusable / rechargeable battery; after "battery" accept lithium ion]
10) Lactic acid is transported from muscles to this organ to produce glucose in the Cori cycle. The falciform ligament divides this organ into left and right lobes. This largest internal organ in the body produces a digestive fluid that is stored in the gallbladder. Excessive alcohol consumption can cause cirrhosis, or scarring, of this organ. For the point, name this organ that produces bile, detoxifies blood, and becomes inflamed in hepatitis.
liver
27) This animal suborder contains the most niche-partitioned amniotic genus at over 400 species, Anolis. This animal suborder taxonomically shares an order with amphisbaenians and serpents. The largest member of this subgroup of squamate reptiles is the Komodo Dragon. For the point, name these reptiles which include chameleons, geckos, and iguanas.
lizards (anti-prompt on specific lizards with which are apart of what larger suborder?"; accept Lacertilia; prompt on "squamate"s or squamata before "squamate" mentioned; prompt on "reptile" before mentioned)
8) First order systems in this mathematical discipline are also known as "predicate" [this word]. Boolean algebra is used to represent truth values in this discipline's propositional form. It's not philosophy, but Aristotle established syllogisms as an early way to derive conclusions from a valid inference in this discipline. For the point, name this 5-letter word for the study of reasoning which gets its name from the Greek word logos.
logic (accept propositional logic; accept formal logic; accept propositional calculus; accept zeroth-order logic; prompt on Boolean algebra before mentioned)
9. One approach to computing that involves this philosophical field allows variables to take any real value from 0 to 1 and is a "fuzzy" approach to this discipline. W.V. Quine introduced definitions for terms like "prime implicants" in his textbook Philosophy of [this field]. Gottlob Frege (FRAY-guh) introduced symbols for quantifiers in this study and related this field to mathematics in his Foundations on Arithmetic. First order and second order predicate extensions of this study stemmed out of this study's propositional school. Computer scientists and engineers can use Karnaugh maps and truth tables to assess Boolean circuits in the Boolean category of this study. For the point, name this study of reasoning which Aristotle spearheaded the formal study of with his investigation of syllogisms.
logic [accept Boolean logic; accept fuzzy logic]
31. The functional units of this organ can communicate by Pores of Kohn, which mature at the age of 4 around the same side of this organ's canals of Lambert. Angiotensin converting enzymes not produced by vascular endothelium are predominantly found in the circulation of these organs. DPPC is a major component of the surfactant produced by these organs to maintain surface tension with the atmosphere. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of these organs, which are divided into five distinct lobes and inflate through contraction of the diaphragm. For the point, name these organs responsible for oxygen uptake from the air.
lungs
Lacteals are members of this organ system that take up chyle. Infections in this organ system can cause a swelling known as elephantiasis. The largest organ in this system is the spleen. Cancers of this organ system are split into Hodgkin's and Non-Hodgkin. For the point, name this subset of the immune and circulatory system responsible for the filtration of blood, represented by its namesake "nodes."
lymphatic system (accept lymph nodes
This vesicle's lumen maintains a pH level between 4 and 5. Christian de Duve's Nobel was earned for discovering both peroxisomes and these organelles. Proteases [pro-tee-aces] and lipases are used in this structure, where autophagy, a form of natural cell death, takes place. Some vacuoles have been found to take part in this organelle's primary behavior. For the point, name this cellular organelle that breaks down cell waste.
lysosomes
Blas Cabrera detected one of these particles on Valentine's Day 1982, but none have been detected since. Paul Dirac showed that the existence of these particles would imply that all electric charge is quantized. These particles cannot exist according to one of Gauss' laws. These particles are the magnetic analogue of a point charge. For the point, name these hypothetical particles that would only have either a north or south pole.
magnetic monopoles
28) These materials cause the splitting of spectral lines in an effect named for Pieter Zeeman. Particularly strong examples of these entities often contain rare-earth metals like neodymium. The strength of fields created by these objects is measured in Gauss or Teslas and permanent examples are named after iron. For the point, name these objects which possess north and south poles and which can be found in compasses or attached to refrigerators.
magnets (accept ferromagnets; accept permanent magnets; accept magnetic fields)
The deadliest form of this disease is caused by the falciparum species. Artemisinin provides a particularly fast treatment for this disease. This disease is caused by Plasmodium parasites that are passed through Anopheles saliva. The bark of the cinchona tree can be processed into quinine, which treats and prevents this disease. Fever and vomiting are common symptoms of, for the point, what mosquito-borne disease commonly found along the equator?
malaria
16) The Japanese vessel Chikyu seeks to reach this region bounded by the Mohorovicic and Gutenberg discontinuities. "Plumes" named for this region are a proposed explanation for the existence of hotspots. This layer contains the asthenosphere and the lower part of the lithosphere. For the point, name this viscous layer of the Earth between the core and the crust.
mantle
25) An ancient one of these objects is commonly called the "T and O" after the shapes that make it up. An icosahedron is used in Buckminster Fuller's "Dymaxion" one of these objects. Isopleths can be displayed on these objects, such as contour lines showing relief. Software generating these objects is known as GIS, and creating these objects requires a choice of projection such as Gall-Peters or Mercator. For the point, name these navigation aids constructed by people called cartographers.
maps
21) The ratio of this quantity to charge is used in a namesake form of spectrometry [SPECK - trom -uh - tree]. The non-zero values of this quantity for the W and Z bosons is due to symmetry breaking in the Higgs field. Particles that are thought to have a value of zero for this quantity include gluons and photons. Einstein related energy to this quantity times the speed of light squared. For the point, name this quantity measured in kilograms.
mass (prompt on kilogram until mentioned by asking "What quantity is measured in kilograms?"; prompt on m)
25. The 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to John Bennett Fenn for inventing Electrospray Ionization as a means to ionize molecules for this technique. A cinnamic acid derivative is often used for the matrix in the softer MALDI ionization technique which results in lower fragmentation of the sample preceding this technique. This technique measures the m-to-z ratio of analytes obtained from a given sample. Often mistakenly referred to as a form of "spectroscopy" is, For the point, what technique that uses electromagnetism and certain quantity that gives rise to weight in order to separate analytes.
mass spectrometry
34. In one variety of this technique, particles in a trap are excited to their cyclotron frequencies, which are then converted into analyzable data via Fourier transform. Peptides are broken down into fragments during the "tandem" form of this technique, whose first step can involve "soft" ionization techniques like ESI and MALDI. When examining output from this technique, a common reference point is "M," the value for the molecular ion peak. For the point, name this analytical laboratory technique used to sort ions based on their mass-to-charge ratios.
mass spectrometry
25. Since these cells are surrounded by weak membranes in the condition Dermatographic urticaria, a phenomenon called "skin writing" results, where welts develop on skin after it has been itched. These cells can be classified as either "T" or "TC" depending on their tryptase and chymase levels. Along with basophils, these cells express the receptor Fc epsilon RI, which binds to immunoglobulin E to induce degranulation, a process where these cells release substances like histamine. For the point, name these white bloods cells known for their roles in mediating allergic responses.
mast cells
2) Examples of these activities include Hackenbush and Nim. A cellular automaton invented by John Conway is known as one of these activities "of Life." One of these activities that has benefits balanced by costs is called "zero-sum." A Nash equilibrium occurs if none of the participants in these activities can gain by changing their strategy. For the point, name these activities like go and chess.
mathematical games
24. This operation may be defined by summing n-fold products over the symmetric group of order n weighted by the sign of the permutation. The Leibniz formula defining this operation may also be written in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol. This operation is applied to the Jacobian when changing coordinates of multivariable integrals. This operation can be used to solve systems of linear equations by Cramer's Rule. A matrix is invertible if and only if this operation is nonzero. This operation is only defined on square matrices. For the point, name this matrix operation which when applied to a two by two matrix returns (read as letters) 'a' 'd' minus 'b' 'c'.
matrix determinant
28. This value for a function can be found by dividing the definite integral of the function by the distance between the integral's endpoints. Taking the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of a set of n numbers, then multiplying by n, gives the harmonic type of this quantity; that value is always less than or equal to the geometric and arithmetic types of this quantity. For the point, name this statistical measurement of a set of numbers whose arithmetic type is commonly known as an average.
mean (accept average before mentioned)
6) For a uniform distribution, this quantity is equal to a plus b over 2. The "harmonic" type of this value for two numbers x and y is given by [read slowly] "two over quantity one over x plus one over y." The AM-GM inequality relates the standard form of this value to its "geometric" form. The "arithmetic" form of this quantity sums the values and divides by the number of them. For the point, give this term meaning the average of a set of values.
mean (accept specific types like arithmetic mean; prompt on "expected value"; prompt on "average")
30. Given a probability density function f of x, this statistic for the distribution is equal to the integral from negative infinity to infinity of x times f of x d x. This statistic converges to the expected value of a distribution according to the law of large numbers. One Pythagorean type of this statistic can be obtained by multiplying all the numbers in a set together and taking the n-root where n is the total number of data points. Types of this statistic include geometric, harmonic, and arithmetic. For the point, name this statistic, a measure of the average from a set of numbers.
mean [before mentioned: accept expected value or ev, prompt on average]
30. Given a probability density function f of x, this statistic for the distribution is equal to the integral from negative infinity to infinity of x times f of x d x. This statistic converges to the expected value of a distribution according to the law of large numbers. One Pythagorean type of this statistic can be obtained by multiplying all the numbers in a set together and taking the n-root where n is the total number of data points. Types of this statistic include geometric, harmonic, and arithmetic. For the point, name this statistic, a measure of the average from a set of numbers.
mean [before mentioned: accept expected value or ev, prompt on average]
During one part of this process, the leptotene and pachytene stages occur, while another part involves the creation of chiasmata. This process increases genetic diversity through homologous recombination. In females, this process produces three polar bodies. This process goes through two of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. For the point, name this type of cell division that forms haploid cells, contrasted with mitosis.
meiosis (prompt on cell division before mentioned
8) For two substances, the mixture with the lowest value for this temperature is called eutectic. Certain substances undergo crystallization after reaching this temperature. One property of this temperature for a substance is that it is lowered when another substance is added. For water, this temperature, at which it transitions to ice, is 0 degrees Celsius. For the point, name this temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
melting point (accept freezing point)
11) This quantity is minimized at a mixture's eutectic point. Ethylene glycol lowers this quantity by disrupting hydrogen bonds. Applying salt to roads during winter is one way to lower this quantity for ice. When water reaches this point, it exists in equilibrium as a solid and liquid. This quantity is equal to 0 degrees Celsius for water. For the point, name this temperature where a phase transition from solid to liquid occurs.
melting point (accept freezing point; accept crystallization point; accept "temperature" in place of "point"; prompt on "0 degrees Celsius", "273(.15) Kelvin" or "32 degrees Fahrenheit")
29) This word describes a subset of T-cells that have encountered an antigen before and can mount a fast immune response. Retrograde and anterograde are used to describe a physiological effect where this faculty is damaged. This faculty deteriorates in Alzheimer's disease and can be erased partially or completely by amnesia. For the point, name this ability to recall information.
memory (accept descriptions of either recalling or forming memories; prompt on amnesia before it is read by asking "What mental ability is damaged?")
8. A low power variant of the in-development DDR5 implementation of this resource was released in February 2019. The kernel can make use of zones to manage this resource alongside algorithms like the buddy system to prevent its external or internal fragmentation. This resource, which can be volatile or non-volatile, is managed by programs in C with the functions free and malloc. The stack and heap are two fragments of this resource used by computer programs. This resource is physically implemented on computers using RAM and ROM. For the point, name this portion of the computer where information is stored for later use.
memòry
25) This element is the densest naturally occurring liquid on earth, and 760 millimeters of this element is equal to one atmospheric pressure unit. A barometer with this element was invented by Evangelista Torricelli. This element has the symbol Hg. For the point, name this element known as quicksilver, which is commonly used in thermometers.
mercury (accept quicksilver until it is read; accept Hg until it is read)
11) The chloride of this element is used in the saturated calomel electrode. Thiols bond tightly to compounds of this element, so they are also named for "capturing" this element. Alloys that include this element are called amalgams. This element is bonded to sulfur in its most common ore cinnabar. This toxic element was used in early barometers and thermometers. For the point, name this metal that is liquid at room temperature and has symbol Hg.
mercury (or Hg before mention)
20) This element is found with sulfur in cinnabar. Alloys containing this element are referred to as amalgams. Bromine and this element are the only liquids at room temperature. This element was used in the first thermometers and its use in hat factories led to poisoning from it being called "mad hatter disease." For the point, name this element with atomic number 80 and symbol Hg.
mercury (prompt on Hg before mention)
24) Biomedical values of pressure are typically reported in millimeters of this element. Plasticlaminated gloves are now required to handle this element's dimethyl variant after the tragic death of Dartmouth chemist, Karen Wetterhahn. Touching an iron nail to this element's surface causes it to oscillate wildly in its namesake "beating heart" experiment. This metal causes erethism, which is better known as "mad hatter disease." For the point, name this metal, known to alchemists as quicksilver and symbolized Hg.
mercury (prompt on Hg)
These objects are classified by their foliation, since their grains are oriented parallel to each other and perpendicular to the direction of the stress. These rocks originate as protoliths, as when mudstones become shale, a type of this classification of rock. Marble is this type of rock that formed from the protolith limestone. For the point, name this class of rocks which form from a transformation of rocks under extreme heat and pressure, contrasted with igneous or sedimentary rocks.
metamorphic rocks (prompt on rocks during the first sentence
21) This compound and water are the products of the Sabatier reaction. The "burp" hypothesis uses release of this compound from clathrates to explain a sudden climate shift at the end of the Paleocene epoch. Many archaeans generate this compound in the form of marsh gas, and about 25 percent of it in the atmosphere comes from ruminants like cows. It is thirty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. The main component of natural gas is, for the point, what simplest hydrocarbon with formula CH4?
methane (accept CH4 before it is mentioned)
27) The Nankai trough contains a large field of these compounds which Japan may exploit for energy production. A hypothesis called this compound's "gun" suggests a positive feedback loop for global warming due to the melting of these compounds. Typically found on the continental shelf, these compounds form when a product of anaerobic bacterial decay mixes with water at low temperatures and high pressures. For the point, name these compounds which consist of CH4 trapped within cages of ice.
methane clathrates
2) In 2007, for their gene-editing work on this model organism, Smithies, Evans, and Capecchi won a Nobel Prize. This animal's knockout variant comes from the species Mus Musculus. This group of rodents is phenotypically characterized by tails longer than their bodies, a pointed nose, and rounded ears. For the point, name this most commonly lab tested rodent, commonly mistaken for rats.
mice (or mouse; accept house mouse or house mice; prompt on "rodents")
32) For pioneering cryogenic techniques with this device, three scientist won the 2017 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This device can use scanning and transmission techniques when taking advantage of the wave nature of an electron. Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek were pioneers of using glass lenses to create magnification in this device. For the point, name this scientific instrument used to magnify tiny specimen.
microscope(s) (accept electron microscope(s))
20) The atomic force variety of this device was an improvement on the scanning tunneling type of this device. The phase contrast type of these devices converts subtle phase shifts of light into more visible brightness contrasts. Robert Hooke coined the word "cell" based on his work with this device. Antoine van Leeuwenhoek [lay-vehn-hook] became the first person to observe bacteria by using, for the point, what type of device which allows scientists to see extremely small objects?
microscopes
11) One form of this substance contains colostrum, which has many immune benefits. A1 and A2 are variants of a protein found in this substance that differ only by the substitution of one amino acid, but which may lead to differences in digestion. A mutation possibly related to differences in Vitamin D exposure has led to lactase persistence, enabling the consumption of this substance by many adults. The mammary glands produce, for the point, what substance that provides nutrition to young mammals?
milk
17) After obtaining the product of this task, concentrating is done to remove gangue [gang]. This task has open pit, strip, and underground varieties. An effective method of cracking rock for this task was fire-setting, which was Alfred Nobel's reason for inventing dynamite. For the point, name this task of extracting valuable material from the Earth, such as coal, diamonds, and various ores.
mining (accept mines; accept extracting ores or extraction; accept descriptions of obtaining minerals) (
28) Phragmosomes form prior to this process in plants. When nuclear lamina are phosphorylated, one stage of this process allows microtubules to begin attaching themselves to kinetochores. After the spindle checkpoint, sister chromatids are cleaved during anaphase and begin to separate into two new nuclei during this process's telophase. Occurring after G2 interphase is, for the point, what process of cell division that results in two daughter cells identical to the original cell?
mitosis
13) Repeatedly undergoing this process results in the shortening of telomeres. A checkpoint in this process ensures kinetochores are attached to spindle fibers. Cytokinesis shortly follows this process, which occurs after the G2 phase and is abbreviated M. The phases of this process include prophase, anaphase, and telophase. For the point, name this asexual division of a cell that produces two identical daughter cells.
mitosis (prompt on "M" phase until mentioned; prompt on "cell division; do NOT accept or prompt on meiosis)
11) A gas equal to one of this unit at standard temperature and pressure will fill up 22.4 liters of volume. This SI unit is equivalent to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12. Avagadro's number relates one of this unit to 6.022 times 10 to the 23rd molecules or atoms. For the point, name this unit in chemistry which shares its name with a small burrowing mammal.
mole
4) Both forms of this quantity are conserved under translational and rotational invariance according to Noether's theorem. Unlike energy, the linear form of this quantity is conserved during collisions. The angular form of this quantity can be obtained as the radius cross the linear form of this quantity. L is used to represent the angular form of this quantity. For the point, name this product of mass and velocity, quantification of an object's tendency to stay in motion.
momentum (accept linear momentum; accept angular momentum)
11) In the Wallace effect, this process prevents the production of sterile hybrids to assist in speciation. Examples of this process include changes in coloration of peppered moths and beak size variation of Galapagos finches. For the point, name this process that preserves favorable variations in organisms, proposed by Charles Darwin.
natural selection (prompt on evolution; do not accept sexual selection)
24) Hodgkin and Huxley developed a model of these cells after experimenting with a Giant squid one. Santiago Ramon y Cajal [ee caHAL] determined the doctrine of these cells; that they communicate at synapses, which was later discovered to be done using neurotransmitters. These cells communicate through action potentials that they send down their axons and receive at their dendrites. For the point, name this type of nervous tissue cell found in the brain.
neurons (prompt on "axon" before mentioned)
CERN participated in the OPERA project searching for one type of these particles, which were first predicted by Wolfgang Pauli. The Super-Kamiokande observatory discovered that these fermions oscillate between muon and tau flavors. These particles can pass through the Sun's core and are named for their apparently negligible mass and lack of electric charge. For the point, name these extremely low mass particles.
neutrinos (accept types of neutrinos, like electron neutrino or tau neutrino or muon neutrino
31) Nuclear pasta refers to a type of degenerate matter thought to be found within the crust of these stars. These stars sit above the Chandrasekhar limit and below the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit, making them larger than white dwarfs. For the point, name this super dense type of star named for the neutral charged atomic nuclei component that make them up.
neutron stars
20) Degenerate matter hypothesized to exist in the center of these objects come in whimsicallynamed "pasta phases" like "lasagna" and "spaghetti." The crust of these objects can shift to cause starquakes which result in "glitches" that increase the rotation of these objects. The mass of these objects is bounded by the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit. When these objects spin rapidly they can be classified as a magnetar or pulsar. The smallest and densest observed star type to date is, for the point, what stellar remnant primarily composed of just one type of particle?
neutron stars (prompt on "pulsar" or "magnetar" before read)
Feuerbach showed that a certain circle passed through this many points of a triangle. This number is the only proper power of a prime that is 1 larger than another proper prime power. Real numbers with a single digit repeating after the decimal point are equivalent to fractions with this denominator. An arithmetic check of "casting out" this composite number works by computing the digit sum, much like its divisibility test. For the point, name this largest one-digit integer.
nine
32. Along with potassium, this element makes up the mineral saltpeter, still used today as an oxidizer in pyrotechnics. Bacteria known as diazotrophs help to increase the amount of this element in the soil in a process known as "fixing" this element. Eutrophication is the addition of compounds of this element to surface water, promoting the growth of algae, and is usually the result of over-fertilization of crops with urea or ammonia. For the point, name this element whose "cycle" on Earth includes its making up about 78 percent of the Earth's atmosphere.
nitrogen
4) An enzyme containing molybdenum [muh-LIB-duh-num] and cobalt, helps reduce a diatomic molecule of this element. Rhizobia helps fix a diatomic gas of this element in the soil, which is required for plant growth. With three atoms of hydrogen, this element forms the product of the Haber-Bosch process, ammonia. For the point, name this most abundant element in the Earth's atmosphere, with chemical symbol N.
nitrogen (accept dinitrogen; accept nitrogen gas; prompt on N or N2 before mention)
8) A primitive type of these devices can use gun-type assembly to fire on piece of metal into another. This technology was succeeded by a much more power version utilizing the Teller-Ulam design which included a secondary stage fueled by heavy hydrogen isotopes. Centrifuges are required to separate particular isotopes which are used for nuclear fission, typically of uranium or plutonium. For the point, identify these weapons, only two of which have ever been used in combat near the end of World War II.
nuclear weapon (accept: atomic bomb; accept; nuclear bomb; accept atomic weapon)
26) Modern variants of these devices made in the U.S. followed the Teller-Ulam design. These devices work either by chaining collisions of sub-critical material in the "gun method" or using chemically doped explosive lenses. These devices use fissile material such as enriched uranium or plutonium. For the point, name these weapons of mass destruction that can create giant mushroom clouds and radioactive contamination.
nuclear weapons (accept nuke accept nuclear bomb; accept nuclear warhead; accept atomic bombs; or atom bombs; or a-bombs; accept thermonuclear weapons; accept hydrogen bombs; or H-bombs)
21. A hohlraum acts as energy storage and casing for these devices. One component of these devices has its effect delayed via a tamper-pusher mechanism. The separation of primary and secondary components was a major breakthrough in the Teller-Ulam design of these devices. The two main designs of this device are the gun-type that impacts into a subcritical load or the implosion type where the outer shell collapses and compresses the core. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are radioactive materials used in these devices. For the point, name these explosive devices of war that operate via fission and fusion reactions.
nuclear weapons [accept thermonuclear weapons; accept hydrogen bomb; accept atomic bomb; accept H bomb; accept A bomb; accept fusion weapon; prompt on warhead; prompt on nukes which are informal terms for the actual device; prompt on weapons]
9) Importin and exportin proteins are responsible for shuttling cargo with NLS and NES signals into and out of this organelle. This organelle is studded with eight-fold symmetric pore complexes that look like mini-basketball hoops. A dense region within this organelle is the site of ribosome production. Within this organelle, both eu- [you] and hetero- forms of chromatin exist, depending on gene expression. For the point, name this organelle, where transcription occurs and where DNA is stored.
nucleus (accept nuclear membrane; do not accept or prompt on nucleolus)
30. In neutral geometry, these objects cannot exist at the summit vertices of a Saccheri quadrilateral. Two vectors form this type of angle when their dot product is negative. In a triangle, the square of the side opposite this type of angle is larger than the sum of the squares of the other two sides. Two altitudes lie outside triangles with this type of angle. The larger angle in a supplementary pair is, for the point, what type of angle measuring more than 90 degrees?
obtuse angle
27) In theory, a black hole can generate an oscillating Rosetta one of these things. Using conic sections, Carl Friedrich Gauss calculated one of these things that permitted the rediscovery of Ceres. Venus has the least eccentric one of these, while those of Neptune and Pluto intersect. A satellite with a period matching Earth's rotation has a geosynchronous one of these paths. For the point, give this term for the path a planet takes around a star.
orbit
3) Andrew Taylor Still founded a branch of medicine whose name begins with this Greek prefix. Loss of estrogen after menopause increases calcium levels in the blood in a condition beginning with this prefix which can lead to fractures in the elderly. A cancer common in young people is a sarcoma named with this prefix which may be found in the tibia. For the point, name this Greek prefix meaning "bone," which appears before "arthritis" in a condition abbreviated OA.
osteo- (accept osteopathic medicine or osteopathy until "prefix")
2) Researchers at Johns Hopkins University used CT scans on one of these animals to determine how they can strain their necks 270 degrees without injuring capillaries. Two types of this bird are described as "great-horned" and "snowy." Some of these birds are named for their screech while the most widely distributed is the common barn type. For the point, name these nocturnal birds associated with a "hoot-hoot" call.
owls (accept tawny owls; accept barn owls; accept screech owls; accept snowy owls; accept great horned owls)
A reaction described by this word that relies on DMSO is named for Michael Swern. A number described by this word has a value of +7 for manganese. During hydrogen gas's reaction with fluorine gas, hydrogen undergoes this type of process; indeed, fluorine usually causes other substances to undergo this process, because it takes away their electrons. This process takes place at the anode. For the point, name this type of chemical reaction that is paired with reduction, examples of which include rust.
oxidation (accept oxidation number; state, and/or reaction; prompt on redox before reduction is said; prompt on reduction-oxidation before reduction is said, and accept it afterward
4) A lysis reaction using this molecule splits alkenes into carboxylic acids and aldehydes. This molecule's concentration in the atmosphere is measured in Dobson units. Until they were banned by the Montreal Protocol, chlorofluorocarbons decreased the concentration of this molecule, resulting in a hole above Antarctica. For the point, name this molecule with chemical formula O3 that forms a namesake layer in the atmosphere.
ozone (accept ozonolysis; accept ozone layer; accept O3 before mentioned, prompt afterwards)
Sydney Chapman names a cycle that regenerates this compound, which is measured in Dobson units. Polar stratospheric clouds have led to decreasing levels of this compound above Antarctica. Chlorofluorocarbons have also led to the depletion of this compound. The Sun's UV radiation is absorbed by, for the point, what compound with chemical formula O3, found in a "layer" around the Earth?
ozone (layer (accept O3 before read; accept trioxygen
14. In the Criegee mechanism, this compound interacts with an alkene to form two carbonyl groups. This compound is naturally destroyed by UV light rays, as described in the Chapman cycle. This compound can be made through the corona discharge method and is measured in Dobson units. The Montreal Protocol concerned this compound, which is destroyed by chlorine radicals. For the point, what compound has three oxygen atoms and makes up a namesake "layer" in the stratosphere?
ozone (or trioxygen)
Henri Buisson and Charles Fabry's study of the UV spectrum deduced the existence of this substance in the atmosphere, after which Gordon Dobson invented an instrument to measure this substance. Free radicals like nitric oxide, chlorine, and bromine cause a chain reaction that depletes this substance, which led to the banning of CFCs starting in the 1970s. For the point, name this molecule consisting of three atoms of oxygen, which forms a protective layer against UV radiation in the stratosphere.
ozone layer
3. The protein MDM2 regulates this protein's function. People are often affected by Li-Fraumeni syndrome when they inherit only one copy of this protein, which is inactivated by E6, a protein associated with Human Papillomavirus. This protein upregulates p21 and can arrest the cell cycle at the G1/S checkpoint. While its expression can be stimulated by UV light, this protein can initiate apoptosis when DNA is irreparable. For the point, name this protein commonly described as the "guardian of the genome" for its role in preventing cancer.
p53 (or tumor protein p53)
13) For buffer systems, this quantity is calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Phenolphthalein [FEE noll THAY leen] changes from clear to pink as this quantity increases. Mixing compounds with a large difference in this value can lead to a neutralization reaction. It is defined as the negative logarithm of a solution's proton concentration. For the point, name this scale that goes from 1 to 14 with low values for acids and high values for bases.
pH
29) This quantity is plotted on the x-axis of a Pourbaix diagram. Proteins have neutral charge at a value of this quantity called the isoelectric point. Lime is used to increase this quantity in soil, and buffer solutions can be used to maintain a relatively constant value of this quantity during chemical reactions. Phenolphthalein turns pink above 8.5 for this quantity, such as in a solution of baking soda. Calculated as the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration, for the point, name this measure of acidity that is 7 for pure water.
pH
(4) Two phenol [[FEE-nahl]] groups are found in a brominated example of these substances used to track the progression of gel electrophoresis [[ee-lek-tro-foh-REE-sis]]. Urine or saliva tests may use a type of Hydrion paper blotted with these substances, one example of which is called bromothymol [[bro-moh-"THIGH"-mol]] blue. One of these substances called phenolphthalein [[fee-nolf-THAY-leen]] turns pink at the equivalence point of a titration. For the point, name these substances that change color at different pH levels, which include red cabbage juice and litmus.
pH Indicators (or acid-base Indicators; accept Color Markers; prompt on "dye"; prompt on "litmus")
5) This material can be coated with kaolinite or talc to make it appear glossy. The invention of this material is attributed to Han eunuch Cai Lun ["sigh" loon]. The creation of this material involves the extraction pulp. Along with vellum, Johannes [YO-hahn-ess] Gutenberg implemented movable type on this material to manufacture his namesake Bible. For the point, name this material made from ground up fiber and cellulose in wood.
paper (accept coated paper; do not accept or prompt on "papyrus")
12) One of these statements refers to "the set of all sets that do not contain themselves" and was formulated by Bertrand Russell. Enrico Fermi names one of these statements regarding the lack of contact with extraterrestrial life. The Liar's one proposes that "This statement is false." For the point, name this seven-letter word for confusing statements that often contain self-contradictions.
paradoxes (prompt on contradiction before mentioned)
13. A shape named for this property has a volume equal to the triple product of vectors forming three of its edges. Playfair's Axiom concerns this property, and lines with this property form equal alternate interior angles when cut by a transversal. In analytic geometry, lines with equal slope have this property, which is represented in diagrams using arrows on their middles. For the point, name this adjective for lines in a plane that do not intersect.
parallel
Connecting the midpoints of adjacent sides of a quadrilateral produces one of these shapes named for Varignon. In a method of adding vectors named for this polygon, the sum is a diagonal. Consecutive angles in this polygon are supplementary and both pairs of opposite sides have the same length. Rhombuses and rectangles are special cases of, for the point, what type of quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides?
parallelograms
16) The cuckoo bird is known as a "brood" type of these organisms. Apicomplexa is a large phylum of eukaryotes of this type that includes the protist Plasmodium. A tropical fungus that acts as one of these organisms can alter the behavior of ants. It's not a mutation, since organisms in a symbiotic relationship with them are harmed. For the point, name these organisms that target hosts to gain benefits, examples of which include tapeworms and leeches.
parasite (accept parasitism)
15) Some species of cuckoo birds participate in the brood form of this relationship by laying eggs in other birds nests. Helminths and protozoa can cause diseases by establishing this relationship. This relationship is defined as one species benefiting at the expense of another species. For the point, name this relationship which fleas, ticks, and tape worms participate in.
parasitism (accept parasites; accept endoparasite; accept brood parasite; accept brood parasitism)
2) Cockcroft and Walton used one of these devices to achieve the feat that led to their 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics. Ion implanters used to dope silicon for use in electronics are a type of this device which can cause sputtering. The D-shaped electrodes in one of these devices cause a spiraling pattern to emerge, leading to the name cyclotron for that generation of these devices. For the point, name these devices which may use electric fields to speed up beams of protons.
particle accelerators (accept particle colliders)
22. After co-inventing a cyclic one of these devices with Vladimir Veksler, Edwin McMillan went on to use this kind of device in element hunting for which he would win the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. At UC Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Glenn T. Seaborg used this kind of device to discover transuranic elements like seaborgium and plutonium. The world's largest one of these devices is a 27-kilometer ring of superconducting magnets that CERN uses as the end of a series of these devices capable of taking protons up to energies of 6.5 Teraelectronvolts. For the point, name these devices like cyclotrons and synchrotrons that speed up atomic components and collide them to gather data.
particle accelerators [accept cyclotron or synchrotron before mentioned]
12) The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History displayed a giant one of these devices until 1998 that was named for Jean Foucault - who first used this device to demonstrate the rotation of the earth. The double variety of this device displays chaotic motion. In 1656, Christiaan Huygens invented a clock that kept time with this device. For the point, name this device, a suspended mass that's used in Grandfather clocks.
pendulum (or Foucault's pendulum; accept pendulum clock; prompt on clock)
22) This symbol is used to make comments in Matlab. This symbol represents modular arithmetic in languages like python. The difference between measured value and the expected value over the expected value times one hundred yields an error named for this symbol and can also be used in chemistry to determine yield with 100 being perfect yield. For the point, name this symbol, a diagonal line with two circles on either side.
percent sign (or symbol)
According to the Euclid-Euler [YOO-klid "oiler"] Theorem, there are exactly as many of these numbers as there are Mersenne prime numbers. Every known example of these numbers is even, but it's still unknown whether odd examples of these exist. The third-smallest of these numbers is 496, and numbers that are not this type or either "abundant" or "deficient." For the point, name this type of number that is equal to the sum of its proper divisors, as seen in adding 1+2+3 to give 6.
perfect number
5) 496 and 8,128 are two examples of these numbers, of which there are 51 total known examples corresponding to the 51 known Mersenne prime numbers. "Deficient" and "abundant" are adjectives for numbers that are not this kind of number. Because 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 are factors of 28 and they add to 28, 28 is this type of number. Six is the smallest example of, for the point, what type of number equal to the sum of its proper divisors?
perfect number(s)
22) Every other one of these numbers is also a centered octagonal number, and those that end in the same digits as their generators are called automorphic numbers. Lagrange proved that all natural numbers can be stated as the sum of four of these numbers. Two triangular numbers sum to a number of this kind, while the difference between successive examples of these numbers generates the sequence of odd numbers. For the point, name this kind of number such as 4, 16 or 25, generated from integers multiplied with themselves.
perfect squares (or square numbers)
18) Euler proved that the reciprocals of an infinite amount of these numbers sum to pi squared over six. Numbers with this property are the only positive integers with an odd number of unique factors. Two triangular numbers sum to a number with this property. The first few examples of these numbers are one, four, nine, and sixteen. For the point, name these numbers that are equal to an integer multiplied by itself.
perfect squares (or square numbers; or squared integers; do not accept or prompt on just "integers")
19. This type of earth exists underneath an active layer which is usually only several feet deep. The deepest examples of this type of earth exist just above the region where geothermal heat and the average air temperature reach an equilibrium temperature of 0 degrees Celsius. The amount of carbon stored in this type of earth, either as methane or in peat, has been estimated to be about 1,500 gigatons, which is one danger of global warming. For the point, name this type of earth which has been at or below the freezing point for at least two years, a common feature of tundra climates.
permafrost
5) The most common rare-earth variety of these objects are made of neodymium-iron-boron or samarium-cobalt. Lodestone contains a certain mineral that allows it to behave as one of these objects. The field produced by these objects is measured in Teslas and can be visualized with iron fillings. For the point, name these objects with a north and south pole that can attract certain metals
permanent magnets (accept magnetic field; prompt on rare earth metals)
A transposition is one of these objects that is its own inverse, and a derangement is one of these with no fixed points. When drawing from a bag of n balls, one of these values counts the ways to draw k distinct balls. A formula for these values is n factorial divided by n minus k factorial, otherwise known as "n P k. For the point, name these rearrangements of elements in which order matters, contrasted with combinations.
permutations
10. Pristane and porphyrin are biomarkers used to identify the sources of this substance. Kudryavstev's rule claims that hydrocarbon-rich areas exist in multiple layers, which he saw as support for an abiogenic origin of this substance. Thomas Gold proposes a "deep hot biosphere" with decaying bacteria providing the source for this substance. Modern theories instead suggest that this substance arises from the formation of wax-like kerogen, which is then transformed by heat and pressure into liquid hydrocarbons. For the point, name this liquid fossil fuel sometimes called crude oil.
petroleum [accept crude oil before mentioned]
20) This substance is purified using zeolites in the process of cracking. One controversial method of extracting this substance involves the injection of high-pressure fluid to create cracks in rocks; that method is called hydraulic fracturing or fracking. This natural resource is used to make asphalt and plastics. For the point, name this liquid fossil fuel that is used to make gasoline.
petroleum or crude oil
4. Sclerenchyma serves as a structural support to this tissue while parenchymal cells in this tissue serves as a buffer and facilitates transfer to SE/CC complex. Ernst Munch proposed that sugar sinks and sugar sources create a concentration gradient in this tissue that creates turgor pressure allowing for movement of material, an idea referred to as the pressure-flow hypothesis. This bidirectional transport tissue contains companion cells which form complexes to support this tissue's sieve elements. For the point, name this tissue that transports nutrients and sap to the plant, contrasted with water-transporting xylem.
phloem
These particles are Compton scattered when they interact with a charged particle. The photoelectric effect takes place when these particles strike a surface. Like the gluon, which carries the strong force, and the Z and W bosons, which carry the weak force, this particle is a gauge boson carrying the electromagnetic force. Because these particles have no mass, they can move at the speed of light. For the point, name these elementary particles, the quanta, or most basic entity, of light.
photon
8. None of these particles are formed during internal conversion while their emission is represented by down arrows on Jablonski diagrams. The equation for these bosons gave rise to the De Broglie hypothesis and is equal to Planck's constant over wavelength. These particles are represented by curvy lines on Feynman diagrams. Young's double slit experiment proved the wave nature of these particles. For the point, name this quantum particle that carries the electromagnetic force and mediates visible light.
photons
8. Two instances of this particle interact with each other to cause a notable dip in detection of coincident pairs of this particle, due to the Hong-Ou-Mandel effect. Maria Goeppert Mayer predicted an effect involving two of these particles in her doctoral dissertation. None of these particles are formed during internal conversion while their emission is represented by down arrows on Jablonski diagrams. The equation for these bosons gave rise to the De Broglie hypothesis and is equal to Planck's constant over wavelength. These particles are represented by curvy lines on Feynman diagrams. Young's double slit experiment proved the wave nature of these particles. For the point, name this quantum particle that carries the electromagnetic force and mediates visible light.
photons
A variant of this process that splits up the steps between day and night is called CAM. The first half of this process occurs in the thylakoid membrane. This process consists of the light dependent and light independent reactions, the latter of which is also known as the Calvin cycle. This process takes place in the chloroplasts and begins with chlorophylls harvesting sunlight. For the point, name this process in which plants produce their own sugars.
photosynthesis (propmt on metabolism
36. Some quantum physicists are interested in this process in bacteria with focused study on energy transfer to the Fenna-Matthews-Olson complex. This process's cyclic and noncyclic phosphorylation reactions make use of iron-sulfur proteins called ferredoxins. The two systems of this process contain special molecule pair complexes referred to as P700 and P680. One part of this process makes use of the most abundant, and arguably most inefficient enzyme in the world, RuBisco in a carbon fixation step of the Calvin cycle portion of this process. Chloroplasts and stomata help with the conversion of carbon dioxide sourced products formed by this process. For the point, name this process that takes in light and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and other sugars.
photosynthesis [anti-prompt on Calvin cycle until Calvin Cycle is mentioned; antiprompt on light dependent or light independent until light dependent is mentioned]
9) Sato generalized Ramanujan's formulas for calculating this number. This is the smallest positive x at which cosine of x is negative one. In radians, one degree is equal to this transcendental number divided by 180. The area of any circle is given by this number times the radius squared. For the point, name this ratio of the circumference to the diameter of any circle, approximately equal to 3.14 ["three point one four"]
pi (prompt on "3.14" and more decimal answers until mentioned)
26. Early sound detection apparati for submarines made use of either magnetostriction transducers or ultrasonic transducers made with materials that exhibit this effect. The discovery of this effect was first cited in a paper which described it as "Development by compression of polar electricity in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces"; that 1880 paper was written by Pierre and Jacques Curie in their experiments on crystals lacking inversion symmetry which exhibit this effect such as Quartz and Rochelle salts. For the point, name this phenomenon where mechanical stress causes the buildup of electric charge in a material.
piezoelectricity [or piezoelectric effect]
26. Early sound detection apparati for submarines made use of either magnetostriction transducers or ultrasonic transducers made with materials that exhibit this effect. The discovery of this effect was first cited in a paper which described it as "Development by compression of polar electricity in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces"; that 1880 paper was written by Pierre and Jacques Curie in their experiments on crystals lacking inversion symmetry which exhibit this effect such as Quartz and Rochelle salts. For the point, name this phenomenon where mechanical stress causes the buildup of electric charge in a material.
piezoelectricity [or piezoelectric effect]
11) A point on one of these objects and the normal vector can be used to define the position of one of these objects in three-dimensional space. Stereographic projections assign points on a sphere to points on one of these mathematical objects. While real numbers can be modeled using a line, the complex numbers require one of these other objects with two axes. One of these objects can be defined by three non-collinear points or by two parallel lines. For the point, name this two-dimensional surface in geometry.
plane
20) Goldreich and Tremaine demonstrated the chaotic orbits of one of these things was due to "shepherding" between the moons Pandora and Prometheus. A major theory for the creation of these things is a satellite falling into the Roche limit of its parent body. A prominent gap between these things known as the Cassini Division is caused by the moon Mimas. The one named for Phoebe is tilted 27 degrees to the other icy ones that orbit the 6th planet from the sun. For the point, name these collections of icy dust which orbit around Saturn.
planetary rings (or ring systems; accept rings of Saturn)
1) Irving Langmuir created a probe to measure this substance which can be confined in a powerful magnetic field inside a torus-shaped device called a tokamak. This substance makes up an aurora borealis and exists in the interior of the sun. This form of matter is responsible for conducting the electricity in lightning and can be generated by ionizing gas. For the point, name this fourth state of matter.
plasma
13. A spherical device utilizing this substance has a Troyon limit expressed in terms of the device's inverse aspect ratio. This substance follows field lines that can be modelled by the equation d theta d z equals one over the safety factor times resistance. They're not liquid metals, but these substances, which may experience Rayleigh Taylor instabilities, are principally studied using magnetohydrodynamics. Alfven waves can occur in these substances which screen out electric fields below the Debye (duh-bai) length.. Tokamaks confine these substances to a toroidal field for nuclear fusion. For the point, name this form of matter, an ionized gas often informally referred to as "the fourth state of matter."
plasma
14) This substance's electron temperature, density, and potential can be measured with a Langmuir probe. This substance is confined by a magnetic field in devices called tokamaks. This substance's occurrences on Earth include auroras and lightning. This substance is created through ionization of gas. For the point, name this substance, commonly described as "the fourth state of matter," which occurs at high temperatures.
plasma
Anatoly Vlasov names an equation that describes the kinetics of this material. Stellarators and tokamaks are used to confine this material within magnetic fields. This material was once commonly used in flatscreen TVs, which have since been replaced in the market by LCDs. Solar wind moves particles in this state of matter away from the Sun, which is composed of this highly ionized matter. For the point, name this "fourth" state of matter.
plasma
6. In the United States, types of this material can be identified by a resin identification number between one and seven. Leo Baekeland coined the term for this material and invented the first fully synthetic example of one, bakelite. Because it is likely an endocrine disruptor, the use of BPA as an additive to this material has been called into question. Examples of this material include polypropylene and polystyrene. For the point, name these highly malleable synthetic polymers, which make up water bottles and milk jugs.
plastics [prompt on polymers]
20. In regular expressions, this symbol indicates that the preceding letter may be repeated any number of times. In C, when this symbol is used with a value and a pointer, the size of the item the pointer currently points to is used to determine what sized blocks should be moved by. In Java, when both variables are of type string, this symbol can be used for the concatenation operation. Java also uses two tokens of this symbol after a variable to increment the variable's value by one. Bjarne Stroustrup created a programming language inspired by C that uses this symbol twice in its name. For the point, name this symbol used to represent addition in mathematics.
plus sign
23. In this coordinate system, an equation's number of petals is 2k or k if k is an even or odd integer. In this coordinate system, the first parameter times sine of the second parameter results in a horizontal line, whereas swapping sine for cosine results in a vertical line. The first parameter in this coordinate system is obtained from Cartesian coordinates by calculating the square root of x squared plus y squared while the azimuth in this coordinate system can be obtained from arctan of y over x. For the point, name this 2D coordinate system that uses radius and theta coordinates.
polar coordinates [accept polar notation]
23. The area element of this coordinate system is given as the first parameter times differentials of both parameters. In this coordinate system, an equation's number of petals is 2k or k if k is an even or odd integer. In this coordinate system, the first parameter times sine of the second parameter results in a horizontal line, whereas swapping sine for cosine results in a vertical line. The first parameter in this coordinate system is obtained from Cartesian coordinates by calculating the square root of x squared plus y squared while the azimuth in this coordinate system can be obtained from arctan of y over x. For the point, name this 2D coordinate system that uses radius and theta coordinates.
polar coordinates [accept polar notation]
8. This phenomenon is described in any homogeneous isotropic non-attenuating medium by the Jones vector. Depending on how much the ray undergoes this phenomenon the ray can be classified as ordinary or extraordinary with the latter being governed by a direction dependent index of refraction. A description of birefringence by Rasmus Bartholin suggests that the index of refraction of birefringent materials depends on this phenomenon. The change in irradiance of light with this property passing through a namesake device can be determined by multiplying the initial irradiance by cosine squared of the angle between the perpendicular axis of the device and the direction this phenomenon occurs according to Malus' law. For the point, name this property of materials that is sometimes used in sunglasses to reduce glare from the sun.
polarization [do not accept "polarity"]
2) The Japanese theorem deals with triangulated versions of these objects. Regular types of these objects have apothems whose length can be modeled using the radius of a circle inscribed in one of these objects. The interior angles of a simple one of these mathematical objects add up to the product of n minus 2 and 180, where n is the number of sides of one of these objects. The faces of a polyhedron are made up of, for the point, what two-dimensional shapes with straight line edges?
polygons
24. To measure the stiffness of compounds of this type, Hans Kuhn developed a namesake length. An equation modelling the formation of this type of compound sets X bar sub n equal to one divided by quantity one minus the extent of reaction. The production of this type of compound can be modelled by Carothers equation and can be sped up by use of a Ziegler-Natta catalyst. This type of compound is formed by step-growth or a chain-growth mechanism. For the point, name these compounds made up of chains of monomers.
polymers
7. The Mark-Houwink equation relates the molecular weight of these substances to their intrinsic velocity. Amorphous types of these substances become rubbery above the glass transition temperature. These substances, which are modeled by the Flory-Huggins theory, can be synthesized with different types of tacticity through use of Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The "chain-growth" method produces these substances, which include PVC and teflon. For the point, name these substances made up of many monomers.
polymers
25) This class of compounds can be modelled as a collection of N Kuhn segments with equal Kuhn length. Florry Huggins solution theory models the solubility of this class of compounds which can be formed using a Ziegler-Natta catalyst. This class of compounds can be formed with a chain reaction where the active site is regenerated after each growth step. Synthetic and plastic examples of this class of compounds include nylon and Teflon. For the point, name these chains of repeated monomers.
polymers (accept polymerization; accept synthetic polymers; prompt on plastic)
17. These objects can be "depressed" by a change of variables, which helped Lodovico Ferrari and Girolamo Cardano find formulas solving these objects. The Rodrigues formula can be used to compute members of an orthogonal set of these objects named for Adrien-Marie Legendre. The fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees that for the complex numbers the only irreducible examples of these objects are linear. The power rule is used to take the derivative of these functions. The Abel-Ruffini theorem proves that these functions are not generally solvable for degrees greater than or equal to five. For the point, name this class of functions which can be expressed as sums of monomial terms.
polynomials
20) Plotting this quantity against time yields a curve which plateaus at a maximum value symbolized K. Bottlenecks result from a decrease in this quantity, which can be found by marking individuals and then recapturing a random sample. For the point, name this quantity, the number of organisms of a given species in an area.
population size (accept either underlined word; accept number of individuals)
23) Low amounts of this element in the blood can cause hypokalemia. This element's isotope 40 decays to argon which can be used to date rocks. The most common form of permanganate is in a salt with this element, and this element is below sodium on the periodic table. For the point, name this alkali metal with atomic number 19 and atomic symbol K that is commonly associated with bananas.
potassium (accept K before it is read)
15) This element is the cation in an ethylene-containing compound, Zeise's salt. A non-nucleophilic base, the tert-butoxide of this element, is commonly used to favor E2 eliminations. A form of radioactive dating relies on the decay of this element's isotope-40 into argon. This element is found directly above rubidium on the periodic table and this element was first isolated from potash. For the point, name this alkali metal found in bananas and with the symbol K.
potassium (prompt on K)
An elastic form of this quantity is found by multiplying one-half times the spring constant times the change in spring length squared. Within Earth's gravity, this quantity for an object is given by the product of mass, the gravitational constant, and the height above Earth; as a result, this value is zero for an object on Earth's surface. A pendulum about to be swung has, for the point, what stored form of energy, contrasted with kinetic energy?
potential energy (prompt on energy alone before said
This quantity can be computed as the dot product of the force and velocity vectors. The decibel scale is defined with the logarithm of a ratio of two values for the acoustic form of this quantity. When moving a weight with a constant amount of this quantity, doubling the weight requires either doubling the time taken or cutting the distance in half. For the point, name this quantity that measures work done over time, which is measured in Watts or another scale based on horses.
power
2. In 2017, an oral vaccine was developed to protect this animal against sylvatic plague, thereby helping increase the population of this animal's main predator, the critically-endangered black-footed ferret. This animal executes the "jump-yip" to warn members of its coterie, who often identify each other by kissing. A classic example of a "keystone species," this animal comes Gunnison's, Utah, and black-tailed varieties. For the point, name this rodent that lives in underground burrows.
prairie dogs
Silver iodide is used to promote this phenomenon by adding nucleation sites in a process called "seeding." This phenomenon is prevented on the leeward side of mountain ranges, since warm air rises and condenses as it crosses the ridge. That "shadow" effect takes places in the Sonora and Mojave [moh-HAH-vay] deserts, where this weather phenomenon rarely occurs because the air is not saturated with water vapor. For the point, name this part of the water cycle in which clouds release liquid or solid water.
precipitation (prompt on (cloud seeding before it is read; anti-prompt on any specific types (like snow, rain, hail, etc.) by asking the player "can you be less specific?"
12. A white one of these substances forms in the result of a double replacement reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. Double displacement reactions are classified as this type of reaction if the reaction occurs in an aqueous solution and one of the products is insoluble. Sometimes referred to as sediment, this solid component sits below the supernatant. Both referring to the process by which it forms and the solid substance itself, for the point, is what solid that forms out of solution?
precipitation [or precipitate; prompt on double displacement or double replacement or replacement before "replacement" is mentioned]
12. Most metals undergoing this reaction are extracted in their hydroxide form. A white one of these substances forms in the result of a double replacement reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. Double displacement reactions are classified as this type of reaction if the reaction occurs in an aqueous solution and one of the products is insoluble. Sometimes referred to as sediment, this solid component sits below the supernatant. Both referring to the process by which it forms and the solid substance itself, for the point, is what solid that forms out of solution?
precipitation [or precipitate; prompt on double displacement or double replacement or replacement before "replacement" is mentioned]
17) A selective type of this chemical reaction can separate the magnesium and calcium in seawater. Qualitative analysis employs a chloride solution to detect silver ions via this reaction. The technique of salting out uses this reaction to purify proteins. Mixing lead nitrate and potassium iodide produces insoluble lead iodide due to this reaction. Hard water stains and stalactites result from, for the point, what type of reaction in which two solutions combine to form a solid compound?
precipitation reaction (prompt on "forming a solid"; prompt on "double-replacement" or "double-displacement" reaction)
(1) Amaculara is a now extinct species that was thought to serve this ecosystem role with supporting evidence from fossils of W-shaped indents on Cambrian trilobites. Lotka-Volterra equations model their relation to their weaker counter role. Any trophic level can serve this role in relation to all trophic levels below it. For the point, name this general class of territorial hunters that eat prey.
predators
This type of creature represents the y value in the Lotka-Volterra equations. Keystone species of this type usually prevent the elimination of key plant species in an ecosystem. A class of these beings who dominate a particular environment are the "apex" type. Heterotrophs of this type usually feed on herbivores. The eagle and the lion are common examples of, for the point, what type of species that hunt down prey?
predators
21) Excess protein in the urine of a person with this condition may indicate pre-eclampsia. Chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis are used to detect genetic disorders during this condition. People with this condition are prescribed folic acid to prevent neural tube defects, and may also visit an obstetrician to receive an ultrasound. For the point, name this condition that lasts around 9 months and concludes with childbirth.
pregnancy (accept pregnant; accept gestation; accept obvious equivalents)
A Venturi meter uses this quantity to measure speed. This quantity is sometimes measured in units named for an Italian scientist who used it to study drain rates, Evangelista Torricelli. The speed of a fluid is related to this quantity by Bernoulli's equation. This quantity can be measured in millimeters of mercury, and the atmospheric type is gauged by a barometer. For the point, name this quantity that measures force per unit area.
pressure (accept air pressure
One type of this quantity is multiplied by the mole fraction in a law dealing with ideal mixtures named for Raoult. Dalton's Law finds that the total value of this quantity is equal to the sum of its partial variants. The SI unit of this quantity is equivalent to one newton per meter squared. The atmospheric variety of this quantity can be measured with a barometer. For the point, name this quantity measured in Pascals, the force exerted per unit of area.
pressure (accept atmospheric pressure; accept vapor pressure; accept partial pressure
10. A theorem named for this type of number notes that the amount of these numbers less than a given value is roughly that value divided by the log of that value. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic notes that every natural number greater than 1 is either one of these numbers or can be expressed as a product of these numbers. For the point, name this class of numbers that cannot be evenly divided by whole numbers other than itself and 1.
prime numbers
7) A conjecture named for "twins" of these mathematical objects posits that there are infinitely many of these constructs with a difference of two. The Mersenne type of these numbers are one less than a power of two. Much digital security relies on the fact that a given positive number has a unique factorization using only these numbers. The Sieve of Eratosthenes finds these numbers by progressively crossing out composite numbers. For the point, name this type of number which only has two factors of one and itself.
prime numbers (accept primes)
16) One of these things named for Poisson can model events that occur with a fixed rate. The central limit theorem details how independent random variables can tend to one of these things that is described by the 68-95-99.7 rule. That example of these statistical things is sometimes named for Gauss and has a bell curve shape. For the point, name this statistical device which can be uniform or normal and describes the spread of data.
probability distribution (accept Poisson distribution; accept normal distribution; accept Gauss(ian) distribution) (
26. Merlin cannot send Arthur a convincing one of these constructs for all strings not in the language L by the Arthur-Merlin protocol. The relationship between computer programs and these constructs is given by the Curry-Howard correspondence. At the University of Illinois, Appel and Haken controversially used a computer to create one of these constructs. In geometry, Side angle side and angle side angle are sufficient for creating one of these constructs for triangle congruence. The two-column technique of creating these constructs is commonly taught in geometry. These constructs typically end with a square or Q.E.D. at the end. For the point, name this task of validating a mathematical theorem.
proof
27. The relationship between computer programs and these constructs is given by the Curry-Howard correspondence. At the University of Illinois, Appel and Haken controversially used a computer to create one of these constructs. In geometry, Side angle side and angle side angle are sufficient for creating one of these constructs for triangle congruence. The two-column technique of creating these constructs is commonly taught in geometry. These constructs typically end with a square or Q.E.D. at the end. For the point, name this task of validating a mathematical theorem.
proof
5) These macromolecules are aided by chaperones which fold them into proper formation. They are made up of monomers like arginine and methionine that are linked together by peptide bonds. These macro-molecules are made from RNA in translation. For the point, name these biological molecules made up of amino acids, which are a key nutrient along with fats and carbohydrates.
proteins (prompt on peptides; prompt on polypeptides; prompt on amino acids)
Western blots use antibodies to determine the presence of these compounds. These compounds were shown not to be the molecule for inheritance in the Hershey-Chase experiment. The major classes of these molecules include signaling, enzymatic, and structural. These molecules' structures include beta sheets and alpha helices. The process of translation, which occurs in the ribosomes, produces, for the point, what large biological macromolecules?
proteins (prompt on polypeptides
17. This particle's "crisis" refers to its observed spin being different than its constituents. This particle, the primary material in cosmic rays, is the heaviest particle formed in Beta minus decay. This particle is composed of two up quarks and one down quark and is 1800 times heavier than its negative counterpart. The atomic number of an element is determined by the quantity of this particle. For the point, name this nucleon that has a positive charge.
proton
28. This task was first performed by Hippasus, who constructed an isoceles right triangle to begin the work. A standard approach to this task constructs a set of equations involving b squared, 2 a squared, and 4 c squared, with a and b having been assumed to be relatively prime. Traditional lesson plans for teaching proof by contradiction involve Euclid's proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers and, for the point, what mathematical proof that explains why a right triangle with legs of length 1 can't have a fractional-valued hypotenuse?
proving that the square root of 2 is an irrational number (accept equivalents, such as "showing that root 2 is irrational; prompt on partial answers, such as "proving that irrational numbers exist")
30. According to Robert Merton, studies under this classification break one of the five norms of originality, detachment, universality, skepticism or public accessibility. In his contributions to the demarcation problem, Karl Popper argued that this classification should be given to studies that are non-falsifiable. Studies under this classification do not have experimental means of reproducibility or verification. Examples of studies that fall under this classification include phrenology and astrology. For the point, name this questionable form of science often fueled by superstition or fraud that has little compatibility with the scientific method or scientific reasoning.
pseudoscience [accept non-science; prompt on fake science; do not accept or prompt on science]
Some of these creatures possessed coats of pycnofibers similar to hair. These creatures had a patagium connective membrane, once confused for flippers, stretching between various sets of hollow bones. Archaeopteryx is believed to not be one of these creatures, but rather a separate transitional species between dinosaurs and modern birds. For the point, name these "winged lizards," including Quetzalcoatlus, the first vertebrates known to be able to fly under their own power.
pterosaurs (accept pterodactyls
An apparatus made from one of these devices and two weights is used to demonstrate constant acceleration and is called an Atwood machine. One of these devices placed to pull a weight across a table can be used to compute friction coefficients. In order to increase its mechanical advantage, two of these devices can be combined into a block-and-tackle. For the point, name this simple machine consisting of a rope around a wheel on an axle often used for lifting.
pulley
23) The acceleration in one type of this device is proportional to the difference of the masses over the sum of the masses; that version of this device is called an Atwood machine. These devices are linked into a block and tackle system to increase mechanical advantage. Among Hero's six simple machines are lever, wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, screw, and this device. For the point, name this simple machine which consists of a wheel around which a cable is wrapped to lift up objects.
pulley (prompt on Atwood machine before mentioned)
This usually non-crystalline rock differs from scoria in that it is denser and has larger vesicles, or cavities, in the rock, which allow this rock to be used as a low-density filler in concrete or as an abrasive for skin exfoliating. For the point, name this volcanic rock whose extremely rapid cooling traps gases in the rock, creating a porous structure that can allow it to float.
pumice
12) In interpreting this science, De Broglie developed modern pilot wave theory. In response to the Copenhagen interpretation of this science, Albert Einstein retorted "God does not play dice with the universe." In this developed science, measuring the wave function causes it to collapse to a single state. Schrodinger's equation plays a key role in, for the point, what science of really small particles with discrete energy levels.
quantum mechanics (or QM; accept quantum physics; prompt on "physics"; prompt on "mechanics"; do not accept or prompt on "classical/Newtonian mechanics"
24) This mineral's piezo-electric properties make it useful as a crystal oscillator. This mineral is found at the bottom of Bowen's reaction series. This mineral with a Mohs hardness of 7 is the second most abundant in the Earth's crust after feldspar. For the point, name this mineral composed of silicon dioxide whose crystal varieties include jasper and amethyst.
quartz (prompt on Silicon dioxide; prompt on SiO2)
6. The first one of these objects discovered and also the closest to the Earth is 3C 273. One of these objects is seen four times because of gravitational lensing in the Einstein Cross. These objects are active galactic nuclei powered by accretion into their central supermassive black hole and come in "radio loud" and "radio quiet" variants. For the point, name these extragalactic objects whose name is a contraction of "quasi-stellar radio source".
quasar [accept quasi-stellar radio source or quasi-stellar object before mentioned]
27) Early detectors of this type of radiation drew their power from the radiation as it was modulated by a small diode made of crystalline galena. Unlike higher frequencies, very low frequencies of this radiation can travel underwater for long distances. For the point, identify this type of radiation, first generated artificially by Heinrich Hertz, and which consist of electromagnetic waves with frequencies under 3 billion hertz and are used for radar and communications.
radio waves
23. The 1960 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded for the discovery of this process to Willard Libby, a professor at the Institute for Nuclear Studies. This process is possible due to the absorption of a particular element by plants and animals, some of which was created by cosmic rays interacting with atmospheric nitrogen. This process then measures the amount of a certain isotope of that element left in such organic material after it has radioactively decayed over time. For the point, name this process by which isotope 14 of an element is used to measure the age of organic material.
radiocarbon dating [or carbon-14 dating; prompt on "dating"]
22) Early examples of this device used spark gap transmitters. This device can pick up "skywaves" that have been bounced off the ionosphere. This device, invented by Guglielmo Marconi, can pick up signals that have either been modulated in their amplitude or frequency. For the point, name this device that picks up a namesake frequency of the electromagnetic spectrum on AM and FM stations.
radios (or radio receivers; accept radio transmitters; accept receiver; accept antennas since the clues overlap)
19) A species found in this biome, the common basilisk, is nicknamed the "Jesus Lizard" for its ability to walk on water. The Ituri is an example of this ecosystem home to the okapi also known as the zebra giraffe. This biome accounts for over half of the world's plants and animal species. This type of ecosystem is found throughout much of the Congo River basin in Central Africa. For the point, name this ecosystem characterized by tall broadleaf trees and a high rate of precipitation.
rainforests (accept tropical rainforests; accept Amazon rainforest prompt on forest; prompt on tropics; prompt on jungle)
27) A continued fraction must terminate if it is in this set of numbers. The real numbers can be constructed from these numbers using Dedekind cuts. These numbers are symbolized by a bold Q. According to legend, Pythagoras sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning for finding a number not of this type. Fractional examples of these numbers include 4/7 [4 over 7] and 7/2 [7 over 2]. For the point, name this subset of the real numbers which either repeat or terminate after a finite number of decimal places, unlike pi or the square root of 2.
rational numbers (prompt on Q; prompt on fractions; do not accept or prompt on irrational)
11. Collision theory suggests ways to increase this quantity for gases. This quantity's dependence on temperature is described by the Arrhenius equation, which gives this quantity's namesake "constant" in relation to activation energy divided by the gas constant times temperature. When this quantity is equal to its constant "k" times the concentration of only one reactant, the equation describing this quantity is "first-order." For the point, name this quantity, the speed at which chemical reactants are converted into products.
reaction rate (accept rate of reaction)
5. According to the continuum hypothesis, there is no set with cardinality between this set of numbers and the natural numbers. Dedekind cuts are used to construct this set of numbers whose uncountability was proved by Georg Cantor's diagonalization argument. This type of number between 0 and 1 is uncountably infinite. The union of irrational and rational numbers produces this set of numbers. For the point, name these non-complex numbers which do not contain an imaginary component.
real numbers [prompt on R]
This value for a complex number is equal to its conjugate divided by the square of its magnitude. The function known by this term has vertical and horizontal asymptotes along the x - and y-axes. Finding this value for a given number can be done by raising the number to the negative first power, an operation that cannot be applied to zero. For the point, give this term for the multiplicative inverse of a number, which is one-half for 2 and, in general, one over n for any non-zero number n.
reciprocal (accept multiplicative inverse before it is read; prompt on "inverse" before it is read
This method, which is optimized on the stack using its "tail" form, can be used to solve the Towers of Hanoi problem. Expressing n factorial using this method is done as "n times n minus 1 factorial," rather than the usual "listing all the multiplied numbers" method. The Fibonacci sequence can be described by this term, and in computer science, functions that call themselves are described by this term. For the point, give this term for a mathematical object defined in terms of itself.
recursion (accept word forms; accept descriptions of the recursive method
14. Dynamic programming is an alternative to algorithms employing this technique via a memoization structure and/or a bottom-up approach. When a function using this technique employs it at the beginning, it is called head-[this technique] and if at the end, tail-[this technique]. A simple, exponential solution to determining the nth fibonacci number uses this technique by calling f of n minus 1 plus f of n minus two. This technique, commonly employed by divide and conquer algorithms, will usually require a base case to terminate. For the point, name this computational technique of having a function call itself.
recursion [or word forms like recursive]
10) The only known car in space is this color and is a Tesla launched on SpaceX's Falcon Heavy in 2018. Stars which have depleted hydrogen in their cores but are still fusing it in a surrounding shell are known as this color of giants. An increase in wavelength as objects move further from the observer is known as this color shift. A high-pressure storm in the atmosphere of Jupiter is named for being a "Great Spot" of this color. For the point, name this color usually associated with the planet Mars.
red
2. In this type of cell, a paroxysmal nocturnal disease causes incorrect GPI linkage of decayaccelerating factor. These cells have phosphatidylserine primarily concentrated on their inner membrane that flips over as they age, serving as an "eat me" signal to macrophages after 120 days. Howell-Jolly bodies are a deformed type of these cells that are not properly processed by the spleen. Ht percentage is a measure of formed elements, which are primarily made up of these cells. A serine to valine mutation causes these cells to become misshapen, but possessing heterozygosity for that mutation confers resistance to malaria. These lobe-shaped cells contain no nucleus and have a high percentage of hemoglobin. For the point, name these cells that circulate through the blood system to deliver oxygen.
red blood cells [or RBCs]
18. Aldehydes are converted into alkanes during a reaction of this type named for Clemmensen, and lithium aluminium hydride commonly catalyzes these reactions. In acidic solutions, permanganate become manganese (II) ions through a reaction of this type, a fact made more clear with half reactions. Because fluorine is the most electronegative element, it most often undergoes this type of reaction. For the point, the second half of the mnemonic OIL RIG refers to what chemical reaction involving the gain of electrons, the opposite of oxidation?
reduction reactions
6. Superconductors undergo a form of particle scattering at the boundary between the superconductor and another conducting material, which is described as a form of this process named for Andreev. Lambert's cosine formula is used to model a diffuse form of this process. This process does not occur at Brewster's angle, and the albedo characterizes this process for gray bodies. Beyond the critical angle, the total internal form of this process occurs in waveguides like fiber optic cables, and the angles of the outgoing and incident rays with respect to the normal are equal in this process. For the point, name this process in which waves bounce off a surface like light off a mirror.
reflection
25) To avoid chromatic aberrations, Isaac Newton invented telescopes that work based on this process. At the critical angle, the "total internal" type of this process occurs, which is used in fiber-optic cables. During this process, the incident angle of the light ray before this process occurs equals the angle after this process occurs. For the point, name this process in which light bounces off of shiny surfaces like mirrors.
reflection (accept word forms like reflecting; do not accept "refraction")
12. Animals that readily opt into autotomy typically have this ability. A "guided" form of inducing this ability through barrier membranes has effectively worked on bone. Planarian flatworms and ageresistant hydras are model organisms studied for a highly efficient use of this ability which is also documented on a tissue-level in echinoderms like starfish and sea cucumbers. The prototypical example of this ability is the salamander's tail and typically for healing in humans, it results in scar tissue. For the point, name this process where an organism regrows and restores missing components, cells, or tissue
regeneration [accept word forms such as regenerative abilities; prompt on regrow or wound healing similar synonyms with "We need the specific term."]
5. When the absolute value is taken of the regularization term in the Ridge method of this class of techniques, the method is referred to as Lasso. When the dependent variable is binary, such that the prediction is either true or false, the logistic method in this form of analysis is used. The standard approach in this form of analysis finds two beta parameters of a linear function by finding the minimum of the sum of residuals in the method of least squares. The linear variant fits a line to a set of data points whose accuracy can be determined via an r squared measure. For the point, name this form of analysis which estimates the relationship between a dependent and one or more independent variables.
regression analysis
In a cube, the perpendicular bisecting plane of a space diagonal cuts a cross-section with this shape. This shape forms 20 of the faces of a truncated icosahedron, along with 12 pentagons. The area of this polygon is equal to three-halves times the square root of 3 times the square of the side length. This polygon can be used to form the honeycomb tiling. For the point, name this polygon with 120 degree interior angles and 6 sides.
regular hexagon
12. Transactions within these things must be atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable, commonly abbreviated as "ACID". Mongo and Apache Couch are two commonly used programs to work with these things. Commands such as "Join" and "Select" are used to access specific parts of these things. The language SQL ["sequel"] can perform queries on the relational types of these things. For the point, name these large data collections often displayed as tables.
relational database
7) It's not temperature, but this quantity can be measured by a psychrometer [sai-CRAH-mahtur] which uses both a "dry bulb" and "wet bulb" thermometer. A psychrometer [sai-CRAH-mah-tur] is a type of hygrometer [hai-GRAH-mah-tur], which is a class of instruments that measures this quantity. This atmospheric measurement is actually "relative" since it indicates how close to saturation with water vapor the air is. For the point, name this percentage measurement, which is low in places that experience "dry heats."
relative humidity (accept humid; accept water vapor concentration before "water vapor" is mentioned prompt afterwards)
16. John Ioannidis noticed a quote-unquote "Prometheus phenomenon" where even if experiments have this property, the significance of the results decreases in further experimentation. If an experiment has this property, repeated measurements of some measurand under identical conditions yields measurements that closely agree. Psychological experiments often fail to have this property, likely because further trials of the same psychological experiment cannot often be assumed to be parallel on the same subjects. For the point, name this property of an experiment where performing the experiment again achieves similar results.
reproducibility [accept word forms like reproducible or reproduction; accept repeatability and word forms like repeatable; accept verifiable or word forms like verifiability]
14. This class's earliest members were anapsids, whose skulls only had openings for eye sockets and a nose. Some organism in this class have improved jaw mobility due to extremely versatile quadrate bones and belong to the order of squamates. Another order of this class includes gharials and caimans. The study of this class of organisms is known as herpetology. Birds are descended from this class from a lineage of these organisms that died out 65 million years ago. For the point, name this cold blooded class of vertebrates that include snakes and lizards.
reptiles (or reptilia)
15. This device's strength, when unknown, can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit. They aren't inductors, but the strength of these devices is the sum of the reciprocals if they are added in parallel and directly if they are in series. This device often comes with four colored bands to indicate its strength and is represented by zigzagging lines on a circuit diagram. For the point, name this electrical component that slows down current, whose strength is measured in Ohms.
resistors
11) Pickwickian syndrome is an obesity-associated disorder of this body system, which can also suffer a namesake distress syndrome when surfactant is lacking. This body system's tidal volume is normally about 7 milliliters per kilogram of body weight, but that number may be reduced by emphysema. In most aquatic animals, gills are the major organs of this system. Alveoli are the functional units of, for the point, which body system that exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs?
respiratory system
7. The triacontahedron [[try-a-con-ta-heed-ron]] has this shape for its faces. The dice lattice is a planar tiling using these shapes with 60 and 120 angles. The diagonals of this type of polygon bisect each other, and their area is half the product of the diagonal lengths. Three of these quadrilaterals can be arranged into a regular hexagon. Equilateral examples of this type of quadrilateral are squares. For the point, name this type of quadrilateral with four equal sides.
rhombus
22) Products of alternative splicing are sent to this complex which has an A, P, and E site. This complex's subcomponents are produced by the nucleolus. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is distinguished from the smooth ER by the presence of these complexes attached to it. They are present in bacteria and commonly mistaken for organelles despite lacking a membrane. tRNA and mRNA are involved in translation at, For the point, what complexes that manufacture cellular proteins?
ribosomes
Two vectors form one of these objects if their dot product is equal to 0. According to Thales's [thay-leez's] Theorem, the line segments from any point on a circle to the endpoints of the diameter will form one of these objects. Euclid postulated that all of these angles are congruent to each other, and they are congruent to their supplements. Triangles containing one of these angles are subject to the Pythagorean Theorem. For the point, name these angles that measure 90 degrees.
right angles (accept 90 degree angles or pi over 2 radian angles before "90 degrees" is read
A very large one of these entities named Phoebe was not discovered until 2009. The Encke gap is found within these entities. Plumes from Enceladus may act as a source for one of these entities, and Prometheus and Pandora act as "shepherds" for one of them. They aren't moons, but these entities were first observed through a telescope by Galileo, who sometimes referred to them as their host planet's "ears." For the point, name these large features that surround the sixth planet of our solar system.
rings of Saturn
31) An estuary may form when one of these things meets a body of salt water. Biomes near these things are part of the riparian zone, and these things are the origin of oxbow lakes. The triangular-shaped mouths of some of these things are called deltas. Alluvial aquifers typically form next to these things and are built when these things deposit gravel and sand near their banks. For the point, name these moving courses of freshwater, such as the Mississippi and the Nile.
rivers (accept synonyms such as streams or creeks)
10. A 50/50 mix of UDMH and NTO is a common hypergolic for these devices. The equation, delta-v equals effective exhaust velocity over the natural logarithm of initial total mass over final total mass, was developed from Newton's second law for these devices by Soviet engineer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Oxidizers on board these devices allow for the creation of force despite the presence of a vacuum when these devices travel. That force produced by these devices can be calculated by the thrust equation. For the point, name these devices that help propel satellites into space
rocket engines [or rockets; prompt on engine]
24. The difference in velocity applied by these devices enables a Hohmann transfer. A 50/50 mix of UDMH and NTO is a common hypergolic for these devices. The equation delta-v equals effective exhaust velocity over natural logarithm of initial total mass over final total mass was developed from Newton's second law for these devices by Soviet engineer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Oxidizers on board these devices allow for the creation of force despite the presence of a vacuum when these devices travel. That force produced by these devices can be calculated by the thrust equation. For the point, name these devices that help propel satellites into space
rocket engines [or rockets; prompt on engine]
1) A mutualistic relationship between these structures and fungi is called Mycorrhizae [My-corie-za]. Rhizobia in nodules of these structures help legumes with nitrogen fixation. Edible examples of these structures include beets and carrots. For the point, name these structures that anchor plants to the ground and helps them to absorb water and nutrients.
roots
3) A crown formation of these organs is promoted by ethylene. One view point for the evolutionary necessity of this organ was to provide a better habitat for mycorrhizal fungi. This organ's system serves as an important initiator in the axis it forms with the vascular system and the plant's leaves. For the point, name this part of the plant that digs into the soil to absorb water and nutrients.
roots
14) The kernmantle type of this material has a core of high tensile strength surrounded by an abrasive-resistant outer layer. The "dynamic" type of this material is stretchable giving it use in mountaineering and rock climbing. For the point, name this type of material made up of fibers like yarn or string twisted or weaved together to create tensile strength for pulling.
ropes (prompt on "chord")
The presence of this activity marks the difference between black holes characterized by the Kerr metric and those characterized by the Schwarzschild metric. Galaxies performing this activity differently than what was predicted through mathematics led to the concept of dark matter. Pulsars are neutron stars that perform this activity incredibly fast. The Earth does this action at around a 23.5 degree tilt from the solar plane. For the point, name this action that, for the Earth, has a period of about 24 hours.
rotation (accept spin or word forms thereof; do not accept or prompt on revolve, revolution, or word forms thereof
14) This motion is described by the third Euler [OY-ler] angle. The pitch, yaw, and roll of an airplane give the three principle variants of this motion. While undergoing this kind of motion, an object can begin to exhibit nutation and precession. Angular acceleration describes how fast this motion speeds up or slows down. For the point, name this kind of motion where an object goes about one of its axes, exemplified by toy tops.
rotation (accept word forms like rotate or rotating; accept spinning; accept turning; accept synonyms like revolving or whirling or circling)
29) Members of Hirundinidae [huh-ROON-din-uh-DAY-ee] use this substance to help build nests. This liquid sourced from Drosophila [dro-SOFF-uh-LA] melanogaster was used to discover polytene. The parotid gland is one of three glands that helps produce this liquid. The enzyme amylase is first encountered by sugars in the digestive tract in this liquid. For the point, name this biological liquid that helps prevent plaque, produced by namesake glands in the mouth.
saliva (prompt on "spit")
24) Juveniles of these animals, known as parr, are equipped with a camouflaging pattern of stripes which they lose upon becoming smolt. These anadromous animals are known for their namesake "run," which is believed to be part of the reason they are a keystone species in the Pacific Northwest. These animals are often fed carotenoids when farmed to improve the color of their flesh. For the point, name these fish, which swim upstream to spawn, that are often used to make orange-colored sushi.
salmon
1. In the Han dynasty, price controls were debated in an event named for this commodity and iron. A museum in Zigong is devoted to the history of this substance, as is a work by Mark Kurlansky. Marco Polo's descriptions of currency made from this good validate his travels in China. Brine was retrieved from wells in Sichuan to mine this substance, which can be made by evaporating seawater. For the point, the high sodium content in Chinese foods is primarily due to what commonly iodized substance?
salt
8) The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is an example of the deposition of this substance in an endorheic basin. Atriplex is a genus of plants known for their ability to tolerate this substance, making them halophytes. Rapid dehydration is a danger of mining this substance, as it easily flakes into the air. The major drivers of oceanic circulation are the temperature and the concentration of this substance. For the point, name this mineral which is present in ocean water in much higher concentrations than in fresh water.
salt (accept sodium chloride or halite)
8. Plants known as halophytes thrive in water that contains this dissolved compound. Most ocean current activity is attributed to differences in heat and the amount of this compound. It is theorized that this compound emerged by the composition of leached sodium from ocean floor rocks with hydrochloric acid from volcanic vents. On average, this compound makes up about 35 grams of each kilogram of sea water, and it can be harvested for human consumption. For the point, name this compound present in about 97 percent of the Earth's water, primarily in the oceans.
salt [accept sodium chloride]
14) Because of her performance at one of these events, an asteroid is named for Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. The most prestigious award at one of these events is named for the creator of Moore's law. The youngest winner at one of these sponsored by Google invented a bandage embedded with graphene nanoparticles. The 2019 winner of the Intel competition of this type built an augmented-reality system to improve spinal surgery. For the point, name this type of competition in which students traditionally display their hypothesis and data on a tri-fold board.
science fair (accept specific examples like the Intel Science and Engineering Fair)
16) This location is home to manganese nodules, collections of iron and rock often found on abyssal plains. Alternately charged layers of polarized rock in this location serve as evidence for the reversal of Earth's magnetic poles. This region expands due to its namesake spreading which explains continental drift. For the point, name this location, the bottom of Earth's oceans.
seafloor (accept seabed; accept ocean floor; accept abyssal plains before it is read; prompt on ocean; prompt on sea)
A species of this mammal named for James Weddell is the southernmost-ranging mammal on Earth. Members of this mammal's Otariidae family can walk on all fours and are contrasted with the earless, "true" type of these mammals. Penguins are hunted by the "leopard" type of these mammals, whose poor eyesight is partly compensated for by the sensitivity of their whiskers. Pinnipeds are, for the point, what marine mammals, including sea lions?
seals (accept pinnipeds before read
Early examples of these systems include VERONICA, which was designed to work with the Gopher protocol. In a paper titled The Anatomy of [one of these systems], the PageRank algorithm is explained by Sergey Brin and Larry Page. These systems read files called "robots.txt" [Robots dot T X T] using crawlers, which then store and organize web pages by key phrases. For the point, name this type of internet technology that helps users find relevant websites, which include Microsoft Bing and Google.
search engines
20) For a given location, these time periods are related to changes to time spent in the circle of illumination. These periods switch for the north and south hemisphere due to the inclination of the Earth's axis. These divisions of the year are categorized by daylight hours and weather patterns. For the point, name these four divisions of the year, which include spring and autumn.
seasons
26. This type of rock covers about three-quarters of the Earth's surface, but makes up less than 10 percent of the volume of the crust. Cross-bedding can occur in these types of rocks if deposition occurs along the angle of repose. Karst landscapes are created due to weathering of this type of rock, often the limestone type. Conglomerates and breccias are subtypes of these rocks with larger particles than sandstone. For the point, name this type of rock created by the cementing together of small particles of minerals or other rocks, often contrasted with igneous and metamorphic rocks.
sedimentary rocks
10) The Rouse number and Exner equation measure the speed and amount of this type of substance in a flow, respectively. Consisting of compaction followed by cementation, lithification is the process by which this type of substance becomes rock. Moraines are deposits of this type of substance by glaciers, while beaches consist of this type of substance transported by water. For the point, name this type of substance which consists of pieces of weathered and eroded minerals.
sediments
An early Chinese version of this instrument designed by Zhang Heng dropped a bronze ball as an indicator, and was sensitive enough to detect an event in Gansu. A "shadow zone" where these instruments cannot detect anything is caused by the inability of secondary waves to pass through the outer core, but in most positions, this instrument outputs a graph by allowing a pen to mark a piece of paper by vibrating with the ground. For the point, name this scientific device that measures the intensity of earthquakes by recording the size of the waves generated by the crust's motion.
seismometer (or seismograph; prompt on descriptions of "earthquake detecting equipment" before earthquake is said
28) The conductivity of these materials can be increased by the addition of an impurity in a process called doping. When doping increases the number of free electrons in these materials, they are classified as "n-type". For the point, name these materials that include gallium, arsenide, and doped-silicon which behave like conductors in the right conditions.
semiconductors
10. Measures can be defined to assign a "size" to these objects which act as the elements of sigma algebras. These objects are called "path-connected" if a continuous function on these objects exists between any two points in one of these objects. The Cartesian product acts on two of these objects while Russell's paradox concerns a self-referential example of these objects. The cardinality of these objects is defined as the number of elements contained in these objects. De Morgan's laws can be used to change an expression of these objects in terms of complements, intersections and unions. For the point, name these basic mathematical objects defined as an unordered collection of elements.
sets
32) Basement rocks are exposed in zones given this geologic name, such as the Canadian or the Fennoscandian, which have been tectonically stable since the Precambrian. Rift zones may develop on a type of volcano described by this adjective, which is built from a series of non-explosive eruptions of very fluid lava that spread out, giving this type of volcano its descriptive name. For the point, give this word that describes a geologic object that resembles a piece of protective armor.
shield
13) When a copper rod is suspended in a solution of this element's nitrate, a blue solution of copper nitrate forms along with crystals of this element. A thin plate of this element over a copper substrate is the starting material for a daguerreotype [da-GARE-oh-type]. When Tollens reagent is added in presence of an aldehyde, a "mirror" of this element forms. This metal has the highest conductivity and forms the alloy electrum with gold, which sits below this element on the periodic table. For the point, name this precious metal with atomic symbol Ag.
silver (prompt on Ag)
18. It's not mucus, but Langerhans cells reside in this organ before migrating to lymph nodes. Two stratum make up this organ's Malpighian layer, and its sebaceous glands secrete a substance known as sebum. Basal-cell carcinoma is the most common cancer of this organ. This largest organ of the integumentary system is affected in an autoimmune disease where red patches are covered with dead cells, psoriasis. Melanin levels dictate the color of this organ. For the point, name this organ that forms the outer layer of your body.
skin
3) The arrector pili are smooth muscles found in this organ. Langerhans cells and Meissner corpuscles are found in this organ. The stratum spinosum of this organ is composed of keratinocytes. Exocrine glands in this organ produce sebum. Melanin provides this organ with pigmentation. The dermis and epidermis are part of, for the point, what largest organ in the human body that can be affected by eczema and acne?
skin
19) This organ contains a fine loosely arranged layer of connective tissue called the papillary layer. This organ of the integumentary system has a stratum basale layer which contains melanocytes [muh-lah-no-sights]. This largest organ of the human body is divided into the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis tissue layers. For the point, name this fleshy organ that surrounds your body to protect it from foreign invaders.
skin (prompt on dermis; prompt on epidermis)
22) In infants, this structure contains soft fontanelles that allow the calvaria to expand. The sagittal suture bisects this structure, which contains a hole at its base called the foramen magnum. This structure's zygomatic bone articulates with the maxilla to form the floor of the orbital cavity. One division of the trigeminal nerve in this structure runs along the mandible, or jawbone. For the point, name this bony structure that houses the brain.
skull (accept cranium; prompt on head)
27. Kleine-Levin syndrome is characterized by chronic occurences of this process. It's not appetite-related, but the hormone orexin or hypocretin has been linked to breaking this process. The suprachiasmatic nucleus over the optic chiasm tract breaks this process in response to sunlight, which is brought on in part by the hormone melatonin. Apnea can obstruct and rapid eye movement can occur during this circadian-rhythm regulated process. For the point, name this biological process fundamental to most animals during which dreams occur.
sleeping [or somnolence; accept answers indicating sleep such as falling asleep; prompt on answers like lethargy or drowsiness and similar answers]
27. Cases of a disease associated with this process began to occur in response to the vaccine Pandemrix. Kleine-Levin syndrome is characterized by chronic occurences of this process. It's not appetite-related, but the hormone orexin or hypocretin has been linked to breaking this process. The suprachiasmatic nucleus over the optic chiasm tract breaks this process in response to sunlight, which is brought on in part by the hormone melatonin. Apnea can obstruct and rapid eye movement can occur during this circadian-rhythm regulated process. For the point, name this biological process fundamental to most animals during which dreams occur.
sleeping [or somnolence; accept answers indicating sleep such as falling asleep; prompt on answers like lethargy or drowsiness and similar answers]
The length of a line segment is equal to the square root of one plus the square of this quantity all times the change in x. This quantity can be computed with a derivative, and is equal to the tangent of the angle between a line and the x -axis. Decreasing functions have a negative value of this quantity, which is symbolized as m in the equation of a line. For the point, name this quantity that measures the steepness that is equal to rise over run.
slope
31) This organ is coated with a mucus-rich alkaline fluid from Brunner's glands. Projections in this organ are flattened in Celiac disease. This organ is divided into the ileum, the jejunum, and the duodenum and it absorbs nutrients through extended projections known as villi. For the point, name this digestive organ that takes in chyme from the stomach and feeds into the large intestine.
small intestine (prompt on intestine)
25) Receptor neurons for this sense relay information to mitral cells and tufted cells. The part of the brain responsible for this sense, the rhinencephalon [RINE-uh-SEFF-uh-LON], is smaller in humans than other mammals. This sense is mediated by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory bulb. The gustatory response is primarily mediated by this sense, even more so than taste. For the point, name this sensation mediated through the nose to detect odors.
smell (accept olfaction before "olfactory")
The regolith separates this material from bedrock. This material is called loam if it exists in a "2 to 2 to 1" ratio of silt to sand to clay. Hydroponic systems do not use this material, since they replace the vital humus [HYOO-muss] within this material with a liquid nutrient solution to be absorbed, and provide gravel for roots to grow in. For the point, give this term for the mixture of organic matter and minerals, including dirt, that supports plant growth.
soil (do not accept or prompt on dirt
4. This substance is formed via mobilization of iron and aluminum followed by their immobilization and stabilization in podzolization. The consolidation properties of this substance are measurable by Oedometers [[ee-DO-muh-ters]] which can help determine the Shrink-Swell index of this substance if its expansivity is a concern. The five factors of climate, organisms , relief, parent material, and time are the five CLORPT factors that help determine how this substance forms. The organic material of this substance forms the O horizon and humus accumulation makes up part of the A horizon. When the infiltration rate of water into this material is higher than the precipitation rate, runoff will occur. For the point, name this material which is enriched through crop rotation and fertilizer.
soil [accept clay soil]
12) Ludwig Biermann's observations of the direction of comet tails was evidence of this phenomenon. This phenomenon ceases to be supersonic at a boundary called the termination shock but reaches as far as the heliopause. This phenomenon is largely the cause of "space weather" and it originates as particles accelerate enough to leave the corona. For the point, name this phenomenon, a release of particles from the sun that causes auroras when it reacts with Earth's ionosphere.
solar wind
. The Hansen parameters define this property in relation to intermolecular forces. Le Chatelier's principle dictates the direction a reaction will shift when an equilibrium constant related to this property is exceeded, according to the common ion effect. Water and ethanol are miscible because they have this property for all proportions. Ammonium ions and nitrate ions exhibit this property for ionic salts in water. For the point, name this property, the ability of one substance to dissolve another.
solubility
16. A good estimation of this property can be calculated by taking the square root of the cohesive energy density to obtain the Hildebrand parameter. That parameter of this property is useful for estimating the chi ("kai") parameter to determine this property for polymers in Flory-Huggins theory. This property's product constant can be determined for a salt via multiplication of this property for the dissociated ions in moles per liter. The ratio of this property for a substance in octanol versus in water is used to define the partition coefficient. Henry's Law gives a relation of partial pressure to this property of a gas in a liquid. For the point, name this property, the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given volume of solvent.
solubility
10) This property can be reduced by the addition of common ions, and miscibility is a special case of this property involving two liquids. Henry's Law relates this property to the partial pressure above a liquid. When this property is exceeded, precipitation occurs. Oil does not possess this property in water. For the point, name this ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent.
solubility (accept word forms like soluble; accept descriptions of dissolving in water; accept miscibility before mentioned; accept mixable or mixability)
25) Two substances ability to form one of these systems is characterized by their miscibility [MISS-"uh-bility"]. Unlike colloids, these systems are formed from two substances in the same phase. Examples of these systems that involve water are referred to as "aqueous." For the point, name these homogeneous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
solutions
11) A separatory funnel is used to isolate compounds from immiscible types of these substances in liquid-liquid extraction. Since they don't form hydrogen bonds, DMSO and acetone are the "polar aprotic" type of these substances. In aqueous mixtures, water acts as one of these substances and is often called their "universal" type. For the point, name these substances in which a solute dissolves to form a solution.
solvents (prompt on liquids before liquid is read)
11) One algorithm for doing this task in Python is named after Tim Peters, who noticed that he could be more efficient at this task by identifying existing runs. "MSD" and "LSD" are variants of the radix algorithm for this task. The "library" method for this task is related to its insertion type, where new data is placed between existing data. The swapping of neighboring values happens in the bubble variety of this task. For the point, name this task of arranging data, a common basic computer science problem.
sorting
The "bogo" type of this procedure randomly works until it is successful. Tony Hoare invented another algorithm to perform this process that uses a pivot value to partition the array in question. Common types of this procedure include "merge," which runs in Big O of n log n time, as well as "bubble" and "quick." For the point, name this computing task that orders the entries in a list.
sorting (accept descriptive answers that use the word sort or the word order before it is read; accept additional information like bogosort
3) Isaac Newton's calculation for this phenomenon's speed was too low due to treating its travel as an isothermal process instead of an adiabatic process. Interference between two waves of this phenomenon is responsible for beats. This phenomenon travels at 343 meters per second and cannot be perceived above 20 kilohertz. For the point, name this phenomenon measured in decibels and created by thunder.
sound waves (accept speed of sound)
22. The compressible pressure coefficient due to movement of this phenomenon can be calculated using the Prandtl-Glauert transformation which was predicted to reach a singularity at around 340 meters per second. The Newton-Laplace equation can be used to calculate that speed of this phenomenon. The difference in frequency between two waves of this phenomenon can cause beats. An object travelling faster than the speed of this phenomenon surpasses Mach 1 and is "supersonic." For the point, name these wave phenomena that are biologically perceived by ears.
sound waves [or sounds]
11) COBE and WMAP are two satellite examples of this device which use microwaves. A Cassegrain reflector and Schmidt corrector plate make a powerful type of this device. March 30th, 2021 is the launch date for one of these devices named for James Webb which is designed to replace the one named for Edwin Hubble. For the point, name this type of device used to observe the stars.
space telescopes
21. The Poisson ratio, symbolized gamma, gives the ratio of this quantity's value at constant pressure to this quantity's value at constant volume. Debye's model relates this quantity to temperature cubed for solids at low temperatures. The Dulong-Petit law found this quantity to be three times the ideal gas constant per one mole of a solid. Due to hydrogen bonding, water's value for this quantity is 4.186. For the point, name this quantity, the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit amount of a substance by one degree.
specific heat capacity (accept "heat capacity" until the second sentence is read)
23. One over the square root of vacuum permeability times vacuum permittivity equals this quantity. The Michelson-Morley experiment determined that this quantity is constant in every direction, disproving the existence of a luminiferous aether. The rest energy of an object is equal to this quantity squared multiplied by mass. For the point, name this constant, symbolized c, which in a vacuum is roughly equal to three times ten to the eight.
speed of light (prompt on "c")
18) The regulation of hyperactivation in these cells is done through CatSper ion channels. These cells have their histones replaced with protamines late in development. Sertoli cells provide support to these cells during their development. These cells contain a special organelle called the acrosome designed to break down the zona pellucida. They are stored in the epididymis and contain a long flagellum for motility. For the point, name these eukaryotic male gametes which fertilize egg cells.
spermatozoa (or sperm cells; accept spermatozoon or spermatium or spermatids)
19) Theridiidae [thay-ree-dee-uh-DAY] create the tangle variant of this structure. Other variants of this structure include the funnel and tubular variants, and the substance used to make this structure has the same tensile strength as steel. The large spiral variants of this structure is associated with orb-weavers. This structure is not used by tarantulas to capture prey. For the point, name this structure created with sticky silk, used by spiders to capture unlucky insects.
spider webs (or cobweb)
9) Inward and outward curvatures of this structure are respectively called lordosis ["LORE" doh sis] and kyphosis [kee - FO - sis]. Unbalanced pressure on cartilage within this structure can cause a type of hernia called a "slipped disc." Fused bones called the sacrum and coccyx make up the end of this structure, which is affected by scoliosis [SCOH lee OH sis] and can be manipulated by chiropractors. For the point, name this bony structure in the back consisting of 33 vertebrae.
spine (accept backbone or spinal column or vertebral column do not accept "spinal cord")
25) OPSI is a fatal complication caused by the removal of this organ. The enlargement of this organ is a common symptom of mononucleosis. It's not the kidney, but corpuscles named after Marcello Malpighi are found in this organ. The marginal zone separates the red and white pulp of this organ. Functions of this organ include storing and creating red blood cells. For the point, name this organ similar to a lymph node that filters and cleans blood.
spleen
20) This shape is used to represent the D'Alambertian operator. Early mathematicians attempted to construct this shape with equal area to a circle using only a compass and a straight edge. Inheritance ratio in offspring can be determined using a version of this shape named for Punnett. The area of this shape is equal to one of its side lengths times itself. For the point, name this shape of four right angles and four equal side lengths.
square (accept box; prompt on quadrilateral)
15) This data structure is utilized to evaluate expressions when computers are using reverse Polish notation. Forth and PostScript are languages oriented around this data structure which works in the opposite manner to a queue. Implementations of this data structure make use of peek, pop, and push operations. Exceeding the size of this data structure causes its namesake "overflow." For the point, name this last in, first out data structure that places items one on top of the other.
stacks
6) Eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils are named for whether or not they retain one of these features named H&E. In one technique to create this feature, an iodine solution is added as a mordant after adding crystal violet to see if a bacteria has a thick or thin peptidoglycan [pep-tid-oh-GLY-can] wall; that technique was developed by Hans Christian Gram. Solvents can be used to fully remove these features, while bleach and hydrogen peroxide can remove their color. For the point, name these blemishes or dyes that are difficult to remove.
stains (accept word forms like staining or stained; prompt on dye by asking "Used for what purpose?")
13. Species that lack these structures are called gynoecious. In one part of these structures, stomium cells degenerate so that dehiscence can occur. According to the ABC model, mutations in genes APETALA3 and PISTILLATA lead to the formation of carpels instead of these structures in Arabidopsis thaliana. One part of these structures contains microsporangia, which develop into gametophytes that are released as pollen grains. For the point, name these male organs in flowers that consist of both filaments and anthers.
stamens
23. This theory is generated by the direct product of SU(3), SU(2), and U(1). Events that helped bolster this theory and carry out its predictions include the OPAL experiment at LEP, alongside ALEPH, DELPHI and L3. Those experiments of this theory took place under the European Organization for Nuclear Research. Limitations to this theory include the inability to account for neutrino oscillators or baryon asymmetry. This theory overarches quantum chromodynamics, and was bolstered by the finding of the Higgs boson in 2012. For the point, name this physics "model" that encodes three of the four fundamental forces of physics while classifying the known elementary particles.
standard model [accept standard after "model"]
11. As t goes to infinity, the t-distribution approaches this function whose cumulative distribution function is equal to one half times the quantity one plus an error function term. With a large enough sample size the mean and variance of a population can be estimated by this distribution due to the central limit theorem. This distribution's first standard deviation covers 68 percent of the data and two standard deviations covers 95 percent. For the point, name this bell-curve shaped distribution sometimes named for a German mathematician.
standard normal distribution [or Gaussian distribution] Specific Term Required.
6) This process sometimes results in the formation of bright patches called Herbig-Haro objects. Jeans instability marks the radius where interstellar gas clouds collapse at the start of this process. Bok globules are a common location for this process to occur. The Pillars of Creation are named for undergoing this process, which typically also includes the formation of a proto-planetary disk. For the point, name this process where dense regions of molecular clouds collapse and form bright objects like the Sun.
star formation (or anything indicating the creation of stars; accept protostar in place of star)
32) In 2014, scientists identified a densovirus targeting organisms in this class causing a namesake wasting disease. The "crown of thorns" member of this class poses a threat to coral reef systems. These echinoderms are apart of the class Asteroidea. For the point, name this sea-dwelling creature whose five tentacles lend it its astronomical name.
starfish (or starfishes; accept sea stars; accept Asteroidea before mentioned)
26) A type of these objects known for reaching hot temperatures is the Wolf-Rayet type. These objects can be classified as Population I or II ["one or two""] depending on their metallicity. The Hertzsprung Russell diagram is a scatter plot of these objects. Young examples of these objects create energy by fusing hydrogen in their cores. For the point, name these spheroidal burning objects that light up the night sky.
stars
23) The energy from these objects can hypothetically be captured using a Dyson sphere. Limits on the formation of these objects include the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit and the Chandrasekhar limit. Extremely dense ones are made up of neutrons, and these objects are plotted on a HertzsprungRussel diagram. Some of them explode into highly luminous supernovas when they die. For the point, name these astral balls of burning gas that include the Sun.
stars (accept neutron stars; prompt on "white dwarf")
30) Hero of Alexandria developed an early precursor to this machine known as the aeolipile. The Rankine cycle was developed to analyze this machine's efficiency of creating pressure to move a piston. This machine was improved by James Watt by recycling the namesake vapor to a new vessel for condensation. For the point, name this machine that powered many factories during the industrial revolution.
steam engine (accept steam turbine; prompt on "engine" or "turbine" with "powered by what?")
Heron of Alexandria theorized an early version of this device that he named the aeolipile [ay-oh-lipile]. Thomas Newcomen designed an early one of these devices to help prevent the flooding of mines. The man who developed horsepower designed one of these in 1782 that used a condenser and a piston. Boilers provided the central gas to these devices in early trains. James Watt developed an efficient version of, for the point, what type of engine that runs on gaseous water?
steam engine (accept steam turbine; prompt on engine until mentioned
11) This class of compounds has a core structure made of 17 carbons fused together into three six member rings and one five member ring. These organic compounds are able to serve as signalling molecules which includes hormones like testosterone and progesterone. For the point, name this class of drugs that are sometimes abused in sports as a performance enhancer for their ability to increase muscle strength.
steroids
14) This organ's enterochromaffin-like cells produce histamine. G cells signal activation of parietal cells to secrete a liquid into this organ that is neutralized by bicarbonate on leaving this organ. This digestive organ sits between the esophagus and the duodenum. For the point, name this organ that uses hydrochloric acid to break down food products into chyme for the small intestine.
stomach
25) Pepsinogen in this organ becomes active after hydrochloric acid is secreted into this organ. Ulcers in this organ can be caused by infections of Helicobacter Pylori. The chyme produced in this organ is fed to the duodenum of the small intestine. For the point, name this organ between the esophagus and the small intestine that secretes gastric acid to digest food.
stomach
23. Convective overshoot may be responsible for turbulent airflow in this atmospheric layer. Warming of this layer causes the polar vortex to move closer to the equator. The creation of chlorine in this layer of the atmosphere can interact with and deplete the concentration of ozone in this layer. Because of this ozone, temperature in this layer increases with altitude and thus this layer is generally stable compared to the troposphere below. For the point, name this layer of the atmosphere in which most commercial flight takes place and which lies underneath the mesosphere.
stratosphere
Nacreous clouds can exist in this region of the atmosphere, which experiences very little convection. Like the thermosphere, the temperature of this range increases with altitude. This layer lies immediately above the tropopause. The ozone layer is found in, for the point, what layer of Earth's atmosphere, found between the troposphere and mesosphere, the highest that can be reached by jet aircraft?
stratosphere
Leonard Susskind introduced the idea of "landscapes" named for this theory. Edward Witten attempted to connect many of these theories into his own M-theory. The central phenomenon of this type of theory is termed opened or closed based on the presence of endpoints. This theory tries to explain quantum gravity and generally requires supersymmetry. For the point, name this physical theory, named for one-dimensional objects that might make up particles.
string theory(s
37. Cumrun Vafa and Andrew Strominger showed that solitonic states of these entities could explain Bekenstein-Hawking entropy. The winding number of these entities is equivalent in type IIA and type IIB theories by T-duality. Calabi-Yau manifolds are useful for creating an internal space on which these entities can reside. The holographic principle relieves the requirement of perturbation in the theory of these entities. These entities trace out worldsheets in spacetime and are branes with dimension one. Ed Witten noticed the dualities of five theories of these entities could lead to one overarching M-theory of them. For the point, name these hypothetical one-dimensional entities that replace particles in higher dimensional theories of physics.
strings [accept superstrings]
A heat press is used in a printing technique in which dyes invoke this process at around 350 degrees Fahrenheit. Mothballs usually contain a hydrocarbon that undergoes this process at around 176 degrees Fahrenheit called naphthalene. The opposite of this process is known as deposition. Solid carbon dioxide undergoes this process at room temperature; as a result, dry ice is often used in smoke machines. For the point, name this phase transition from solid to gas.
sublimation (prompt on descriptions of a "solid turning into a gas" before mentioned
4) One type of this reaction requires a good leaving group and in the case of first order kinetics, creates a trigonal planar carbocation [CARB-oh-CAT-I-on] intermediate. Two reactions of this type that occur with nucleophilic attack are called SN1 and SN2 reactions. This type of reaction has double displacement and single displacement varieties. For the point, name this type of chemical reaction where one substituent is swapped out for another.
substitution
25. In one example of this class of reactions, an encounter complex forms between a metal bound to six ligands and an incoming ligand whose rate can be determined by the Eigen-Wilkins mechanism. One type of this reaction begins with a carbon oxygen double bond on an acyl group being broken; that example of this class of reactions works best on acid halides since chlorine readily serves as a good leaving group. This class of reactions includes the Friedel-Crafts reactions performed on electrophilic aromatic compounds. A trigonal pyramidal intermediate is formed if the nucleophile attacks after the leaving group leaves in an SN1 reaction, another example of this class of reactions. For the point, name this reaction where one or multiple components of molecules are replaced or swapped.
substitution [accept associative substitution; accept nucleophilic acyl substitution; accept electrophilic aromatic substitution; accept nucleophilic substitution 1 or 2; accept (double or single) replacement; prompt on SnAC; prompt on SN1; prompt on SN2; prompt on EAS]
29) Protein structure is stabilized by bridges of this element. The contact process generates a strong, diprotic acid containing this element. One compound of iron and this element is called fool's gold, while oxides of nitrogen and this element are the pollutants that cause acid rain. This element, formerly called brimstone, is responsible for the smell of rotten eggs. For the point, name this yellow element with atomic number 16.
sulfur
21) This element sits across from a double-bonded oxygen atom in the ring structure of Biotin. Arsenic and this element are found in orpiment and realgar. The Frasch process pumps superheated water underground to extract this element. Thioethers and thiols both contain this element. This element is used in vulcanization to cross-link rubber. For the point, name this solid yellow compound that smells like rotten eggs.
sulfur (prompt on S)
3. Samuel Schwabe suggested that the number of these features reaches a maximum every ten years, an idea that fascinated Rudolf Wolf into studying these features and characterizing their daily index via his namesake Wolf number. The variation in the latitude of these features was empirically predicted by Richard Christopher Carrington using the work of Gustav Spörer. These features, whose total during the Maunder minimum may have caused the cooling temperatures of the Little Ice Age, are defined by a dark umbra region surrounded by a yellowish-orange penumbra. For the point, name these dark regions found on the surface of the sun.
sunspots [accept starspots]
6) The cuprate YBCO is one type of this material that can maintain the namesake property above 77 Kelvin. Electrons pair up to form boson-like Cooper pairs in these materials according to BCS theory. These materials expel their magnetic field in the Meissner effect. These materials were first discovered by Heike Onnes and form below a critical temperature, where they suddenly have a persisting current. For the point, name these materials characterized by zero electrical resistance.
superconductors (accept superconductivity; accept word forms like superconduction)
16. The coherence length and penetration depth parameterize these materials in Ginzburg-Landau theory. This material is separated by an insulator at a Josephson junction, which gives rise to the Josephson effect where Cooper pairs are able to tunnel across the barrier. John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer developed the accurate BCS theory of this material. This material expels magnetic fields in the Meissner effect. For the point, name these materials that at low temperatures have no electrical resistance.
superconductors [accept Type I superconductors or Type II superconductors]
4) All elements heavier than iron come from these events, types of which include Type I and Type II. One of the largest of these events in recorded history that occurred in 1054 was responsible for the creation of the Crab Nebula. These events leave behind a black hole or neutron star after they occur. For the point, name these large stellar explosions that occur at the end of a star's life.
supernovae (prompt on novae)
2) SNEWS detects neutrinos as the result of one of these events in our galaxy, the last one of which detected in 1987. Kepler names one of these events that occurred in 1604; that instance of this event was classified as type 1a [one - "a"] occurring between a white dwarf and a red giant. One common mechanism by which these events occur is from sudden gravitational collapse in the core of a massive star. For the point, name these late stellar events that result in a massive explosion.
supernovas (or supernovae; accept specific types such as 1a, 1b, 1c, 2-P, 2-L, 2-N, or 2b supernovae)
10) DPPC reduces this quantity in the alveoli of the lungs which is measured in dynes per centimeter. Adhesive forces and the cohesion of this property allow for capillary action. Surfactants reduce the value of this quantity. Corks can float in cups with a convex water line due to this property. For the point, name this property that allows water striders to move along the top of water.
surface tension (accept water tension; prompt on "tension")
20. For two inputs at position one and two, this operation can be done by xoring the two inputs to position one, xoring the two inputs to position two, and xoring the results in the two positions, rewriting the result into position one. In x86 assembly, using the letters X-C-H-G invokes an instruction that performs this task on two provided registers. Containers allow for this task to be done on the heap using pointers in a single operation. Bubble sort works by checking two items and performing this task if the larger item is more to the left in the series. The simplest algorithm for performing this task requires moving one of the two values into a temporary address while assigning the other to the previously assigned address. For the point, name this process of switching two items in memory.
swapping
This trigonometric function is increasing and has a period of pi, with a vertical asymptote when x equals pi over 2. This function can be computed as an angle's sine divided by the cosine or, in a right triangle, as the opposite side divided by the adjacent side. This kind of line has the same slope as the curve at their point of intersection, causing them to be perpendicular to the radius in any circle. For the point, give this term for a line that just touches a curve once.
tangent (accept tan before "this kind of line"
One of these structures, the Farallon, broke up into ones named for Gorda, Juan de Fuca, and the Nazca. They meet at convergent or divergent boundaries, classified by the relative motion. At an underwater divergent boundary between these objects, seafloor spreading may occur. Orogeny can be caused when these bodies, which float on the asthenosphere, collide. For the point, name these large segments of the Earth's crust, whose movement causes earthquakes and the formation of mountains.
tectonic plates
17) "Basal drag" is a theory that describes the motion of these objects. These objects include the ancient Farallon whose modern remnants include the Juan de Fuca. Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift helped establish a model of these objects which can sink into the mantle at subduction zones. These objects come in continental and oceanic types. For the point, name these moving sections of Earth's crust.
tectonic plates (accept plate tectonics; prompt on partial answers)
3) These structures classify humans as diphyodont since they cycle between deciduous and permanent. Insipid lesions in these structures can become caries if left untreated and not provided enough fluoride to recover. They're not bone, but they're made of hydroxyapatite and sit between the maxilla and mandible. For the point, name these calcified structures that help with chewing food.
teeth (or tooth; accept tooths or teeths)
24) John Logie Baird gave the first demonstration of this technology using moving silhouettes on a Nipkow disk. CASIO pioneered the portable use of this technology. NTSC and Phase Alternating Line are two color encoding systems for this technology that were popularized in the 1950s. American inventor Charles Frances Jenkins pioneered the creation of this technology with his paper on "Motion Pictures by Wireless." For the point, name this technology used to watch cable channels, commonly abbreviated to TV.
television (accept TV before mentioned)
11) The entropy of vaporization is defined as heat of vaporization divided by this quantity. Gibbs free energy is equal to enthalpy minus entropy times this quantity. Increasing this quantity will also increase the pressure of a gas. For the point, name this measure of average kinetic energy, a quantity measured in Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit.
temperature
19. The power radiated from a black body is proportional to this quantity raised to the fourth according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law. This quantity is plotted on the x-axis of an HR diagram. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is determined by this quantity's value for the reservoirs. Two objects in a closed system will have the same value for this quantity if allowed to exchange heat. For the point, name this quantity measured in Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit.
temperature
2) The change in Gibbs free energy is defined as the change in enthalpy minus this quantity times the change in entropy. The maximum efficiency of a heat engine is defined by this quantity for two reservoirs. Motion due to this quantity ceases at absolute zero. For the point, name this quantity that is measured on a scale named for Kelvin and describes how readily a system will accept or give up heat.
temperature
9) This quantity names a maximum reached between the Paleocene and Eocene periods. Snow causes this quantity to fall as albedo increases resulting in more sunlight being reflected instead of absorbed. Density differences between salinity and this quantity drive the thermohaline circulation. For the point, name this quantity on the rise with global warming, measured in Fahrenheit and Celsius.
temperature
Charles's law states that at constant pressure, increasing this quantity will cause a gas to expand. This quantity is effectively a measure of how fast the atoms of a substance are moving. A substance's specific heat is the amount of energy needed to change this quantity by one unit. This quantity's lower bound is called absolute zero. For the point, name this quantity, measured in Kelvins or on the Fahrenheit scale, which describes how hot or cold something is.
temperature
7) This industry received a boost from John Kay's invention of the flying shuttle. The main device used in this industry works by intersecting warp and weft lines. Automatic looms are more common today in this industry where synthetic fibres like polyester, acrylic, and nylon are used. For the point, name this industry that weaves together fibers into fabrics and wearable items.
textiles (accept clothing or clothes; prompt on "weaving" )
5. The U.S. Government backed an Engineering Task Force for this technology which now works with the Reston, Virginia headquartered ISOC, a nonprofit "Society" centered around this technology whose motto is that this technology "is for everyone." Louis Pouzin led an early French effort into this technology that resulted in CYCLADES, an instance of this technology that used a distance vector to handle routing requests of data packets. So-called 'traffic flow' can be achieved through this technology via a three-way handshake using the Transmission Control Protocol build on top of IP, the standard protocol for this technology. For the point, name this technology, a system of interconnected computer networks that supports the World Wide Web.
the Internet
9) Paul Dirac hypothesized that the age of this entity is inversely proportional to the gravitational constant. This entity is thought to be flat because measurements of the density parameter omega are very close to one. The acceleration of this entity is thought to be caused by dark energy, and possible endings to it include heat death. For the point, name this entity that was created by the Big Bang.
the universe
22. This phenomenon is the primary natural source of Schumann resonance excitation. Unusually short duration instances of this phenomenon occurring in the upper atmosphere are classified as TLEs and include fantastically named types like ELVES, gnomes, and sprites. When this phenomenon comes in contact with the skin, it can leave behind a 2D fractal Lichtenberg figure, and when it comes in contact with the ground, it can fuse together soil and silicate material into a hollow glassy cylindrical material known as fulgurite. This phenomenon occurs when the local electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of the air. For the point, name this phenomenon that Benjamin Franklin empirically related to electricity by trials of his kite experiment.
thunderstorm lightning
8) To define a unit for this quantity, scientists measure the hyperfine transition frequency of cesium. The "arrow" of this quantity is its "asymmetry," which is a property of entropy. The derivative of charge with respect to this quantity gives the current. Power can be calculated by dividing work by change in this quantity. Distance equals rate multiplied by this quantity. For the point, name this quantity that can be measured in seconds.
time
19) An operator named for reversing this operator can be used to determine doubly degenerate energy levels with Kramer's theorem. The reversal of this quantity could make a hypothetical "white hole." Arthur Eddington developed a problem referred to as the "arrow of [this quantity]" since it appears to be one directional. The chronon is a hypothetical particle that carries this quantity, which can be thought of as a fourth dimension paired with three spatial dimensions. For the point, name this quantity whose SI unit is the second.
time (accept time-reversal; prompt on T)
12) To directly detect the gravitational form of this phenomenon, the Hafele-Keating experiment team flew in commercial airliners while measuring cesium beams. The anomalous half-life of muons was explained by this phenomenon. The Lorentz transformation implies relativity of simultaneity, length contraction and this phenomenon. If Rita travels at 99.9% the speed of light to Alpha-Centauri and back, her twin Anna would be older than her as a result of this phenomenon. For the point, name this consequence of special relativity where time slows down.
time dilation (prompt on "special relativity" until mentioned)
24) In one form of this technique, a reagent containing alcohol, a base, sulfur dioxide and iodine is used to determine water concentration; that form of this technique is named for Karl Fischer. Iodine is treated with a starch to form iodide in one redox variant of this technique. Diprotic acids have two inflection points on a namesake curve in the acid-base variety of this technique. Indicators used in this technique include methyl orange and phenolphthalein [fee - nul - thay - leen]. For the point, name this technique of determining an unknown concentration from a known one.
titration (accept titrimetry; accept volumetric analysis)
21) These phenomena can develop from thunderstorms known as supercells, which contain mesocyclones that take in cool air to form a condensation funnel. The Enhanced Fujita scale measures the intensity of these phenomena. In the U.S., these phenomena mostly form in a namesake alley. For the point, name these rapidly rotating columns of air, which are sometimes called twisters.
tornadoes (or twisters until mentioned; accept whirlwind; accept mesocyclone until "mesocyclone" is read)
19. Gyroscopic precession refers to precession induced by this phenomenon that for a charged particle can be calculated by crossing the dipole moment with the electric field. This quantity which can be measured in newton-meters or joules per radian is equal to the angular acceleration times the moment of inertia. Defined as the cross product of radius and force, it's direction can be found using the right hand rule. For the point, name this twisting force that causes rotation.
torque
One unit used to measure this quantity is joules per radian. This value is found by taking the cross product of lever arm and force, or by multiplying the moment of inertia times the angular acceleration. Like a force, there can be no net amount of this quantity anywhere for a system to be in equilibrium. For the point, name this physical quantity, the rotational analogue of force, which is exerted on twisting or turning objects.
torque
30. This circuit device is often simplified as a switch that turns on above a threshold voltage. For the discovery of how semiconductors could be used to create these devices, Brattain, Bardeen and Shockley were rewarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. This device is similar to a diode but has three layers either as NPN or PNP. The two main flavors of these devices are Bipolar Junction and Field Effect. Integrated circuits doubled the amount of these elements every year according to Moore's law prediction. For the point, name these elements named for behaving like a resistor that can transfer electrical signals.
transistors [accept MOS transistor; accept MOSFET transistor; accept (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) Field Effect transistor; accept Bipolar Junction transistor]
14. P-bodies store molecules necessary for this process, which begins in eukaryotes after Kozak's sequence is recognized. Release factors mediate the end of this process, and during it, GTP hydrolysis powers translocation, where elongation factors help move a certain molecule from the P site to the A site. Wobble base pairing accounts for why an anticodon of t-RNA can pair with more than one codon during this process. For the point, what process occurs in ribosomes and creates proteins from mRNA?
translation
8) The Crannell Creek Giant was considered the largest example of this classification which are named for General Sherman and can be found in Tulare County, California. A classic gymnosperm example that falls under this broad classification is the conifer. For the point, name this broad classification of plants that are being threatened by deforestation.
tree(s) (accept Sequoia)
23) Self-balancing examples of this data structure include the AVL and red-black variety. This data structure can be traversed post-order, in-order, or pre-order. This data structure takes its name from a plant since it's information is stored down descendants from a root node. For the point, name this data structure with a root that branches down to its leaves.
trees
1) These entities can be AVL or red-black, which are both self-balancing. Quercus and Prunus are genera of these entities. The molecular clock assumption can be used to construct the "phylogenetic" type of these entities. In computer science, data structures named for these entities are connected acyclic graphs, and their "binary" type is easily searched. Sycamore and beech are examples of, for the point, what plants that include maples?
trees (accept shrubs or oaks or other trees)
28. This data structure is directly transformable into a Boolean BDD. The oct examples of these data structures are commonly used in 3D graphics to reduce palette size. A ride-sharing app may solve the nearest neighbor problem by using the space-partitioning k-d type of this data structure. The minimal spanning one can be calculated for a graph using Kruskal's algorithm or Prim's algorithm. One of these data structures is considered a heap if it satisfies the heap property. This data structure top node is commonly labelled r and has pointers to its children nodes. For the point, name this ancestral related data structure whose name refers to the relation heading away from the root node towards the leaves.
trees [accept arborescences; accept bifurcating arborescences; accept binary tree]
15. The principle offense that triggered this event came from a text whose two main logical interlocutors Salviati and Sagredo are at argument with a consistently refuted Aristotelian named Simplicio. This event's target had earlier talked to a former student Benedetto Castelli about the role of theology in his scientific discoveries which culminated in him writing a letter to the Grand Duchess Christina. Shortly after this event, its target apocryphally said "Eppur si muove" or "and yet it moves" in defense of writing the Dialogue Concerning Two Chief World Systems. For the point, name this event where the discoverer of four moons of Jupiter was found guilty of heresy for defending heliocentrism and placed under house arrest until his death.
trial of galileo [accept reasonable equivalent answers indicating Galileo]
9) Most instances of this shape have an Euler line which can be drawn through the center of the nine-point circle. This shape names an inequality that states that the absolute value of x plus y is greater than or equal to the absolute value of x plus the absolute value of y. By Euclid's parallel postulate, all the angles of this shape add up to 180 degrees. For the point, name this three-sided polygon.
triangle
21) A mathematical statement named for this shape can be shown by using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality. A cevian is a line that divides one of these shapes into two parts. The altitudes of this shape meet at the orthocenter, and the interior angles of these shapes sum to 180 degrees. The Pythagorean theorem applies to the right examples of these shapes. Scalene and obtuse are classifications of, for 10 points, what geometric figures with three sides?
triangles (accept specific triangles like "right" triangle or "equilateral" triangle)
The nth of these numbers is equal to the number of unique handshakes made by everyone in a room with n plus 1 people. The nth of these numbers can be found by multiplying n, n plus 1, and one-half. The sum of two consecutive examples of these numbers is always a square number, a result easily proven geometrically. For the point, name this type of number that can represent an arrangement of objects in a certain simple shape, the first four examples of which are 1, 3, 6, and 10.
triangular numbers (accept word forms of triangle; do not prompt on anything else
17. Half of one minus one of these functions determines the great-circle distance and is useful in global navigation. Sight reduction is possible with a member of this class of functions that begins haver- ("have" -er). One over 2i times quantity e to the i z plus or minus e to the negative i z represents two of this class of functions in their complex form. Two members of this class of functions are used to approximate all periodic functions through the Fourier series. The complex numbers are related to the two most commonly employed of these functions by Euler's (OIL-ers) formula. The unit circle's radian measurement is commonly used instead of degrees when plugging into these functions to find ratios of triangles. For the point, name this class of functions that includes the cosine and sine.
trigonometric functions
17. One over 2i times quantity e to the i z plus or minus e to the negative i z represents two of this class of functions in their complex form. Two members of this class of functions are used to approximate all periodic functions through the Fourier series. The complex numbers are related to the two most commonly employed of these functions by Euler's formula. The unit circle's radian measurement is commonly used instead of degrees when plugging into these functions to find the ratios of triangles. For the point, name this class of functions that includes the cosine and sine.
trigonometric functions
25. The order Redlichiida is the earliest type of this organism to appear in the fossil record. Niles Eldredge developed a theory of punctuated equilibrium largely using evidence from these marine organisms. Geologists working on continental drift used fossils of several of these well-preserved arthropod species to show the existence of the paleologic Iapetus Ocean. The organisms are a clear marker of the Cambrian Period in rock stratigraphy. For the point, name these ancient organisms whose collective name refers to the three lateral sections of their bodies.
trilobites
Air rising to the upper boundary of this region of the atmosphere causes the circulation of Hadley cells. The lapse rate in this region is roughly 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer, given that temperature decreases in this region as the altitude increases. Roughly three-fourths of the mass of the atmosphere is found in this layer, in which airplanes fly. For the point, name this region below the stratosphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
troposphere
This is the maximum number of electrons that can fit in a single orbital. Elements which form molecules with this many atoms are found in the mnemonic BrINClHOF [Brinkle-hoff]. There are this many protons in an alpha particle. Alkaline earth metals contain this many valence electrons and are found in this numbered column of the periodic table. Oxygen requires this many extra electrons to have a full octet. For the point, give this number, the atomic number of helium.
two
9. The curving of clouds around these events leads to a so-called stadium effect. They're not thunderstorms, but the ascending motion of Madden-Julian oscillations is associated with these events. The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is an active basin for these events year round. Hurricane John became one of these things in 1994 once it crossed the International Date Line. For the point, name these violent weather storms that affect Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines, and China.
typhoons [prompt on cyclone or tropical cyclones; accept Hurricane until the syllable "west" in "Nortthwestern" in line 4 is read.]
9. The binary interactions of these events lead to a decrease in distance of their low-pressure areas in an effect named for Fujiwhara. The curving of clouds around these events leads to a socalled stadium effect. They're not thunderstorms, but the ascending motion of Madden-Julian oscillations is associated with these events. The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is an active basin for these events year round. Hurricane John became one of these things in 1994 once it crossed the International Date Line. For the point, name these violent weather storms that affect Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines, and China.
typhoons [prompt on cyclone or tropical cyclones; accept Hurricane until the syllable "west" in "Nortthwestern" in line 4 is read.]
22. Henry Bence Jones first made note of the hyaline cast most-commonly formed by the most abundant protein found in this liquid, a glycoprotein known as Tamm-Horsfall protein. Carbamide, a carbonyl connected to two oxidation-state neutral nitrogens, has another name that references this liquid. Henning Brand discovered phosphorus by preparing aliquots of this liquid. Micturition is another term to refer to the removal of this liquid from the body. Diuretics can speed up that process by which this liquid is removed. For the point, name this liquid produced in the kidneys and excreted from the body from a namesake tract after leaving the bladder.
urine [accept micturition before mentioned]
25) The Lancet published a controversial paper about these preparations authored by Andrew Wakefield that purported to have found a link between them and autism. Boosters are used to revamp antigen levels first established by these substances. For the point, name these biological preparations of viral particles, designed to teach the body to adapt to a pathogen such as smallpox or measles.
vaccines
7. The controversial compound Thimerosal is used as a preservative for some of these preparations. Aluminum hydroxide is an adjuvant used in some of these preparations which come in attenuated and inactivated varieties. Andrew Wakefield lost his practising licence for continuously claiming that the MMR one of these preparations could be linked to autism. For the point, name these injections designed to emulate pathogens and strengthen the immune system to prevent infection, which succeeded in eradicating smallpox.
vaccines
7. The controversial compound Thimerosal is used as a preservative for some of these preparations. Aluminum hydroxide is an adjuvant used in some of these preparations which come in attenuated and inactivated varieties. Andrew Wakefield lost his practising licence for continuously claiming that the MMR one of these preparations could be linked to autism. For the point, name these injections designed to emulate pathogens and strengthen the immune system to prevent infection, which succeeded in eradicating smallpox.
vaccines
One operation on these things can only be performed in three or seven dimensions. The addition of these things is often performed "tip to tail." These mathematical objects can be the subject of an "inner product" like the dot product, which returns a scalar instead of one of these objects. Physical examples of these include velocity, but not speed. For the point, name these mathematical quantities that have both magnitude and direction.
vector
11. Transforming these objects can be accomplished using the Gram-Schmidt process. Addition and scalar multiplication following eight axioms define spaces named for these objects. In a given metric space, the metric relates the contravariant and covariant forms of these rank-1 tensors. Matrices describe linear transformations on these objects, which can be represented three dimensionally using i hat, j hat, and k hat, which are themselve unit varieties of these objects with magnitude of one. For the point, name these mathematical objects which differ from scalars since they have both magnitude and direction.
vectors
31) In languages like C++, this sort of data structure is similar to an array but has dynamic size. In linear algebra, this word describes mathematical objects that can be manipulated with dot and cross products. In biology, this term refers to organisms which carry and transmit disease. Velocity can be described by this term, unlike speed, which is scalar. For the point, name this term which can describe mathematical objects with magnitude and direction.
vectors
27. While animal fats are an alternative to producing Fatty Acid Methyl Esters or FAME, transesterification of this class of compounds is usually the most common method to produce FAME. Glycerol ester of wood rosin is a potential alternative to a modification of this class of oils used to prevent citrus flavors from emulsifying that is still classified as "Generally Recognized as Safe" despite concerns of bromine toxicity. Crisco was the first shortening made by hydrogenating this class of oils. Biodiesel is any fuel made from reactions with this class of oils. For the point, name these oils derived from plants such as olive and soy beans.
vegetable oil [accept just vegetables after oil is read ; prompt on oil before mentioned;accept specific vegetable oils like olive oil]
27. While animal fats are an alternative to producing Fatty Acid Methyl Esters or FAME, transesterification of this class of compounds is usually the most common method to produce FAME. Glycerol ester of wood rosin is a potential alternative to a modification of this class of oils used to prevent citrus flavors from emulsifying that is still classified as "Generally Recognized as Safe" despite concerns of bromine toxicity. Crisco was the first shortening made by hydrogenating this class of oils. Biodiesel is any fuel made from reactions with this class of oils. For the point, name these oils derived from plants such as olive and soy beans.
vegetable oil [accept just vegetables after oil is read ; prompt on oil before mentioned;accept specific vegetable oils like olive oil]
14. They're not melanosomes, but Rab7 helps regulate the maturation and transport of these structures. A set of zipper-like proteins that help transport these structures include synaptobrevin and SNAP-25 and can be targeted by botulinum toxin. The fusion of these structures is mediated by SNARE proteins. Triskelion shaped proteins that form a cage like structure around these structures are called clathrin. MPRs are packed onto these structures so that they can be recycled after dropping off mannose-6-phosphate tagged proteins to the lysosome. These structures are similar to micelles and form during endocytosis. For the point, name these structures important in cell transport where a liquid or cytoplasm is surrounded by a lipid bilayer.
vesicles
These things reproduce by either the lytic or lysogenic cycles. The first of these pathogens to be discovered causes a noticeable discoloration, often described as a mosaic, on tobacco leaves. Many of these pathogens have an envelope protecting their capsid, or a protein shell that holds their genetic material. For the point, name this non-living infectious agents that replicate within host cells, exemplified by influenza and the precursor infection to AIDS, HIV.
virus
19) Martin Beijerinck [BAI-ur-INK] gave the name to these entities calling them a "contagious living fluid." A disease originating from Wuhan started spreading in 2020 due to the "corona" type of this class of pathogens. Ones that take their RNA genome and transcribe it into DNA for insertion into a host are part of the "retro-" class of these pathogens. For the point, name these debatably unalive pathogens which include influenza and HIV.
viruses
30) These pathogens are classified using the Baltimore classification scheme, and their name comes from the Latin for "poison." These infectious agents are known as phages when they infect bacteria, and it is still debated whether they can be classified as living organisms. For the point, name these infectious agents that include Hepatitis and Ebola which overtake a host's molecular machinery to create copies of their own genome.
viruses (accept virions; accept viral particles; prompt on bacteriophage; prompt on phage)
This class of compounds was named by Casimir Funk as a portmanteau involving an NH2 group. One of these compounds with a cobalt center is needed to avoid pernicious anemia. Niacin, retinol, and thiamine are examples of these compounds; another example, ascorbic acid, is found in high quantities in citrus fruits and prevents scurvy. For the point, name these nutrients classified into A, C, and many B types.
vitamins
16) A historical one of these events at lapilli-layered excavation site Regio V was where a skeleton was found crushed under a giant rock. The underrepresented dangers from these events are a Javanese-named destructive mudflow called lahar and fast moving hot gas and tephra known as pyroclastic flow. For the point, name these catastrophic events where volcanoes spew up lava and fast flowing debris into the air.
volcanic eruptions (accept eruption of Mount Vesuvius)
26) These features form cryptodomes and leave behind calderas when they collapse. Varieties of a substance produced by these features include pahoehoe [pa-ho-ay-ho-ay], aa, and pillow. These features come in shield, cone, and composite varieties. More than 75% of the world's active ones are in the Ring of Fire. Vesuvius and Mount St. Helens are examples of, for the point, what openings in the earth's crust that expel lava?
volcanoes
23) When these formations are beneath glaciers, they can cause floods called j¨okulhlaups [YOur "cool" laops]. Tephra such as lapilli and bombs are produced by these formations. Pahoehoe [pa ho AY ho AY] and 'a'a [AH AH] can be released from these entities. Olympus Mons is an example of these features on Mars, while Earthly "shield" ones include Mauna Loa. Cinder cones and composite cones are types of, for the point, what formations from which lava can erupt?
volcanoes (prompt on mountains)
9) To prevent excessive energy loss through heat, the current in electrical lines is typically lowered while this quantity across the line is raised. Also defined as electromotive force or electric potential difference, for the point, identify this quantity which is often about 1.5 in standard metric units for double-A, triple-A, C, and D batteries, but is often about 9 for rectangular prism shaped batteries.
voltage (accept electromotive force; accept electric potential difference, do not accept or prompt on volt)
13) A measurement device for this quantity uses a rubber bulb and is named for Karl Friedrich Mohr. Titrations can also be referred to as an analysis named for this extensive property, which is measured using a burette. This quantity is determined by reading the point at the bottom of a meniscus. For the point, name this quantity, which can be measured in labs using graduated cylinders in units of milliliters.
volume
17) The work done by a gas is proportional to the change in this quantity when pressure is held constant. This quantity is measured off a burette during titration. The number of moles divided by concentration equals this quantity. This quantity is reported in liters for liquids. For the point, name this quantity measured in cubic meters, the amount of space occupied by an object.
volume (accept liters until mentioned, prompt afterwards)
32) This device relies on Bussard collectors to replenish its fuel, typically stored in deuterium cartridges. Zefram Cochrane's Phoenix was the first vessel powered by one of these devices. Ten is the theoretical maximum output for this device, which displaces gravimetric fields and requires a dilithium crystal matrix to mediate the matter-antimatter reaction. Invented in the year 2063, for the point, name this Federation starship device that allows faster-than-light travel in the Star Trek universe.
warp drive (accept warp engine)
31) The removal of hydrogen from this substance is responsible for the release of oxygen during photosynthesis. The non-polarity of lipids makes them useful for protecting against this substance, such as by creating micelles or waxes. Respiration and uresis both release this substance from the body. The crystal structure of this substance's solid form allows it to float, thus protecting marine life from freezing temperatures. For the point, name this substance necessary for life in which marine life swims.
water
This substance's freezing point oddly decreases at higher pressures. The high boiling point of this triatomic substance can be explained by hydrogen bonding. A form of this substance which contains deuterium is referred to as "heavy," The Celsius scale is set according to the boiling and freezing points of this substance, which atypically expands when it solidifies. Chemicals that are in solution with this universal solvent are "aqueous." For the point, name this substance with chemical formula H2O [H-2-O].
water (accept H2O before it is read; accept dihydrogen monoxide or dhydrogen hydroxide
2) Subsurface oceans of this molecule exist on Ganymede, Enceladus, and Europa. In 2015, NASA confirmed evidence of this molecule in Martian perchlorate salts. It is found under the carbon dioxide ice cap at Mars's south pole. Along with rocks and dust this molecule's frozen form makes up comets. For the point, name this substance thought to be required for alien life since it covers about 70% of the Earth's surface.
water (or H-2-O; accept water vapor or water ice)
Peter Agre won a Nobel Prize for his work on the proteins that transport this substance into cells, the AQP family of channels. Catalase produces diatomic oxygen and this other compound, while cellular respiration of glucose produces carbon dioxide and this other compound. This is the primary substance found in blood plasma and urine, and it is the primary solvent for biological reactions. For the point, name this compound that makes up around 60 percent of a human body.
water (or H2O
9. This phenomenon's existence in matter was proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924. Two rotating black holes created the gravitational version of this phenomenon that was detected by LIGO in 2016. The namesake "length" of this phenomenon is equal to its speed over frequency, and it comes in transverse and longitudinal varieties. For the point, name these periodic disturbances which are exemplified by light and sound.
waveforms
One type of this quantity named for de Broglie [de BROY] is equal to Planck's constant divided by the mass and the frequency of the wave. The velocity of a wave divided by its frequency gives this value which, for a longitudinal wave, is calculated between consecutive compressions or consecutive rarefactions. For the point, name this quantity that describes the distance between two corresponding points - say, two crests - of a wave.
wavelength
16) Early pioneering work on chaos theory was done by Edward Lorenz while studying the pattern of this entity on a digital computer. A company called "[this entity] underground" gives real-time updates on it. This entity is a catch-all term for phenomenon occurring primarily in the troposphere. For the point, name this state of the atmosphere which scientists try to "forecast" through readings of temperature and precipitation activity.
weather (do not accept or prompt on climate)
22) These cells are commonly counted with Wright's stain. Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages all fall under this class of cells. Antibodies are made by B and T cells, two members of this class of blood cells. For the point, name this class of blood cells which regulate the immune system and are contrasted with red blood cells.
white blood cells (or leukocytes; or WBCs; prompt on "blood cells")
Procyon B is an example of this class of star, whose name was coined by Willem Luyten. Most planetary nebulae are believed to be formed when the outer layers of a red giant are shed by stellar winds, leaving behind this class of star. If the mass of these stars exceeds 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, a value called the Chandrasekhar limit, then they will eventually undergo a supernova. These stars do not support fusion reactions. For the point, name this class of small stars, brighter than a brown counterpart.
white dwarf
Carbon detonation occurs in these objects. A type 1-a supernova may result from the addition of too much mass onto one of these objects. These objects, which are bound by electron degeneracy pressure and cannot be more than about 1.44 solar masses, are found around the bottom left of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. After expelling a planetary nebula, a red giant will become, for the point, what type of small stellar remnant, the ultimate fate of our Sun?
white dwarf (prompt on dwarf, star, or stellar remnant
The Portuguese took advantage of one type of this phenomenon using the volta do mar technique. The Roaring Forties are a particularly powerful version of this phenomenon in the Southern Hemisphere. This phenomenon's magnitude is measured on the Beaufort Scale. Kinetic energy from this phenomenon spins turbines, a source of renewable energy. For the point, name this phenomenon that, in a hurricane, measures over 74 miles per hour.
winds
25) The net value of this quantity is equal to the area under a process curve on a PV diagram. This quantity for an object is equal to the path integral of the force field. By the first law of thermodynamics, the change in internal energy is equal to head added to the system minus this quantity. This quantity is equal to the change in kinetic energy. This quantity is zero for a tray carried perpendicular to the floor by a walking waitress. For the point, name this quantity equal to force times distance, commonly symbolized W.
work (done by a system)
27. In a conservative field, this quantity is zero for a closed path. For a moving charged particle, this quantity is equal to the charge times the change in electric potential. This quantity equals zero when a gas freely expands, and power is equal to the rate of this quantity per unit time. This quantity is classically defined as the energy transferred to an object. For the point, name this quantity that is equal to force times distance.
work (prompt on "change in energy")
8) A large phylum referred to as segmented [this term] are also known as annelids. Animals referred to as parasitic [this term] are referred to as helminths which includes one's prefixed with hook and pin. Parasitic round ones feed off an animal's intestines. For the point, name this colloquial term for slimy legless crawlers that include the common "earth" one, which is pink and eats soil.
worms (accept parasitic worms; accept segmented worms; accept hookworms; accept pinworms; accept earthworms)
13) This most common source for this element is the ore sphalerite.This element and copper were stacked together to make the battery precursor, the Voltaic pile. This element names a transcription factor "finger" motif. In galvanization, this element coats a metal surface to prevent rusting. For the point, name this element with atomic number thirty and chemical symbol Zn.
zinc (prompt on Zn before mentioned)
26) One component of this landmass is the Kaapvaal craton, and 1.7 billion years ago, what is now this landmass was home to a naturally-occurring fission reactor. The splitting of this landmass has already begun in its Afar Depression. In the summer of 2018, a large dust cloud originating on this continent traveled across much of the United States, and the earliest hominid fossils have been discovered in its Great Rift Valley. For the point, Lake Victoria and the Kalahari Desert are located on which second-largest continent on Earth?
Africa (accept Vaalbara until "1.7")
(26) This researcher coined the terms echoics, mands, and tacts in a book analyzing the communication of ideas to an audience. Noam Chomsky heavily criticized this researcher's theory of the origin of language, which was described in the book Verbal Behavior. Inventions created by this researcher include the air crib and the cumulative recorder. For the point, name this behaviorist psychologist who used a namesake "box" to study operant conditioning.
Burrhus Frederic "B.F." Skinner
(3) This region's Pantheon Fossae [[FAH-say]] includes an impact crater and radiating grabens [[GRAH-bens]] nicknamed for its appearance as "the Spider." The antipodal [[an-TIH-poh-dul]] area of this region consists of grooved hilly terrain colloquially called the (+) "Weird Terrain." After Mariner 10 was unable to take a complete image of this region, the first full photograph of this region was taken by the MESSENGER spacecraft, revealing it to be about 35 percent the width of its (*) host body's diameter. For the point, name this largest impact crater on Mercury, derived from the Latin word for "heat".
Caloris Basin (or Caloris Planitia,; prompt on "Mercury," "Mercury's Surface," or any other description of Mercury's surface)
10. This geologic period's beginning is agreed to be the emergence of trace fossils known as Treptichnus pedum, although the organism leaving these fossils was not preserved. This period was followed by the Ordovician Period and is the first period of the Paleozoic Era. The Burgess Shale in Canada is a lagerstätte, or sedimentary deposit with well-preserved fossils, from this period. This period marked some of the first known animals to venture onto land. For the point, name this geologic period with a namesake "explosion" of diverse and complex life on Earth.
Cambrian Period
23) This scientist names a "deep field" and "ultra deep field" observed in a small section of Ursa Major. In 1929, this scientist noticed galaxies appear to expand away from us in every direction, and that redshift increases as a function of distance. For the point, name this scientist who names a space telescope launched in 1990 and a law describing the expansion of the universe.
Edwin (Powell) Hubble
(17) Lake Valencia in Venezuela is notable for experiencing the sewage-caused variety of this process. Decreased light penetration caused by a consequence of this process halts lower-level photosynthesis and causes hypoxic "dead zones" to form. This process is most commonly caused by agricultural runoff rich in nitrates and phosphates. For the point, name this process in which a body of water becomes excessively nutrient-enriched, leading to algae blooms.
Eutrophication (or Hypereutrophication; prompt on "algae blooms" or "phytoplankton blooms" before "blooms" is mentioned)
(1) This man names a thought experiment about observing where objects land after being dropped from a ship's mast. This man's final book was a discourse on the study of motion and the study of materials titled Two New Sciences. The publication of this man's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems led to him being condemned by the inquisition for his heliocentrism. For the point, name this scientist who observed a group of namesake moons of Jupiter.
Galileo Galilei (or Galileo Galilei
(21) With Duhem [[doo-EM]], this scientist names a formula that determines the relationship between changes in chemical potential for a thermodynamic system. With James Clerk [[CLARK]] Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, this scientist developed and coined the name of statistical mechanics. For the point, name this American physicist who lends his name to a type of free energy that decreases in spontaneous reactions.
Josiah Willard Gibbs (accept Gibbs free energy or Gibbs energy; accept Gibbs-Duhem equation)
32) Endosomes fuse with these organelles and deliver mannose-6-phosphate receptors carrying hydrolases. Enzyme mutations lead to "storage" disorders in these organelles like Tay-Sachs disease. Enzymes in this organelle work best at a very low pH. For the point, name this organelle that digests macromolecules and cellular waste.
Lysosome
(12) One disease of these organelles gives macrophages [[MAK-roh-fay-jez]] a wrinkled "tissue paper" appearance and is called Gaucher [[goh-SHAY]] disease. Endosomes that mature into multivesicular bodies later fuse with these organelles. A mannose-6-phosphate tag targets proteins to these organelles, which also accumulate toxic gangliosides in Tay-Sachs disease. Lipases [["LIE"-pay-ses]] and acid hydrolases are found in, for the point, what vesicles with a pH of about 4.5 that break down cellular waste products?
Lysosomes
(2) The Mogi [[MOH-gee]] model predicts the impact of external deformations on the pressure found in these regions. The crystallization of and sinking in these regions can form plutons. Cooling in these regions can form large intrusive igneous bodies. Extremely large examples of these regions located close beneath the surface are required for a super-volcano eruption. For the point, name these areas under volcanoes, which contain molten rock.
Magma Chambers (accept Magma Pools; prompt on "volcano")
24. This structure is wrapped three times by a filament of stars known as Monoceros. The galaxies Dwingeloo 1 and 2 were discovered behind this galaxy using radio wavelengths, since this galaxy obscures a portion of the nighttime sky behind a so-called "Zone of Avoidance." Large and small Magellanic clouds orbit this galaxy, at the center of which is the black hole Sagittarius A* ("A" star). This second largest galaxy in the Local group is 2.5 million light years away from the largest — the Andromeda galaxy. For the point, name this spiral galaxy where the Solar System is located.
Milky Way galaxy
(18) Tropical varieties of these structures cause flows towards the equator. The intensity on one side of these structures is described by "western intensification." Despite its name, the Sargasso Sea is one of these structures. One of these structures in the (+) Indian Ocean reverses direction during monsoons. There are five major structures of this type around the world, two of which (*) rotate clockwise and three counter-clockwise. For the point, name these regions of rotating ocean currents.
Ocean Gyres (prompt on "currents")
18) This disease is characterized by the accumulation of alpha-synuclein in Lewy bodies. L-DOPA is used to treat this disease that is caused by the death of dopamine producing cells. It's named for a British Doctor who wrote about it in Essay on the Shaking Palsy This disease's cure is sought out by the Michael J. Fox foundation. For the point, name this disease that is characterized by slowness of movement and tremors.
Parkinson's disease (accept PD)
20) Sums of numbers in this object can be calculated with the hockey stick identity. By coloring odd numbers in this object black, and even numbers white, one can create a fractal named for Sierpinski. The sums of the rows of this object are powers of two and each number in this object is a binomial coefficient. For the point, name this array of numbers named for a French mathematician in which each is the sum of the two above it.
Pascal's triangle
(1) Householder's method for finding these values generalizes to a method co-named for Joseph Raphson if the order "d" equals one. An upper bound on the number of these values is given by Descartes's [[deh-KAHRTS]] rule of signs. According to the (+) fundamental theorem of algebra, a polynomial's degree equals the number of the complex types of these values, which can be found for a parabola using the (*) quadratic equation. For the point, name these values where the X-axis intersects a polynomial.
Roots of a polynomial (accept Zeroes; accept X-intercepts; prompt on "solutions")
(16) It's not five, but this many up-arrows represents the pentation operator. Graham's number uses this integer as a base for a hyperoperation, and there are this many Frenet-Serret [[freh-NEH-seh-REH]] formulas, which in total concern this many vectors. Apéry's [[ah-PEH-rees]] constant is the value of the Riemann zeta function with this integer as an input. The area of a polygon with this many sides can be calculated using Heron's formula. For the point, what number is the degree of a cubic polynomial?
Three
14. Aside from persuading Kaiser Wilhelm to establish a now-defunct scientific society, this scientist developed a lamp that did not rely on a tungsten filament for incandescence. Max Planck extended this man's "New Heat Theorem" to formulate a statement about the entropy of a solid at absolute zero, the Third Law of Thermodynamics. He names an equation that includes the term "R times T divided by n times F" and calculate voltages of chemical cells. For the point, name this German chemist, the namesake of a foundational equation in electrochemistry.
Walther Nernst
27) Fritz Haber helped develop the use of phosgene and mustard gas during this war giving him the moniker "the father of chemical warfare." Armor plated vehicles with caterpillar tracks such as the Mark I tank first saw use during the Somme offensive of this war. For the point, name this global war which saw the implementation of 20th century technology developed over the decade, fought between Allied and Central powers.
World War I (or WWI; prompt on "The Great War")
14) The largest deposit of this material in the United States is located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana. Anthracite and bituminous are considered higher quality forms of this material whose lower quality forms include lignite and peat. Burning this material makes up 39% of the U.S.'s electricity. For the point, name this combustible, sedimentary black rock used as a fuel source.
coal
8) This number is the first of the so-called "safe primes." A regular polygon with this many sides has interior angles of 108 degrees each. There are this many Platonic solids. The divisibility test for this integer passes if the units digit is either this number or 0. The only prime factors of one million are two and this number. For the point, give this number of sides in a pentagon.
five
17) This type of rock can be felsic or mafic depending on their chemical composition, and peridotite is one of them found mainly in the mantle. Examples of them include granite and basalt and they can be extrusive or intrusive depending on whether they are formed from lava or magma. For the point, name this class of rocks that is contrasted with sedimentary and metamorphic.
igneous rocks
28) A cambered airfoil will experience more of this force than a flat airfoil, even at lower angles of attack. In some high performance and racing cars, this force is directed downward. This force is often incorrectly explained as a simple pressure difference cause by Bernoulli's [ber-noo-lees] Principle. For the point, identify this force, one of the four principle forces that operate on aircraft which causes aircraft to accelerate upwards.
lift
27) About two and a half of these particles are released upon the fission of U-238. An experiment discrediting the gamma ray hypothesis proved the existence of these particles and was carried out by James Chadwick. Isotopes of an element differ in the number of, for the point, what subatomic particle with no electric charge?
neutron
30) The speed of light divided by this quantity, all times Planck's constant, provides the energy for a quanta, according to Planck's equation. Fraunhofer lines are dark lines seen when solar radiation is plotted for this quantity. This quantity is measured by looking for corresponding points on the same phase, such as two crests. This quantity is usually symbolized by the Greek letter lambda and is measured in nanometers. For the point, name this quantity which is the inverse of frequency in electromagnetic radiation.
wavelength (do not accept or prompt on frequency)
28) Seiches [SAY-shes] are a type of these objects that forms in a semi-enclosed area. The length of the fetch that causes these objects partially determines their size. The Coriolis force generates the Rossby type of these objects. Spilling, plunging, and collapsing are classifications of the "breaker" type of these entities. Gravity is the restoring force of these entities generated by wind. For the point, name these oscillations of water that occur in the ocean.
waves
20) The phenomenon is calmer at horse latitudes. An anemometer consists of a rotating cup to measure the speed of this phenomenon. The strength of this phenomenon is reported using the Beaufort scale. The "Trade" type of this phenomenon helps navigation. This phenomenon's "chill" reduces apparent temperature. For the point, name this movement of air from areas of high pressure to low pressure.
wind
