Nationalism

Distinguish between a nation and a race, and explain why the two are commonly confused? [15 marks]

- A nation is essentially a cultural entity, a collection of people who share a common language, religion, values and way of life. Ultimately, however, nations are defined by psychological attachments, as no nation is culturally homogeneous. - A race, by contrast, is defined biologically or genetically; it refers to a group of people who are supposedly united by blood, that is, by inheritance. - Strictly speaking, as nations are defined culturally, they may compose of people who have a wide variety of racial identities. - Nations and races are nevertheless commonly confused, particularly by right-wing or chauvinist nationalists, for whom the nation is an exclusive and organically defined entity. - This leads to an emphasis on ethnic or cultural purity that encourages such nationalists to conflate nations and races, arguing that the key determinant of national identity is genetic. - Such thinking is most clearly exemplified by the racial nationalism of Nazism.

Ways in which nationalism is alive and well in the modern world:

1) Through nationalist leaders such as Trump and Putin who promote nationalism and isolationism. 2) A different and changing form of nationalism has erupted as immigrants now often grow to call their new home, home. This is a new form of nationalism; but still has kept the nationalist sentiment alive. 3) Politically, nationalism is still alive and well in most places; save for the EU and other political blocs. 4) Although international organisations such as the EU and the UN have undoubtedly become more important in terms of global policy making, none of them has come anywhere near rivalling the nation-state in terms of its ability to attract political affiliation or emotional allegiance. Thus it can be said that the advent of the global age has actually lead to a revival of nationalism. 5) Increased national self-assertion has become a key element to the political and economic development of many countries in the post-cold war era. For example, the economic revival of China has also been accompanied by evidence of rising nationalism. 6) Since the 1990s forms of cultural, and particularly ethnic, nationalism have flourished. An example of ethnic assertiveness is the genocidal bloodshed between Tutsis and moderate Hutus, when the were slaughtered in an uprising by militant Hutus. 7) There is clear evidence that nationalism has revived as a reaction against globalisation and the deep economic, cultural and political changes it brings about.

Conservative nationalism criticisms

- Conservative nationalism is really an elite form of manipulation, giving social, economic, and political elites an ideological backing for their continued existence. - With its emphasis on security, tradition and national difference Conservative nationalism tends to promote intolerance of others, xenophobia, bigotry and racialism. At times it appears to seek external enemies as a means of strengthening national unity and promoting a conservative political climate. - Conservative nationalism is often militaristic and warlike, creating international instability and conflict as nations fear each other's intentions. - The emphasis on tradition and preserving national history prevents the nation from addressing current problems and establishing a forward-looking vision.

Explain the main features of cultural nationalism [15 marks]

- Cultural nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasises the strengthening or defence of cultural identity over overt political demands. It is often viewed as being more exclusive than political forms of nationalism. - One of its main features is that it call for the regeneration of the nation as a distinctive civilisation. For example, through the protection of language, religion or culture, and not necessarily through sovereign independence. An example of cultural nationalism is over the past few decades, the Welsh have tried to re-establish their culture by teaching welsh in all schools from a young age. - Another aspect of cultural nationalism is the idea that it tends to be 'mystical', in that it is based on a romantic belief in the nation as a historic and organic whole. It is therefore considered to have an anti-modern character as it is always looking back at the past with a rose-tinted view, potentially suggesting that the past was a better place. - However, it can be argued that as cultural nationalism focuses on the regeneration of a nation it is actually an agent of modernisation in the sense that it provides people with a means of recreating the nation how they want it. - Lastly, cultural nationalism is typically a 'bottom-up' form of nationalism that draws on popular rituals, traditions and legends, rather than on a 'higher' culture. Examples of this come from the the revival of German folklore in the 19th century with the Brothers Grimm becoming well known for their twisted and dark takes on classic fairy tales. It can also be seen in Northern Russia in the 18th century with their strong beliefs in the russian myths to help guide them through the harsh winter by making offerings to the house sprites.

Why have liberals argued that nationalism promotes peace and international order? [15 marks]

- For liberals, the primary threat to peace and international order comes from multinational, autocratic empires. This is because they have traditionally been militaristic and expansionist, having been formed through conquest and routinely use military force to further their internal and external ends. After WWI, liberals such as Woodrow Wilson thus sought to re-draw the map of Europe on the basis of the principle of national self- determination. - Liberal nationalists believed that nation-state are naturally peaceful political formations. This has been explained in a number of ways, including the following: > nation-states enjoy sovereign independence and so are unwilling to threaten the sovereign independence of other nations > expansion and conquest would undermine the political and cultural cohesion that makes nation-states so successful > democratic nation-states share a common culture and so are unwilling to fight one another, and are also accountable to the people who will have to fight, kill and die in the event of war.

Chauvinistic/Expansionist Nationalism Key Beliefs

- For many countries the dominant image of nationalism is one of aggression and militarism. - In the UK, the term jingoism was coined in order to describe the mood of popular nationalism which was provoked by military expansion or imperial conquest. National prestige was linked increasingly to the possession of an empire and each colonial victory was greeted with demonstrations of public approval. - Aggressive and expansionist nationalism reached its peak in fascist regimes of Germany and Italy, which embarked on policies of imperial expansion and world domination, which started the war in 1939. - What distinguished this form of nationalism from earlier liberal nationalism was its chauvinism, this is aggressive or exaggerated patriotism, in the sense that it has indoctrination as part of its regime and is a very violent form of nationalism, which liberal nationalism isn't. - More particular varieties of national chauvinism have developed in the forms of pan-nationalism, this is a style of nationalism that is dedicated to unifying different people either through expansionism or political solidarity e.g. the Nazi regime. - National chauvinism breeds from a feeling of intense, even hysterical nationalist enthusiasm. The individual as a separate, rational being is overcome with patriotic emotion, expressed in the desire of aggression, expansion and war. - National chauvinism has a particularly strong appeal for the isolated and powerless, for whom nationalism offers the prospect of security, self respect, and pride. Militant and integral nationalism requires a heightened sense of belonging to a distinct national group. - In politics, national chauvinism has commonly been reflected in racist ideologies, which divide the world into an 'in group' and an 'out group', in which the 'out group' becomes a scapegoat for all the misfortunes and frustrations suffered by the 'in group'.

Do nations develop 'naturally', or are they, in some sense, invented?

- In some ways nations do come about naturally. The desire of people to live alongside others allows individuals to gain a sense of community and slowly people start to have similar beliefs about how things should be done or how things should look. - Over time more and more people will come to join those that first started living in an area and eventually this initial sense of community will be so widespread that in some ways it can be said to have developed into what we call a nation. - By definition nation stands for a large body of people that are united by common descent, history, culture or language, or by simply inhabiting a particular state or territory. - In this sense, it hard to say that nations don't develop naturally, as they are based off people's history, many of those living the UK share a lot of history, thus the UK is a nation. - As nation's are also based off inhabiting a particular state or territory, it hard to say that nations are not developed naturally. - According to Conservative nationalism society is organic: thus they believe that nations come about naturally from the desire of human beings to live with others who possess the same views, habits and appearance as themselves.

Liberal Nationalism Key Beliefs

- Liberals believe that the principle of balance or natural harmony applies to the nations of the world, not just the individuals within society. - The achievement of national self-determination is a means of establishing a peaceful and stable international order. - For a liberal, nationalism does not divide nations from one another, it is a force that is capable of promoting unity within each nation and among of nations on the basis mutual respect for national rights and characteristics. - Self-determination preserves self-government and forbids foreign control, it also creates a world of sovereign nation-states in which each nation has the freedom to pursue its own interests, potentially at the expense of other nations. - The key goal of liberal nationalism is the establishment of a world of sovereign nation- states, in which each nation-state is equal. - Liberals favour a civic understanding of nationhood, which places common values at least on par with a common culture, and is therefore tolerant and inclusive.

What is Nationalism?

- Nationalism is the belief that the nation is the central principle of political organisation. - The nation is a collection of people bound together by shared values and traditions, common language, religion and history, and usually occupying the same geographical area. - Nationalism is therefore based on the assumption that, first, humankind is naturally divided into discrete nations and, second, that the nation is the most appropriate, and perhaps the only legitimate, unit of political rule. - Classical political nationalism set out to bring the borders of the state into line with the boundaries of the nation, creating nation-states within which nationality and citizenship would coincide. - Nationalism is an inclusive doctrine as everybody can be part of the nation if they share its common values, which most do. - Nationalism is a political doctrine whereby the nation is viewed as the central unit of government

Nationalism Vs Patriotism

- Nationalism tends to have more negative connotations, whilst patriotism is seen generally as more positive. - Patriotism in the textbook is described as a psychological attachment to your country. It is the love of country part of nationalism. It underpins nationalism by providing it with emotional support. - However, not all patriots are nationalists. Patriots often don't see the national the most important political form. - They may work internationally or be very critical of the state of society. - Thomas Paine, the 18th century radical water to overthrow the crown and landed gentry based system of the UK, but he is often described as a patriot. - On the other hand, Ghandi, although undeniably a patriot is a nationalist because of his pursuit of an independent, national Indian state.

On what grounds have nationalists defended the nation-state? [15 marks]

- Nationalists believe that the nation-state has two main advantages: 1) First, it offers the prospect of both cultural cohesion and political unity, making the nation-state a uniquely stable political entity. - Nationalists thus tend to view the nation-state as the only viable unit of political rule. - The virtues of stability and unity are particularly stressed by conservative nationalists who are particularly concerned about the promise of social cohesion and political order that is embodied in the sentiment of national patriotism. 2) Second, the nation-state extends political freedom. - It does this because national statehood ensures self-government and democratic rule. - Nation-states are therefore independent entities, in which citizens can decide their own destiny regardless of external factors and interference from beyond their borders. - Nationalists have tended to argue that the nation is the highest level at which meaningful democracy can operate, suggesting that supranationalism must always be a threat to democracy and self- government.

Why and how have nationalists viewed the nation-state as a political ideal. [15 marks]

- Nationalists have viewed the nation-state as a political ideal in the sense that a key nationalist goal, especially in the case of liberal nationalists, has been to construct a world of independent nation-states. For nationalists, the nation-state has a range of unique advantages, including the following: > It is a vehicle for advancing political freedom, in the sense that sovereign statehood allows nations to decide their own destiny, safe from external influence. > It promises stability, as, within a nation-state, political and cultural identity overlap. > A world of nation-states offers the prospect of pace and international order, as, because of cultural similarities and other factors, nation-states do not go to war with one another.

Distinguish between a nation and a state and explain why the two are commonly confused. [15 marks]

- Nations are, most basically, cultural entities, groups of people who share the same language, religion, traditions and so forth. At a deeper level, nations can be seen to have a psycho- cultural character, as nations are ultimately defined subjectively, by their members belief in nationhood, no nation is culturally homogeneous. - States, by contrast, are political entities, political associations that establish sovereign jurisdiction within defined territorial political borders. States are therefore defined by citizenship rather than by nationality. - Nations and states are commonly confused for at least two reasons: 1) Thanks to the potency of nationalism over some 200 years, the boundaries of the nation and the borders of the state generally overlap in the modern world, most states now being nation-states. Nationality and citizenship therefore often coincide, blurring the distinction between nations and states. 2) National patriotism commonly involves the aspiration to achieve sovereign statehood, whether this is brought about by independence or unification. This why nations are sometimes seen not merely as psycho-cultural entities, but as psycho-political entities.

What is political nationalism?

- Political nationalism is a form of nationalism that is explicitly orientated around the pursuit of sovereign statehood. - It is based on the principle of national self- determination. - This was the classical form of nationalism, it tends to be culturally and ethnically inclusive, and its goal is the creation of the nation-state. - Political nationalism is also often portrayed as rational and progressive.

Postcolonial Nationalism Key Beliefs

- The attraction of Marxism-leninism, declining significantly since the 1970s, nation building in the postcolonial period has been shaped increasingly by the rejection of western ideas and culture more than by the attempt to re-apply them. - This has been a reaction against the dominance of western, and particularly US, culture and economic power in much of the developing world. The principal vehicle for expressing such views has been religious fundamentalism. - Most fundamentalist religious movements have been more narrowly concerned with helping to clarify or redefine national or ethnic identity. - The Bharatiya Party (BJP) has been the largest party in the the Indian Parliament since 1996, articulating the newly prosperous middle classes' ambivalence towards modernity and, particularly, its concerns about a weakening of national identity. - Sikh fundamentalism is associated with the struggle to found an independent nation state, 'Khalistan', located in present-day Punjab, with Sikhism as the state religion and its government obliged to ensure its unhindered flourishing. - Jewish fundamentalists have transformed Zionism into a defence of the 'Greater Land of Israel', characterised by territorial aggressiveness. In the case of Israel's best-known fundamentalist group, Gushman Emunim (Bloc of the Faithful), this has been expressed in a campaign to build Jewish settlements in territory occupied in the Six-Day War of 1967.

What is a nation-state?

- The nation-state is a form of political organisation and a political ideal. - As a political organisation it is characterised by the overlapping bonds of citizenship and nationality, meaning that the borders of the state coincide with the boundaries of the nation. - Every nation should therefore have a state, and one state should embrace the entire nation. - As a political ideal, the nation-state embodies the principle of national self-determination.

Key Liberal Nationalists

> Giuseppe Mazzini - He practised a form of liberal nationalism that fused a belief in the nation as a distinctive language and cultural community with the principles of liberal republicanism. - In this view, nations are effectively sublimated individuals endowed with the right to self government, a right to which all nations are equally entitled. - He linked nationalism with the idea of perpetual peace. > Woodrow Wilson - The 28th president of the USA - His 'fourteen points', laid down in 1918 after the basis of peace after WW1, proposed to reconstruct Europe under the principle of national self-determination, and to ban secret diplomacy, expand trade and achieve security through a 'general association of nations'. - His liberalism is associated with the idea of creating democratic nation states as a way to prevent war.

Anti-colonial Nationalism Key Individuals

> Mahatma Gandhi - An indian spiritual and political leader, Gandhi campaigned tirelessly for Indian independence, which was finally achieved in 1947. - His ethic of non-violent resistance reinforced by his ascetic lifestyle, gave the movement for Indian independence enormous moral authority. - Derived from Hinduism, Gandhi's political philosophy was based on the assumption that the universe is regulated by the primacy of truth and that humankind is 'ultimately one'. Gandhi was an opponent to Hindu and Muslim sectarianism (excessive attachment to a certain sect or religion). > Frantz Fanon - Fanon is best known for his views on the anti-colonial struggle. - In his work on decolonisation, he drew on psychiatry, politics, sociology and the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre in arguing that only total revolution and absolute violence can help black or colonised people to liberate themselves from the social and psychological scars of imperialism.

Criticisms of Nationalism

> Modern Liberals: In the liberal political tradition there was mostly a negative attitude toward nationalism as a dangerous force and a cause of conflict and war between nation-states. > Socialists: Traditional socialists tend to believe in the socialist internationalism in the sense that they rejects any idea of any official boundaries. They see revolutions as being international not within nations. Marx believed that a global collapse of capitalism would allow for the success of communism. Argue that capitalism often aligns itself with nationalism and is a great benefit to the nation-state (marxist ideology). Claims it is a false ideology which isolates the working class and gives the ruling class its own nationalism. > Neo-Liberals: They believe in a small state and free trade, which is not compatible with nationalism. Argue nationalism promotes isolationism which goes against the grain of their main ideals. > Environmentalists: They want international corporation not just single aims. The want to world to join collectively against climate change and other environmental issues. Argues that nationalism promotes isolationism and that international environmental action is prevented by nations not working cohesively. > Culturalists: Argue that nationalism doesn't always encompass culture and can be blind loyalty, in the sense that nationalists support their country no matter what, and thus they support it when they shouldn't as the country is carrying out awful acts. Culturalists als want nations to be open and tolerant towards each other, thus limited harm should come to one nation.

What is Racialism

- Racialism is the belief that political or social conclusions can be drawn from the idea that humankind is divided into biologically distinct 'races'. - Racialist theories are based on two assumptions. 1) First, there are fundamental genetic or species-type, differences amongst the peoples of the world. 2) These divisions are reflected in cultural, intellectual and moral differences. - Politically, racialism is expressed either in racial segregation, for instance, the apartheid in South Africa, or in doctrines of racial superiority or inferiority, such as Hitler's Aryan race in Nazi Germany. - Racialism is an exclusive doctrine as it asserts differences between the races. Thus, one cannot simply join another race as race is genetic. - Racialism is a scientific theory which seeks to scientifically prove the differences and superiority between the races.

Different Perspectives on Nationalism

1) PRIMORDIALISM: Sees the nation as ancient and authority based, predating the quest for independence- a kind of kinship. Anthony Smith stresses the continuity between modern nations and pre-modern ethnic communities. 2) MODERNIST APPROACHES: They see nationalism as linked to changing times, so nationalism becomes a response to individualism. Nationalism replaces the old feudal ties of kin and obligation. Gellner links nationalism to the process of modernisation. 3) CONSTRUCTIVISM:Sees nations as imagined communities, Benedict Anderson, held together by modern communications. Marxist historian, Eric Hobsbawm stressed how beliefs in historical continuity and cultural purity are invariably myth created by nationalism itself.

Conservative Nationalism Key Beliefs

- They care about the promise of social cohesion and public order that national patriotism brings. For conservative nationalists, national patriotism gives individuals a sense of social rootedness and helps to strengthen social cohesion. - For the conservatives, society is organic: they believe that nations come about naturally from the desire of human beings to live with others who possess the same views, habits and appearance as themselves. - The principle goal of conservative nationalism is to maintain national unity by creating patriotic loyalty and 'pride in one's country', especially in the face of the divisive idea of class solidarity preached by socialists. - The conservative character of nationalism is maintained by an appeal to tradition and history, in a sense it is a backwards looking as it reflects on a past age of national glory or triumph. - Conservative nationalists are also concerned about the threat that supranational bodies, such as the EU, pose on national identity and the cultural bonds of society. In the UK this is expressed and Euroscepticism.

Chauvinistic/Expansionist Nationalism: Key Individuals

> Charles Maurras - A French political thinker and leading figure in the political movement Action Francaise, Maurras was a key supporter of a right-wing nationalism and an influence on fascism. - His idea of 'integral nationalism' emphasised the organic unity of the nation, fusing clearly illiberal rejection of individualism with a stress on hierarchy and traditional institutions. - His narrow-minded and exclusionary nationalism showed hostility towards many ethnic groups such as Jews and foreigners in general.

Criticisms of Liberal Nationalism

- Liberal nationalism neglects the darker, irrational and tribal features associated with nationalism. Nationalists are not always rational constitutionalists. - There is also an emotional side to nationalism, expressed in the willingness to die for one's country, which is overlooked by liberal nationalists. - Nations go to war with each other and do not always respect self-determination and national sovereignty e.g. Nuremberg trials in post-war Germany; the invasion of Iraq in 2004 - Nations are prone to internal division- this is as much a cause of international stability as international conflict. - Liberals have often advocated limiting the powers of the central state and establishing devolved or federal political arrangements to give sub-national groups a greater political identity in order to address the last criticism.

Identify ways in which globalisation can be said to have eroded nationalism.

1) The growth of global interconnectedness has led to the reconfiguration of our sense of political community. The increased flow of information across borders, particularly in the sense of television, means the idea of the remoteness of others on the other side of the world has diminished. In this sense, many see that the world has shrunk. This view is known as cosmopolitanism. 2) A sense of moral cosmopolitanism has developed as people may see themselves as global citizens, rather than citizens of a specific nation. 3) Ethnic nationalism has thus been eroded as people no longer believe that their own nation's morals deserve priority when actually they view themself as a global citizen, thus means their morals are influenced by more than one nations as such. 4) Another way globalisation has affected nationalism is the upsurge in international migration and the greater levels of cultural and ethnic diversity. 5) Trade blocs and international trade has eroded economic nationalism and isolationism. 6) Established International Bodies such as NATO, the UN and the EU have eroded political nationalism as they enforce a certain amount of rules and policies if you are part of them. 7) The increase of migration (both forced and voluntary) encouraged through freedom of movement agreements and the availability of visas and residence permits has increased the global movement of people which has decreased individual nationalist sentiments. 8) The existence, number of, size of, and power of multinational companies, such as Apple and Google, have caused economic nationalism to erode and moved people, production and consumer base around globally.

Conservative Nationalism Key Individual

> Charles de Gaulle - French president 1959-69, he harnessed nationalism to the conservative cause. - He appealed to national pride by pursuing an independent, even anti-american, defence and foreign policy, and by attempting to restore order and authority to social life and build up a powerful state. - In some respects, Thatcherism in the UK amounted to a form of Gaullism, in that it fused an appeal based on nationalism with the promise of a strong government and firm leadership.