NCE-Normal Human Growth and Development

Details of Central Nervous System Development

At birth, the brain is only 25 percent of its adult weight and size. By age two, the brain is at 80 percent of its adult weight. By age 16, the brain has reached its adult size and weight. From birth to about age 16, the cerebral cortex develops allowing higher-level cognitive functions and complex motor activities. The brain begins to lose neurons and shrink at around age 30. Sensory and motor activities are affected the most. By age 90, the brain has shrunk about 20 percent from its size at age 30. When confronted with new tasks, older brains literally rewired themselves to compensate for losses

Henry Murray

As one attempts to meet primary or secondary (learned) needs, press (external events) may either interfere with or help in the fulfillment of the need. The combination of need and press is called thema.

Piaget's Mechanisms for Growth

Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration: balance between assimilation and accommodation

Albert Bandura

Bandura developed his social learning theory based on his belief that an individual learns new behaviors by identifying with and imitating others (models).

Guthrie's View of Habits

a stereotyped, predictable pattern of responding; a complex act that consists of several chains of S-R connections

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits an unconditioned response

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), acquires the capacity to evoke a response it did not originally evoke.

Kubler-Ross Stages

Denial and isolation Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses are performed.

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement is given at variable (unpredictable) intervals of time.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

a response that occurs to an unconditioned stimulus automatically without requiring any learning

PKU or Phenylketonuria

an inherited form of mental retardation for which newborns are tested. PKU is due to a disorder of amino-acid metabolism. To be avoided, the child is placed on a strict diet after birth.

Gender Differences - ANDROGYNY

androgynous individuals are more competent, flexible, and mentally healthy

external-locus-of-control

belief that external events, fate, God, or something else controls what happens

Jerome Bruner

believes that cognitive development is influenced by such factors as culture, evolution, integration, and language

Cannon-Bard theory

both occur simultaneously

Curative Factors

studies concerning what percentage of the population benefit from therapy. (data is mixed)

Coopersmith

study of parent-child relationships and self-esteem

Lallation

substitution of a sound for another sound, i.e. tuice instead of juice

George Kelly Constructive alternativism

system of personal constructs is based on Kelly's belief that an individual's own concepts or constructs are created by the individual and is an important determinant of one's decisions and behavior.

Reticular Activating System or RAS

the alerting system of the brain located at the base of the brain and extending from the central core of the brain stem to all parts of the cerebral cortex. This system is essential in initiating and maintaining wakefulness and introspection and in directing attention. It screens sensations and is thought to be the area contributing to hyperactive behavior (ADHD).

Echolalia

the automatic repetition by someone of words spoken in his or her presence, i.e. baby's babbling when the mother talks; Echolalia is also a symptom of mental disorder

Nosology

the branch of medicine dealing with the classification of disease

Ontogenesis

the course of development of an organism or an individual

Cohort effect

the effect of a group of people being born at a certain time and being reared in a certain historical setting

Transfer Learning

the effect of earlier learning on present learning. New learning is positive if the earlier learning was positive and, therefore, is easier; a negative transfer occurs if earlier learning was hard

Escape conditioning

the type of learning in which an organism attempts to escape an unpleasant stimulus; in operant conditioning the response is made in order to terminate the stimuli

Arnold Gesell

theory of maturation development progresses sequentially

Clark Hull

theory of motivational processes (drive) learned association between the drive and the behavior that reduces it is called a "habit." provided the basis for an objective and mathematical model of motivation.

Kohlberg best known

theory of the development of a person's stages of justice or moral reasoning

Integration

there are few simple, individual adult acts that cannot be performed by a child. He theorized that cognitive maturation results from integration of acts and skills and what he called "blueprints" (plans) of higher order combinations. He asserted that language is the means by which such plans are generated, not the other way around.

Systems of Control

three systems control behavior External stimuli control Outcomes Control Symbolic or Internal Control

Telegraphic speech

utterances of two or three words that children make usually between the ages of 18 months and 24 months that convey complete thought

Centration

Piaget: focusing on a key feature rather than the whole object

Ekman

a researcher who studied the cross-cultural facial expressions of emotions

Language

language acquisition is the chief milestone in cognitive development.

LEVEL 3: THE MORALITY OF NONVIOLENCE

Claiming and using principles of not hurting self or others form the basis for resolving moral conflicts between selfishness and responsibility. Choices are made with personal responsibility. The caregiver role is seen as a self-chosen universal moral obligation.

Terms associated with Gesell

Day Cycle - Everyday abilities expand; growth occurs. Self-Regulatory Fluctuations - Growth and instability occur simultaneously moving the child toward maturity. Constitutional Individuality - Each individual is unique and has his or her own growth pattern/mode.

Gilligan suggested:

Male development is based on separation and individuation. Female development focuses on relationships/connections.

LEVEL 2: GOODNESS AS SELF-SACRIFICE

Social norms define moral judgments. Girls learn that women are supposed to be predominantly caretakers. Self-sacrifice is a virtue. Personal responsibility is emphasized. Second Transition: From goodness to truth Fulfilling the needs of both self and others is the challenge. The intention, motive, and consequence of an action are important. Personal responsibility is increasingly emphasized.

Tests based on Murray's work

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) The Children's Apperception Test (CAT) The Senior's Apperception Test (SAT)

Parenting and Self-Esteem

The frequency of punishment or discipline was not a factor Children with high self-esteem had more rules to follow. Parents of children with high self-esteem took a more democratic approach to discipline.

secondary sex characteristics

pubic hair armpit hair female breast enlargement lowering of voices appearance of facial and chest hair in males

Modeling Processes

"Modeling," or the acquiring of learning through observation, occurs through four processes: a. Attention - The learner must pay attention to the model. Variables affecting the learner's attention may include the likeability of the model, prior reinforcement for attending to similar models, the psychological state of the observer, the complexity of the modeled behavior, etc. b. Retention - The learner must have the capacity to recall his or her memory of the modeled behavior. The learner will have appropriately used visual imagery or verbal coding to symbolically plant the modeled behavior in memory. c. Reproduction - The learner uses memory to guide an actual performance of the behavior. The accuracy of the reproduced or rehearsed behavior will be naturally limited by the physical ability of the learner. d. Motivation - Reinforcement, either internal/self-reinforcement or external, is required for behavior to be retained and regularly manifested.

Sandra Bem

"Sex-Role Inventory"

Gender Differences - SOCIOEMOTIONAL

(1) Aggression Males are more aggressive, are more active, and show less self-regulation of emotions and behavior than females. (2) Suicide More males commit suicide than females. More females attempt suicide than males. Suicide is the second or third leading cause of teen deaths every year and the eighth leading cause of death for all Americans. Across the population, the suicide rate is 2/100,000.

Baumrind described three parenting styles

(1) Authoritarian - The parents deliberately try to shape the behavior of the child according to their own standards of conduct. They put a premium on obedience and may use punishment to curb undesirable behavior or rebellion. (2) Permissive - This style of parenting adopts the policy of keeping hands off and letting children "be themselves" (3) Authoritative - This is the most effective form of parenting. The parents have definite standards, but they also encourage the child to be independent and will solicit the child's opinions at times.

Gender Differences - PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL (what I don't already know)

(1) Females are less likely to die or to develop physical or mental disorders. (3) Similar metabolic brain processes except in two particular areas: the area of emotional expression is more active in females (girls are using more "feeling" words even by age two) the area of physical expression is more active in males

Non-verbal communication

(1) Kinetics - the study of body language (2) Proxemics - the research of territorial or personal space.

Gender Differences - COGNITIVE

(1) Math Skills math difference does not surface until high school or college and that girls that excelled in math and science have close bonds with their fathers; differences may be largely influenced by parenting styles. (2) Verbal Skills females have better verbal skills than males. More recent studies are showing that the verbal differences between females and males may be disappearing (3) Visual Perception/Spatial Skills The average male's visual perception/spatial skill is higher than the average female's.

Four common neuro-transmitters

(1) Serotonin - Associated with sleep disturbances. (2) Epinephrine and norepinephrine - Associated with stress reactions. (3) Acetylcholine - Allows the transmission of impulses across the synapse. (4) Dopamine - Affects neurons in the corpus stratum. A deficiency in this area is associated with symptoms found in Parkinson's disease. An excess of dopamine is thought to be a cause of hallucinations and other symptoms found in schizophrenia

Warm vs. Hostile Parenting Styles

(1.) Hostile, restrictive parenting yields socially withdrawn, shy, self-punishing children. (2.) Hostile, permissive parenting yields disobedient, rebellious, aggressive children. (3.) Warm, restrictive parenting yields insecure, dependent, un-creative children. (4.) Warm, permissive parenting yields assertive, tolerant, outgoing, independent children. Studies of identical and fraternal twins show that basic temperament is substantially genetic.

Gibson's Visual Cliff

(unlike what he first thought) there is obviously an innate predisposition to judge depth perception

Alice Rossi; 4 stages of adult development related to parenting

1. Anticipatory: The adjustment to pregnancy and new responsibilities. 2. Honeymoon: The formation of parent-child attachments; parents adapt to new family and social roles. 3. Plateau: The adapting of parents to the child's demands as the child passes from infancy through adolescence. 4. Disengagement: The child leaving home. happiest years: just before the first child is born and the years after children have left home.

Levinson three major adult transitions (book: Season's of a Man's Life) / "Midlife Crisis"

1. Early adult transition - occurs between 17 and 22 The individual's concept of his ideal adult life is conceived; decisions are made regarding college, military service, and breaking away from one's parents. This transition is followed by a period of entering the adult world. 2. Age 30 transition - occurs between 28 and 33 The individual works at making the ideal become reality; earlier decisions are evaluated. After this stage, a settling down period commences. 3. Midlife transition - occurs between 40 and 45 Dreams are questioned; unreached goals are acknowledged; mortality is recognized; a stressful timeframe. The later periods or stages (middle and late adulthood) begins at age 46 and is concerned with formulating appropriate life structures for love, marriage, vocation, and family.

three basic types or clusters of temperaments:

1. Easy - Generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes routines, adapts easily to new experiences. 2. Difficult - Generally negative, cries frequently, slow to accept new experiences, has difficulty establishing routines. 3. Slow-to-warm-up - Is somewhat negative, has a low activity level, shows low adaptability and low mood intensity

Sheldon: human development into three major body types (old theory-ignored today)

1. Ectomorphy - a long, stringy, skinny body 2. Mesomorphy - a good, developed, stocky, muscular body 3. Endomorphy - a round, plump, soft, heavy body having a heavy trunk (visceral weight)

people convert immediate experiences into cognitive representatives in three fundamental ways or stages

1. Enactive mode - Objects have meaning only with respect to the actions performed on them 2. Iconic mode - Knowledge is based heavily on images which stand for perceptual events 3. Symbolic mode - Language provides the means for representing experience and for transforming it. most adult thought is in the symbolic mode.

Four-Stage Cycle of Sexual Arousal

1. Excitement Phase - whatever is stimulating to the person; heart, respiration, and blood pressure rates increase. Erection and engorgements occur. 2. Plateau Phase - The tension prepares the body for orgasm. There is increased stimulation of the body parts and functions. 3. Orgasm Phase - The body changes resulting from stimulation reaching maximum intensity. Muscles in female and male sexual organs contract rhythmically. 4. Resolution Phase - A lessening of sexual tension as the person returns to the unstimulated state.

External Hazards to Prenatal Development A teratogen (terato means monster) is any agent or influence that causes developmental defects in the embryo or fetus

1. Maternal Diseases - Maternal diseases or infections can produce defects by crossing the placental barrier. They can also cause damage during the birth process itself. Rubella (German measles) and syphilis can cause birth defects. Genital herpes can cause infant death or brain damage. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can result in birth defects, illness, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and death of the newborn. 2. Drugs Alcohol usage can result in fetal alcohol syndrome, a cluster of abnormalities including facial deformities and defective limbs, face, and heart. Cigarette smoking (nicotine) often causes lower birth weights and pre-term births. Aspirin usage can cause intelligence, attention, and motor skill deficits. Caffeine can result in lower birth weight and reduced muscle tone. Other drug usage (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, barbiturates, etc.) compromises the health of both the mother and the baby and increases the risk of birth abnormalities, hyperirritability, crib death, spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), and still birth. 3. Environmental Hazards - Toxins and chemicals associated with industrial waste current hazards: Lead exposure can cause mental retardation. Mercury exposure can result in cerebral palsy, mental retardation, and retarded growth. PCB (a manufacturing chemical) exposure can cause visual discrimination and memory skill problems. X-rays can cause retarded growth, mental retardation, and leukemia.

Gesell: measure that is used as a clinical tool to help differentiate potentially normal babies from abnormal ones assesses four major fields of growth/behavior

1. Motor - Gross bodily control and finer motor coordinations including head balance, sitting, creeping, grasping objects, etc. 2. Language - Audible and visual communication including facial expressions, gestures, vocalizations, comprehension of others' communication, etc. 3. Adaptive - Eye-hand coordination, fine motor coordination, begins to adjust for simple problems, etc. 4. Personal-Social - Cooperativeness, responsiveness to training, feeding abilities, etc. subscores for these areas are combined to produce the developmental quotient (DQ). (doesn't correlate with IQ)

Jane Loevinger: seven-stage ego development sequence:

1. Presocial/Symbiotic Stage - Initially, the infant cannot distinguish between self and nonself. The environment is not seen as animate and inanimate. As the infant enters the symbiotic substage, the environment and the mother are seen as separate entities, but the infant does not distinguish himself or herself from the mother. 2. Impulsive Stage - The child distinguishes self from the mother. The child is impulsive, exploitive, and dependent. Sexual and aggressive drives are predominant. 3. Opportunistic Stage - Obedience to rules, morality, and motivation are based in expediency and immediate advantage/gratification. The child is manipulative and focused on controlling others. 4. Conformist Stage - Rules are partially internalized. Transgression results in shame. Trust develops. The child is preoccupied with social acceptance, appearance, and material possessions. Self-aware Level Transition from Conformist to Conscientious Stage - The individual has reached a stable position in his or her mature life. Alternatives and Exceptions are perceived. Adjustment is the task at hand. 5. Conscientious Stage - Moral imperatives control morality which is now internalized. Transgression results in guilt. Interpersonal relationships are responsible and intense. The individual is preoccupied with inner feelings and achievement. 6. Autonomous Stage - Inner conflicts, differences, and ambiguities are successfully dealt with and tolerated. Maintaining autonomy in interpersonal relationships is a concern. The individual is preoccupied with self-fulfillment and role definition. 7. Integrated Stage - Unattainable/unrealistic goals are put aside. Conflicts are reconciled. Individuality is cherished in interpersonal relationships. The individual is preoccupied with achieving an integrated identity. few people achieve the last two stages.

Adaptation to prolonged separation from a caretaker has three stages

1. Protest - will not accept the separation; screams, cries, etc. 2. Despair - gives up hope of reconciliation; becomes quiet, inactive, and withdrawn. 3. Detachment - accepts attention from others; seems less unhappy; is unmoved by the caretaker returning.

Information processing theorists

1. Robbie Case - cognitive processes 2. John Flavell - how children think 3. R. S. Seigler - children's problem solving abilities 4. Andrew Meltzoff - infants' imitative abilities. 5. Robert J. Sternberg's (1986) triarchic theory of intelligence

four attachment behavior types

1. Secure attachment 2. Avoidant attachment 3. Resistant attachment 4. Disorganized attachment - The baby seems confused, may physically approach the mother but not look at her.

Contemporary researchers emphasize both the cognitive and social aspects of play.

1. Sensorimotor play - Behavior to derive pleasure from exercising existing sensorimotor schemas. 2. Practice play - The repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or perfected. 3. Social play 4. Constructive play - The self-regulated creation or construction of a product or a problem solution. Requires combining sensorimotor/practice repetitive activity with symbolic representation of ideas. 5. Games - Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules; competition with one or more individuals is often included.

four stages of attachment

1. Social Responsiveness - For the first 2 to 3 months of life, the infant uses signaling behavior to establish contact with others. At 3 to 6 months, the primary caregiver becomes the focus of the signaling. 2. Discriminating Social Responsiveness - From 2 to 7 months, the infant begins to show a preference for a familiar person. 3. Active Proximity Seeking - From 7 months to 2 years, the child actively seeks close contact with the caretaker. Later, attachments with others develop. 4. Partnership Behavior - In the 3rd year, the relationship between the child and the caretaker evolves into a give-and-take relationship. The child perceives the caregiver as a separate person and begins to adjust behavior and expectations based upon another person

Parten's six play categories

1. Unoccupied play 2. Solitary play 3. Onlooker play 4. Parallel play 5. Associative play 6. Cooperative play

Allport's 3 types of traits

1. common 2. personal 3. cardinal

Growth is 1. cephalocaudal 2. proximodistal

1. from head to tail 2. from the center to the extremities

Kegan six stages of life span development:

1. incorporative 2. impulsive 3. imperial 4. interpersonal 5. institutional 6. interindividual

Gould Stages

16 - 18 Escaping the parents' world and parental control. 18 - 22 Becoming more peer group oriented than family oriented. 22 - 28 Leaving the immediate family domain Developing independence and a commitment to career and/or children 29 - 34 Questioning identity and roles. Realizing life is not simple and controllable May experience dissatisfaction in career or marriage 35 - 43 Awareness of mortality. Goals are evaluated and realigned 43 - 53 One's life is accepte. Realizes some things can't be changed 53 - 60 A general mellowing evolves with an increased tolerance. Less negativism

Piaget: Heteronomous morality

1st stage: rules cannot be changed by people

Piaget: Autonomous morality

2nd stage begins age 10: rules created by people and that intentions and consequences can be taken into consideration

George Vaillant's Expansion of Erikson's Adult Stages

A. Career consolidation - (during Early Adulthood Stage) career becomes coherent and stable. B. Keeping the meaning vs. rigidity - (add during Middle Adulthood) tend to become concerned about extracting new meaning from their lives and avoiding falling into a rigid orientation.

LEVEL 1: ORIENTATION TO INDIVIDUAL SURVIVAL

Children are preoccupied with their own needs. Only when needs are in conflict do moral considerations surface. First Transition: From selfishness to responsibility Relationships with others define the self.

Adjustment to Aging

Current studies indicate that a person is more likely to have satisfying later years if he or she can maintain a lifestyle consistent with his or her personality type. Health and financial pressures can impede satisfaction

Conservation

Piaget: understanding that weight, mass, and volume remain the same in spite of shape

Comparative View of Practice (which results in stronger behaviors)

Classical Conditioning - Repeated trials result in repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS. Repeated conditioning trials result in stronger CRs. One-Shot Learning - Practice increases the likelihood that a particular action will occur. It does not affect the likelihood that the same movement will occur in the presence of some stimulus. Learning occurs in one trial, and the strength of the learned association is as strong as it will ever be. Additional practice does not strengthen the learned association.

Summary Comparison of One-Shot Learning vs. Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning - Repeatedly pairing the CS and UCS strengthens the CR. The UCS functions as a reinforcer. One-Shot Learning - The function of the UCS is to produce an UCR that occurs closer in time to the CS than would occur without the UCS. Thus, based on the theory of contiguity, a CS results in a CR.

Thema

Combo of need and press

Outcomes Control

Consequences of behavior, including all reinforcing feedback concerning the appropriateness of the behavior, affect future behavior

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development LEVEL 2: Conventional Morality

Conventional Morality Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation Behavior is chosen to please and gain approval. The term "good girl/good boy" characterizes this level (one follows the rules; does what he/she is supposed to). Stage 4: Authority, Law, and Duty Orientation Rules and laws are viewed as promoting the common good and maintaining social order; therefore, there is a duty to obey them.

hereditary diseases

Down's syndrome, Phenylketonuria (PKU), Klinefelter's syndrome (male shows no masculinity at puberty), and Turner's syndrome.

Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Learning Theorists

Edward Thorndike B. F. Skinner

Personal Fable

Elkind: also part of adolescent egocentrism: belief that their experience is unique only to them

Imaginary Audience

Elkind: part of adolescent's egocentrism: belief others as preoccupied with them as they are with themselves

Press

External Events

1. Social Responsiveness

For the first 2 to 3 months of life, the infant uses signaling behavior to establish contact with others. At 3 to 6 months, the primary caregiver becomes the focus of the signaling.

Moral development

Freud believed morality developed from the superego Eric Berne, TA, parent ego state is similar to Freud's superego and contains the shoulds, oughts, and musts that frequently guide morality. Piaget proposed two levels of moral development: Heteronomous and Autonomous Kohlberg proposed three levels (with two stages each) of moral development

Reaction Formation

Freud defense mechanism: display a trait opposite of what wants to be portrayed

Cathexis

Freud drive: Energy that is tied to action, objects and people

2. Discriminating Social Responsiveness

From 2 to 7 months, the infant begins to show a preference for a familiar person.

3. Active Proximity Seeking

From 7 months to 2 years, the child actively seeks close contact with the caretaker. Later, attachments with others develop.

Left Brain

Physical World Reasoning Mathematics Language Scientific Skills Logic

Gender Differences - SEX ROLES

Gender identities and male/female sex roles have a "learned" component.

Piaget's theory base

Genetic Epistemologist: until formal operations learning is best through experimentation, experiential, interactive methods (not lecture)

Konrad Lorenz

Gosling guy: imprinting (bonding) occurs during a critical period Imprinting is an instinctual behavior certain behaviors such as aggressiveness are inborn tendencies

Renee Spitz

Harlow with children: Anaclitic depression hospitalism: developmental retardation occurs due to a lack of normal stimulation in the environment

Trait Theorists

Henry Murray Gordon Allport Raymond Cattell

Symbolic or Internal Control

Imagining or self-instruction that allows an individual to visualize or to predict the outcomes and long-range consequences of various behaviors (saving money for a down payment on a house).

Representational thought

Piaget: a necessary component of object permanency

4. Partnership Behavior

In the 3rd year, the relationship between the child and the caretaker evolves into a give-and-take relationship. The child perceives the caregiver as a separate person and begins to adjust behavior and expectations based upon another person

Memory, attention, and problem solving are some of the focus areas

Information processing theories

Classical Conditioning/Respondent Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

Gilligan: female moral development as a progression through three levels

LEVEL 1: ORIENTATION TO INDIVIDUAL SURVIVAL LEVEL 2: GOODNESS AS SELF-SACRIFICE LEVEL 3: THE MORALITY OF NONVIOLENCE

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

LEVEL 1: Preconventional Morality - Self-guided moral behavior with accompanying consequences (premoral). LEVEL 2: Conventional Morality - An individual's social judgments and interactions are based out of a desire to preserve one's place in society, to meet the expectations of the family and society; often termed "morality of conventional rules and conformity." LEVEL 3: Postconventional Morality - (sometimes called Morality of Self-Accepted Principles or Personal Integrity) Moral behavior is guided by a self-accepted/self-imposed commitment to moral principles.

Perry's four levels of development correlate the developmental interrelationship of a student's concept of the world and of the nature of knowledge with the student's sense of identity, value, and meaning of his or her role in the world:

Level 1: Dualism - The person views the world in concrete, discrete, absolute terms. Alternative perspectives are acknowledged but not acted upon or accepted. Level 2: Multiplicity - The person is able to view the world from multiple perspectives. During this level, however, the person lacks the ability or criteria to evaluate and resolve conflicting or coexisting points of view. Level 3: Relativism - The person understands that knowledge and values are relative and contextual. Now "students see the big picture." Analytical thinking, acceptance of others' authority and value judgments, and evaluation of ideas, both of self and others, mark this level. Level 4: Commitment in Relativism - The person takes the responsibility to establish an identity in a pluralistic world. Personal commitments such as those made in marriage, religion, and a career are evidence of both an internal value system and consistent external lifestyle choices.

Kohlberg proposed three levels (with two stages each) of moral development:

Level One - Preconventional (1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation (2) Instrumental Relativist or Naïve Hedonism or Egotistic Orientation Level Two - Conventional (1) Interpersonal Concordance Orientation (2) Authority, Law, and Duty Orientation Level Three - Postconventional or Morality of Self-Accepted Principles or Personal Integrity (1) Social Contract Orientation (2) Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

Egocentrism

Piaget unable to view an object though another's vantage point

Reversibility

Piaget: achieved during the concrete operational stage; the understanding that an object can return to its former shape, (an action can be undone)

Factors Influencing Prenatal Development

Maternal Characteristics 1. Mother's Age - Statistics show that two age groups have more problems: Adolescent mothers often have premature babies, and the mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of mothers in their twenties. Mothers over 30 have an increased risk of delivering a Down syndrome baby. Infertility rates increase. 2. Nutrition - A proper diet is vital; mother is the sole source of nutrition throughout prenatal development. A poor diet can affect the central nervous system development and cause premature and underweight births. connection between low birth weight and physical and neurological defects including low IQ. 3. Emotional State and Stress - Pregnant women who experience prolonged, severe stress are more prone to give birth to premature babies or babies who are more hyperactive and irritable.

Orphan Annie's a Pretty Little Girl

O A P L G

Edwin R. Guthrie

One-Shot Learning theory: immediate learning occurs: The same movement will tend to re-occur when the stimuli and movement have been previously paired.

Deductive Reasoning

Piaget: drawing appropriate conclusions from facts

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development LEVEL 3: Postconventional Morality

Postconventional Morality (around ages 13 and older) (sometimes called Morality of Self-Accepted Principles or Personal Integrity) Moral behavior is guided by a self-accepted/self-imposed commitment to moral principles. Stage 5: Social Contract or Democratically Accepted Law Orientation. Society as a whole examines moral principles and then agrees upon or changes them by consensus. Stage 6: Universal Ethical and Self-Conscious Principles Orientation. An individual's social judgments and interactions are based out of universal principles (morality, ethics, legality) instead of the rules of society.

Sheehy's Life Stages

Pulling up Roots (ages 18-22), The Trying Twenties (ages 22-29), Catching Thirty (age 30), Rooting and Extending (the 30's), Deadline Decade (ages 34-45), Renewal and Resignation (the mid-40's)

External stimuli control

Reflexive behavior produced by: environmental stimuli (dust = sneeze) conditioned stimuli (blink when puff of air is blown in eye; then add buzzer with every puff of air = blink with buzzer alone) responses controlled by stimuli present at the time of reinforcement or punishment (a child reinforced for a behavior in one setting and punished in another,

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement is given after a certain fixed period of time. The amount of work done does not effect when reinforcement is given. In other words, the reinforcement is given at set times FOR EXAMPLE: Generally speaking, people who receive a salary fit this category.

Cattell's test

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) which measures source traits in individuals

Right Brain

Spiritual World Imagination Creativity Art Insight Intuition

Havighurst four stages of adulthood:

Stage 1: Early Adulthood (about ages 18 to 30) Tasks: ● Explore intimate relationships and start a family ● Explore and begin a career ● Explore and find a compatible social group Stage 2: Middle Adulthood or Middle Age (about ages 30 to 60) Tasks: ● Manage career ● Nurture the marital relationship, social relationships, and the household Stage 3: Later Adulthood or Later Maturity (about ages 60 to 75) Tasks: ● Accept new roles and activities ● Accept life ● Formulate a viewpoint on death Stage 4: Very Old Age Task: ● Coping with physical changes

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development LEVEL 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation A punishment or consequence is more important than societal expectations or the law. Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (sometimes called Naïve Hedonism or Egotistic) An individual's social judgments and interactions are based out of self-needs (self-centeredness).

Mary Ainsworth

Strange Situation

Variable-ratio schedule

The number of responses required before being reinforced is unpredictable/continually changing.

Vicarious Nature of Learning

The premise that learning can be vicarious (achieved by observing others and modeling or imitating the observed behavior) is a key characteristic of social learning theory.

Cannon-Bard or Emergency Theory

This theory pertains to which comes first, the physical action or the emotional reaction?

Extinction or Forgetting

Whereas Classical Conditioning terms forgetting as a result of extinction, Guthrie believed that forgetting was a result of an extended time lapse between associations. The passage of time does not wipe out the associations but provides opportunity for the new learning to replace the old.

Joseph Wolpe

Wolpe theorized that all neurotic behavior is an expression of anxiety. Psychosis is learned. Wolpe found classical conditioning theory useful in psychotherapy as he initiated the concepts of reciprocal inhibition and systematic desensitization, techniques which served to reduce anxiety. His treatment paired relaxation with an anxiety-provoking stimulus until the stimulus no longer provoked anxiety.

Token Economy

a medium of exchange for the giving or withdrawing of positive reinforcers

Counter-conditioning

a negative conditioned stimulus is paired with a pleasant stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with the unwanted conditioned response.

Hedonism

a person always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and to avoid pain

Watson was convinced that

a person's behavior could be shaped through conditioning; moreover, he was convinced that a person's behavior is shaped through conditioning from birth.

Interactionism

a technique for studying social groups by analyzing the group members using twelve different categories.

Breaking of a Habit: One of three ways

a. Fatigue Method - Repeatedly present the stimulus until the organism becomes tired of emitting the response. Once this occurs, a new response will replace the old response. b. Threshold Method - Present the stimulus that produces an undesirable response but present it at such a level that the undesired response is not emitted. Then increase the intensity of the stimulus (without the organism's awareness) until a new response is emitted to the stimulus and thus replaces the old response. c. Incompatible Stimuli - Present the stimulus at such a time that the response cannot occur. If the undesirable response cannot occur, another response will be emitted and then will replace the undesirable response.

Schedules of reinforcement

a. Fixed-interval schedule b. Variable-interval schedule c. Fixed-ratio schedule d. Variable-ratio schedule

Principles Underlying Guthrie's Law of Learning

a. Learning occurs without reinforcement. b. Learning occurs in an all-or-nothing fashion (theory of contiguity)

Types of reinforcements

a. Positive - a consequence that is added, thereby strengthening the response that precedes it b. Negative - a consequence that is withdrawn or terminated thereby strengthening the response that precedes it In other words, when a negative event is removed, the desired behavior takes place. (Examples: Turning off a shock is a negative event because it takes away a stimulus. Since removal of the shocks increases the likelihood that a rat will push the bar again, the event is reinforcing.) c. Primary - an event with reinforcing qualities that are barely dependent, if dependent at all, on prior learning. d. Secondary - an event that is not inherently pleasant or reinforcing but it becomes so through its association with other reinforcing stimuli. e. Partial or intermittent - reinforcement that occurs only sometimes, not every time the desired response is given. f. Punishment - an aversive stimulus used repeatedly to produce avoidance behavior.

Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion - Solomon

a. The conditions that arouse a motivational or an emotional state (State A) also call out a more sluggishly acting opposing state (State B). b. State B is a "slave" state which occurs as an inevitable accompaniment of State A. c. Termination of the original emotional circumstances leave State B as the dominant emotional state. d. State B, but not State A, increases with use and decreases with disuse. (exp: opiate addiction)

Stella Thomas and Alexander Chess: products/factors of inherited temperament

activity rate, rhythmicity, adaptability to new experiences, general mood, and intensity of response

Object permanency

aka: object constancy

Evolution

an alloplastic view (development is the result of one's adapting to other people and objects). ie. technology causes evolution. (Piaget: autoplastic (cognitive development is a predetermined unfolding)

Pavlov

antecedents (preceding events or conditioning) produce behaviors. some antecedents (i.e., unconditioned stimuli) produced unconditioned, or natural, responses. (Before conditioning, the dog food (UCS) produces salivation (UCR). During conditioning, the dog food (UCS) is paired with a ringing bell (neutral) so that the bell becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) producing salivation (CR). After conditioning, the bell (CS) produces salivation (CR).)

DAVID ELKIND

applied Piaget's work to education and to social problems of children and youth. Applied Developmental Psychologist

Gordon Allport

assumes traits to be the fundamental and relatively stable units of personality one's personality changes throughout one's life based on one's internal characteristics—goals, purposes, intentions, etc (opposition to Behaviorists)

Separation Anxiety

at about 12 months

Stranger anxiety begins

at approximately 8 months

In Operant Conditioning

behaviors increase or decrease in frequency as the result of the application of or the withdrawal of a reward; this is known as reinforcement

Mental hardware

cognitive structures and memories where information is stored

William G. Perry

cognitive-developmental sequence of stages identifies intellectual and ethical development in college students

William Sheldon

constitutional personality theory (somatotyping) stated that development occurs through a relationship between body types and temperaments

social learning theories

contend that people learn patterns of behavior through observing and interacting with others.

Carol Gilligan

criticized Kohlberg's model of moral development as being too male oriented. She suggested that care and responsibility in interpersonal relationships must be considered in moral development models, especially with females

Piaget's disiqulibrium

current schemas cannot process new information

Chaining

describes the phenomenon (in learning theory) of each response acting as the stimuli for the next response; used by behaviorists to explain complex behaviors.

Kohlberg

didn't think most people reach the post-conventional or self-accepted mortality level (exceptions are: Socrates, Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr)

Information processing theorists

do not view cognitive development as a predictable sequence of steps or stages. Instead, emphasis is on how information is processed: 1. How it enters the mind 2. How it is stored 3. How it is transformed 4. How it is retrieved to perform such activities as problem solving and reasoning

Epigenetic

each stage of development proceeds out of the prior stage

John Bowlby

emphasized the adaptive function or adaptive significance of attachment. Bonding and attachment are necessary for survival. Parents act as a "releaser stimulus" to evoke relief from hunger and tension through holding.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

expanded upon Piaget's model to explain and to account for such social phenomena as gender identity, sexual typing, and emotional ability

Holophrastic speech

expressing an entire sentence or phrase in one word, like a child's command, "Juice," meaning "Give me some juice."

John Watson

father of behaviorism He found the classical conditioning methods Pavlov used with animals to be very useful in treating phobias in humans.

Turner's syndrome

female has no gonads or sex hormones

Ethology

field research utilizing animals.

Object Loss

from early, severed bond may result in abnormal behavior

Contiguity

if two events occur at the same time, a connection between the two is made

Kegan term "holding environment"

in counseling: the place/environment/setting in which the client can make meaning regarding a crisis and can discover new direction.

Successive approximation

increments of change toward a desired behavior are reinforced, thereby shaping the response into the desired behavior

James-Lange theory

individual's perception of his physical reaction is the basis of his emotional experience.

Watson: "blank slate."

infant inherits only three basic emotions: fear, love, and rage. Environmental factors condition the person as to how to feel, what to think, how to act, etc. learned habits (associations between stimuli and responses) are foundational to personality development. Watson and Raynor's "Little Albert" experiment

Programmed instruction

instruction using operant conditioning techniques; materials are presented in discrete units that require an immediate response from the learner; the learner then receives immediate feedback regarding his or her response

Daniel Levinson

interviewed middle-aged men from different backgrounds. He and his colleagues discovered that both white-collar and blue-collar men exhibited the same patterns

Edward Thorndike

law of effect, sometimes called "trial and error learning," which basically stated that a consequence of behavior a reward (a satisfying result) a punishment (an unpleasant, annoying result) determined whether the strength of a stimulus-response connection was either increased or decreased.

Latent Learning

learning that takes place without an immediate manifestation.

Discrimination

learning to make distinctions among similar stimuli

Robert Kegan

life-span developmental model in which the individual is continually trying to "make meaning" or make sense of his/her experience

Roger Gould

links stage and crisis in his developmental transformations approach. False assumptions (myths) are challenged and transformed at every stage

Raymond Cattell contribution

list of 171 surface traits for rating individuals; Cattell then consolidated the traits into 16 underlying source traits or dimensions.

Validated Conservation

mass most easily understood, then weight, then volume

Culture

more sophisticated cultures think differently than less sophisticated ones.

teachable moments

occur at sensitive periods or times which allow the acquisition of a skill.

Mental software

organized sets of cognitive processes that instigate specific tasks such as reading a word or playing a violin.

Internal-locus-of-control

people believe that they control their own behavior

Gail Sheehy

people experience predictable or typical crises or difficult times which she called passages.

Maturation

refers to the unfolding of inherited biological patterns

B. F. Skinner

renamed Thorndike's law of effect the principle of reinforcement and designated this type of learning as operant conditioning learning occurs as individuals encounter (experience) the consequences of their behaviors, either reinforcement or punishment

H.F. Harlow

rhesus monkey studies: bonding (contact comfort) process

Brain Lateralization Theory

right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and that the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body.

Robert Havighurst

six-stage model of developmental tasks: These tasks must be taught effectively at the appropriate times in life in order for the next tasks to be mastered.

Public Law 94.142

the federal government's mandate to provide a free and appropriate education for all children. Also know IDEA - Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

Genotype

the fundamental constitution of an organism in terms of its hereditary factors

Conditioned Response (CR)

the learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Encoding

the mental process of converting external stimuli into meaningful forms (memory).

primary vicarious conditioning

the model goes through classical or instrumental conditioning while the observer watches the stimulus, the response, and the consequence.

Contingency

the occurrence of one event is dependent (contingent) upon the occurrence of another event; this dependency relationship is foundational to classical conditioning.

Acquisition

the period during which the organism learns the association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

the recurrence of the previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.

Extinction

the reduction in response that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. (This parallels the stage in Operant Conditioning when reinforcement is no longer given.)

Stimulus Generalization

the showing of a given behavior toward similar stimuli once an organism has learned to associate a given behavior with a specific stimulus

Behavioral and social learning theories emphasize

the significance of environmental factors, rather than biological or cognitive factors, as determining causes of development

secondary vicarious conditioning

the stimuli, response, and consequence are represented symbolically, not actually demonstrated

Physiological Psychology

the study of the central nervous system and the brain to measure their effect on human functioning