Neolithic Age and Civilization

When did the Indus River Valley civilization emerge? When did it end?

2700 bce to 1900 bce

Fertilizer

A chemical substance added to a plot of land used for farming o enhancing the quality of the harvest or improve the fertility of the land.

Subcontinent

A large landmass that is smaller than a continent.

How do Neolithic structures serve as evidence for increased hierarchical leadership?

A lot of people were required to create such structures, and these people would need an overseer or leader to coordinate the whole construction of these buildings.

Weights and Scales

A stone called chert that was easily chippable A standard measurement of brick allowed for even levelings and even bricks, so one wall wouldn't be higher than the other If you know how many bricks you need exactly, with one format of bricks, then you don't spend too much or waste too much. They knew how many people were in the city (census) Bureaucrats (government officials) would be in charge of the census There would be a king to lead them and tell them what to do Anything that gets done in the city is not by chance, it is planned, and the only way to do that is to have a central authority that tells you how these things are supposed to be done, you need permission. This all requires planning ahead of time.Specialists are all involved; but they are all involved in an organized manner Done in stages- you need one thing to get to the next Communication among specialists Organization of Society

Calories

A unit of energy; A unit of heat energy.

Iconography

Abstract image or symbol used to represent a larger idea or concept

Explain the relationship among humans, infectious diseases, and domesticated animals.

As humans began to domesticate animals and integrate them into their lives, contact between the two increased greatly. As a result, diseases harbored by animals spread to humans and caused many to receive these infectious diseases.

Megalith

BIG STONE

Necropolis

City of the Dead

Domestication

Converting wild animals into human-friendly creatures; making wild animals beneficial to human survival through selective breeding.

Ganges River

Flows across most of northern india, Stars of the himalaya mountains, Carries silt from the himalayas to the northern plains, depositing rich sediment. The northern plains contain some of the most fertile farmland in the world because of this. During monsoon season, the river can flood and destroy crops planted along its banks. 25 to 60 inches of rain 55°F to 90°F

Hindu Kush Mountains

Form a rugged barrier between the indus river valley and afghanistan Not as tall as himalayan mtn range, but is one of the highest in the world Some of its peaks are almost 5 mi high Many parts of the mountain range are unlivable Snow and ice permanently cover the steep slopes and peaks

What major shift in food production brought about specialists?

the switch to relying on the stable food supply farming provided, instead of depending on hunting wild game as a main food source. Now not everyone has to go out and collect food, some people can just freeload off of welfare and the farmer's share of crops (taxes). yay, now you can be a basket weaver or a youtuber and you still won't starve to death cause you know you have food.

Explain three uses of animals and plants other than food.

Transport--of goods over large distances Clothing--wool could be woven into wearable items Offerings to the gods--sacrifices could be made with the heaviest cow, or the purest goa

Explain how transportation revolutionized human settlements.

Transportation allowed people to trade with other tribes/villages and gain other things not native to their settlement, therefore, revolutionizing these same settlements.

Western Ghats

Higher than the eastern ghats Steep slopes Narrow valleys Thick hardwood forests Extremely heavy rains Wet climate encourages the growth of tropical plants 100 inches or more rain of the year 60°F to 90°F

Eastern Ghats

Not as wet as the western ghats Several rivers flow through the eastern ghats Dotted with hardwood trees The rivers here rarely flood but are still unsafe for travel because they move rapidly, contain many rocks, and often plunge suddenly over cliffs 100 inches or more rain of the year 60°F to 90°F

What was the geographic impact caused by the change in food production?

Now that more food was being produced, the need for flat and fertile farmland increased. The geographic impact of this was that humans created sedentary communities in areas with land that was suitable for farming. once settled, they'd reshape their land so that they could have more land for farming and their ever-growing population.

Social impact caused by the switch to farming

Now we have some craaaaaazy wheat farms. Now you can make a lot of wheat really really quickly. That means if you own the farm, you own a lot of food, which is something everybody needs to survive. So that makes you king.

Sedentary

Opposite of nomadic, residing in one permanent area.

Explain why taxation was a necessary component of centralization.

Taxation played a role in making sure the specialists had a source of food. It also gave people a sense of who had a higher authority within the community. When taxes were collected, people tended to gravitate more towards those who would donate(?) more, thus establishing a sense of power; some being able to offer more than others.

Khyber Pass

The Khyber Pass is the only route into the Indian Subcontinent from the north which has been the invasion route of conquerors throughout South Asia's history. Forms a 30 mile long gap in the mountains on the afghanistan-pakistan border In the hindu kush mountains The pass connects central asia to the indian subcontinent For thousands of years traders used this pass to enter the indus river valley Invaders also used the pass Many died in the mountains' unforgiving landscape

Indian Subcontinent

The entire country is a subcontinent of Asia, Large triangular landmass, Mountain ranges separate it from the rest of Asia, Avg. Temp. 90-104°F, Avg. Rainfall is 11.8-25.6 inches, 2000 feet above sea level (elevation avg.) 50 to 70 inches of rain for brahmaputra river

Indus River

The indus river begins in the himalaya mountains 5 to 20 inches of rain a year 60°F to 90°F

Why did it emerge?

The indus river valley is very fertile; Because of black silt(rich in iron, good for growing cotton)(sediment runoff from the himalayan mountains Floods deposited silt, makes soil very fertile The WHOLE POINT of the plow is to DIG UP fertile dirt that crops can grow in Toys reflect the society they live in AND THIS TOY HAS WHEELS!! History unfolds unevenly, because GEOGRAPHY IS DESTINY Because of sch fertile soil, there was no need for plows in the indus river valley civilization Yellow , red , black soil This was an agricultural society.

How does light from the outside interact with the walls and chambers of the Hypogeum?

The light from the outside flickers on the cave walls creating shadows and shapes that appear to be moving. On the solstice the outside light goes through the ceremonial hall.

Monument to the ancestors

The sarsens = ancestors

Explain two developments that make specialists possible.

The storage of food and the development of taxation allowed specialists to be fed, and then they wouldn't be occupied with making food. Taxation- the farmers were taxed for a certain amount of their food. Storage of food- Since they were farmers they usually had a surplus of food, that surplus then allowed the people to be fed.

Birth Interval

The time period between the births of two children by the same woman.

How does the use of sound in ritual connect the Hypogeum to the Paleolithic Age?

The use of sound in ritual in the Hypogeum connects to the Paleolithic Age, because shamans would use sound to enter the trance state.

Sarsens are from...? They weigh how much?

a silicified sandstone boulder of a kind that occurs on the chalk downs of southern England. Such stones were used in constructing Stonehenge and other prehistoric monuments. 30 feet tall, weighing up to 25 tons. Found in the preseli mountains in wales, around 160 miles away from stonehenge's location.

Transom

a strengthening crossbar, in particular one set above a window or door.

political impact of the switch to farming

ah frick now we have 2 ppl squaring up. More farm land = more food = something everyone needs to survive = so they are ruler. No more religioius figures ruling us now. they just advise the king. and maybe influence the ecisions he makes a little bit. or a lot. so now we have politics, because now we have property. If there was a buffalo, we'd split it equally with the 80 people in the tribe. Now with thousands, and personal property, it's totally different.

how Neolithic humans would have interpreted the warming of the planet towards the end of the Ice Age?

doing so could people safeguard against a return to blizzards snow, ice and food scarcity. Neolithic humans wanted to prevent the return of the ice age, emerging from their caves paranoid and determined to show ample devotion to the gods as to not anger them a second time and bring about the destruction if the universe.

What did they do with the bones of their ancestors? Why?

These were buried in the flex in utero position perhaps ready to be born Anew in the spirit world. Children who died which lead Scholars to think that adult brains May well have been eaten as debt at death to pass on the deceased's essential qualities to the living.

Why did archaeolosists find (mostly healthy male aged 25-30) cremated remains underneath stonehenge and not river Avon?

They are human sacrifices on the winter solstice to ensure the return of the sun. The nobility. Willingly sacrificed, to guarantee that the world doesn't end.

What motivated the makers of Stonehenge to use these particular stones?

They had religious significance or were of symbolic importance

Solstice

either of the two times in the year, the summer solstice and the winter solstice, when the sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky at noon, marked by the longest and shortest days.

What role did early humans see themselves fulfilling in association with their new gods of nature?

Cosmic janitors. Negotiators, social workers, priests, medicine mans, mystics, sacrifices, grievances managers.

How did some early Neolithic communities manipulate and use the skulls?

skulls were plastered and painted with ochre in order to recreate humanlike features. Faces were modeled in plaster often with inset cowrie shells for eyes and painted representations of hair and other facial features.

Explain at least three ways that animals can increase human food supplies.

-Animals are a stable food source. Meaning that they could be killed and eaten therefore increasing food supply -Their hides were used as warm clothing so humans wouldn't freeze during the winter. Letting them live longer and produce more food. -They provided humans with milk, rich in calcium and other nutrients -Animals enabled humans to travel and TRADE with other tribes. These tribes may have had certain foods native to their place of living and those foods could then be traded to another tribe without those foods. Therefore increasing the food supply of that tribe. Done through trade.

10 uses of water in a civilization

1) Sewage System 2) Bathing Hygiene Cleaning Body Cleaning wound Mitigates the spread of disease 3) Irrigation Hydration (of plants) 4) Drinking Water Hydration (of humans) 5) Preparing Food Water is a solvent Cooking rice in water Boiling water makes it clean Hygiene 6) Transportation Travelling in order to trade 7) Construction Clay bricks made with water 8) Art Clay pottery 9) Religious Purposes Mohenjo-Daro, The great bath Not only hygiene, but ritual bathing/ritual purification 10) Water can be used to weigh things

2 theories that explain the decline/fall of the Harappan civilization

1- hostile invaders ( we know indo-europeans known as the aryans entered the indian subcontinent at around the same time the Harappan civilization fell) 2- natural events (There were bunkers for flood emergency like tornado bunkers This river valley flooded with FREQUENCY They DEPENDED ON IT Lots of stuff UNDERGROUND CITADEL The houses where people live are UNDERGROUND , to protect from flooding elements The lower city was 3x the size of the aboveground citadel Houses made of mud bricks)

5 features of a civilization (as seen at Mohenjo-Daro)

1. Centralization: one authority, usually a government authority, a government hierarchy of kings, prests, scribes, bureaucrats. Centralize government demand uniformity 2. Uniformity: standardization, the common blueprint, standard water/sewage system, universal unit of measurement. Uniformity was maintained in all regions of territory belonging to one centralized government. Attached a price to goods, and that price is based on weight, and rarity. Currency most likely existed, but we don't know what it is. Water weights and stone block weights. 3. Literacy: the ability to code and decode. thoughts-> external symbolic storage = code = write. Writing ->registers as something in your head-> decode -> read 4. Long-Distance Trade: to enhance economic growth. To trade what one has in surplus for desed materials that they no not have or have but require immediately that is currently in depleting supply. Jewelry. A luxury item, used by nobles/aristocrats to show status and worth. Jewelry makers need artistic ability. Humans don't want to just survive now, they want to make their world more beautiful. Exchange craft for food. People willing to purchase luxury items for very high price, since it displays high status and wealth. There is evidence of long distance trade between mohenjo daro and mesopotamia. Silk: the silkworm was the only means of getting silk, and this product was only available in china. A national violation of china's law to take silkworms. Pirating silkworm. Merchants all throughout history have found a way to make money without travelling excessive, vast distances. The rarer a skill, the more expensive the product. 5. Coordination: individuals together on a common goal. These individuals need to know what the next person is doing. Cedarwood, received from the himalayas, how was it obtained? By a merchant. What did this require? A lot of coordination.

Explain three developments necessary for centralization to occur.

Agriculture, social classes/social hierarchy, sedentary Taxation, Social Hierchy, Agriculture

Surplus

An extra amount of supplies/resources like food.

Explain the relationship between animals and specialists.

Animals allow there to be a stable food supply which allows the specialists to focus on things other than hunting and farming. Because not all people had to be farmers and work towards getting food, people could spend more time perfecting tools

Explain the interrelationship between domesticated animals and farming in two ways.

Animals carried large farming tools easily whereas it consumed a lot more strength and time for humans to do such as plows. Often times the crops coming from the farming would be used to feed the animals.

Explain why there is a natural interrelationship between animals and plants that benefits humans.

Animals feces contains nitrogen necessary for plants to grow. When animals eat plants they than excrete fecal matter which grows more plants. This benefits humans as they used fertilizer to speed the growth of plants and feed animals and themselves.

Explain how animals revolutionized the use of the plow.

Animals, being domesticated, enabled early farmers to shift some of t heir daily grueling workloads to the animals. Animals such as cows and ox were strong enough to pull the plows, faster than humans. Plows were made heavier and larger, and more work was done in a less amount of time.

Explain how literacy was a necessary aspect of centralization.

As kingship was introduced to settle disputes within the quickly growing populations, laws were also introduced as a key part to keeping those ruled in place. Literacy was used in order to communicate large ideas such as these laws over large amounts of people. These laws are written laws so no one could change them. (depending on the king) Scribes would need to be literate to record events and convey messages to others among the group. Those who were literate would have people going to them to do certain things; settle disputes, record history, etc, thus being favored by the ruling figure.

Explain the impact that settlements had on human reproduction rates.

As nomads people had to wait until their children were able to walk before having another child because they were only able to take whatever they could carry. They were constantly moving so carrying more than one child would not only slow them down, it would prevent them from carrying necessities with them. While settled the limit to when children could be born was gone allowing for more to be born therefore increasing the population of the next generation. When settles, there were more opportunities to have children, due to the fact that humans weren't moving around much, enabling them to have more than one child and look over them without any hassle.

Explain why populations would increase with farming and herding.

Because of the more reliable food source as a benefit from farming and herding the population increased because a significantly less number of people were dying from starvation. Also more "unfit"(old, disabled, diseased, weak and injured) people were able to be fed and not left to die because of their inability to hunt. When hunting was necessary, nomads didn't have the ability to have children, because they didn't have time, the conditions wel,mnren't safe enough, etc. But with farming and herding, there was time to look after one's offspring as well as a controlled animal food source.

Explain the impact of sedentary living on the birth rate interval and how this affects the Population.

Before in nomadic societies, paleolithic people would only be able to have 2 children every 4 to 5 years until they were unable to reproduce. Now in Neolithic societies, the Sedentary people were then able to have as many children as they could because there was no constant moving. With this Increased Birth interval rate the people the population significantly increased. It went from having 50-60 people a tribe (paleolithic, Nomadic) to 5000 people a village (Neolithic. sedentary)

Explain two impacts of the domestication of animals.

Carried supplies that humans alone would not have been able to move, therefore allowing for trade over long distances. By domesticating and living with animals humans were prone to disease. Those who survived reproduced allowing for their offspring to eventually become immune to these diseases. Those who weren't were wiped out, as a result disease was a key part in wars. The domestication of animals also brought on a stable food supply because they didn't constantly need to hunt or look for food. Provided humans with necessities like wool and milk Were capable of performing tasks that humans wouldn't be able to do easily. (pulling plows)

Who discovered the remains of Mohenjo Daro? When?

In 1922, archaeologists found the ruins of mohenjo daro

Where did civilization geographically emerge in India/Pakistan?

Indus river valley

To what civilization do the cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa belong?

Indus river valley civilization/harappan civilization

Seals / Insignia

It's a Pictographs made for Iconography They need to know how to carve clay or material, they needed to understand how wax works They need to have a form of religion if they are keeping it as a charm They have to have a standardized measurement and have to understand basic geometry Why was it made? No one knows for sure why they were made They were made as a charm to ward away evil The seals were also pressed and taxed to wear as a tag for merchants to demonstrate ownership The seals have bulls, elephants, and crocodiles They also needed a standardized system of measurement to create elaborate objects, and carve intricate figures They also needed a written language or pictograph system

Explain the relationship between bureaucrats and kings.

Kings → leaders of the government Bureaucrats → officials in the government. They both played parts in keeping the government organized. Bureaucrats would work for the king, carry out jobs that the king would oversee.

games

Knowledge Required: Carving ability Polishing the surface Creativity Circles for holes Measurement for accuracy They must've had knowledge of carving woods and other materials to make the games and toys. They also had to have standardized measurements to make all of the games exact and the same. They also have to had some sort of school and education because they had to teach the rules of the games to other people. They also needed education because some of the games were very advanced, and were too complicated for children, who played simpler games. They also needed to know how to make clay and carve stone. Built For: Probably built for recreation Games could also be used to train strategy, like the war game chess They purpose of the game is for entertainment and leisure purposes. People played the games for fun.

Sewage System

Knowledge of mathematics was needed with positioning and placement of the pipes underground. Standardization was also needed to have a standard unit of measurement to place the pipes according to. Knowledge of water flow was also needed to push the water in the direction that led it out of the city. They needed to know how to sculpt clay and carve to be fit exactly within other pipes. Mathematicians, artists, and builders all had to be part of this to be able to have a sewage system. It was built to carry the dirty water out of a city. The sewage system was needed because it allowed for all residents in the city to flush dirty water out of their homes, including the rich and the poor.

Himalayan Mountains

Located along india's northern border Highest mountain range in the world Mt everest reaches more than 5 ½ miles high and is is part of the himalayan mountain range Name means "home of snows" Fiercest storms can jump 10 feet of snow on the area at one time Underneath the mountain range, the earth is always moving This movement causes mountains everest to grow a little bit every year It also makes earthquakes and landslides commonplace in the area Can get as cold as -76 degrees 120 inches of snowfall

Mount Everest

Part of Himalayan Mountains Avg. -29°F No rain 3 mph wind Never above freezing More than 5½ miles high

Brahmaputra River

Runs through himalayas, snow capped mountains and narrow canyons. River becomes slower and deeper as it flows through the valley. River enriches valley with himalayan mineral deposits. Joins the ganges river on the plains. The land where the ganges and the brahmaputra meet is very fertile. Can get as hot as 86 degrees. Joins into Ganges river. Flows through China, India, and Bangladesh. 85 degrees. Typical town gets 70-150 inches a year. Heaviest rainfall is in between June and October. Temp ranges from 45°F to 85°F

Explain what three elements are needed to maintain kingship in a civilization.

Scribes: They kept important records for the kings. Ex tax records and laws. They also communicated order between the king and the populous. Army: The army needed to carry out the king's war agenda and expansion agenda in order to sustain the ever growing population Priest: They had priest who were able to keep the universe intact through communication with the gods. Maintained kingship because It was able to keep the entirety of one village under one belief decreasing conflict between religions. Less fights and not as many deaths in a village and expansion.

Explain two reasons why soldiers were needed after humans created settlements.

Soldiers were needed after settlements were created so that territory could be defended, disputes with other settled areas could be, well, settled, and other settlements could be conquered

Thar Desert

The Thar Desert lies on the border between India and Pakistan. It covers more than 77,000 square miles, which is an area about the size of Nebraska. Gets as hot as 120 degrees Snakes, gazelles, and quail.

Deccan Plateau

V shaped area that lies between two mountain ranges in southern india Contains 600 million year old rocks The plateau is fairly dry Monsoons provide most of the water Soil on the plateau is black, yellow or red Black soil is rich in iron, good for growing cotton Yellow and red soils lack key minerals Can get as hot as 100 degrees Gets about 30 inches of rain

the Great Bath

What kind of knowledge or expertise was required to build this? Knowledge of how to make things waterproof How to contain water in a single area How to layer the bricks in a fashion so that water wouldn't seep out Dressing areas designated for certain people around the pool show that there was a sense of decency More bathing rituals A place to congregate and talk Why was it built? Built as a place for people to bathe on especially hot days A place for people to go and meet one another, talk about the daily news Bathing rituals/ purification

Citadel

What kind of knowledge or expertise was required to build this? Knowledge of their surroundings A seasonal cycle, they needed to be able to predict when the monsoons would come The nature of floods and how water would move How to tightly layer bricks/building materials to fortify a certain building The knowledge of an urban planner and planning for disasters, being prepared for all situations Water engineers, aquaphysicicts, urban planners, designers, specialists The accounted for everybody Why was it built? Built to protect the city from potential floods, and natural disasters To protect various members of the city in a secluded area Religion To protect everybody, not just a select few

Statue

What kind of knowledge was required to build these statues. They knew how to precisely carve stones Specialized tools Social hierarchy A basic depiction of what the gods looked like Possibly for a religious purpose Why was it built? In order to monument a significant person, or anthropomorphized god. Who was involved? Specialist who had the ability to precisely carve what the saw such as artists. These statues were built for the purpose of symbolizing and possibly worshiping a figure that could now be easily seen. Was built as a physical representation of the gods. Probably a god because of the robe and crest he's wearing. Priest. Able to groom oneself successfully

Homes

What kind of knowledge was required to build this? They needed knowledge of the city layout- where they could put houses and how that would affect the other homes around them Needed knowledge of sewage systems- sewage system connects to homes, needed to have a good understanding of the sewage systems to place the homes They needed to have a mathematical understanding/Urban planning Why was it built It was built so they could have sedentary living Who was involved Those who had an understanding in math

Bead Necklaces

What knowledge was required: People needed to have the craft skills of carving, painting and other artistic abilities, Especially pottery For toys people also needed the ability to take everyday objects and make them smaller and more kid friendly Built for: Toys were made for the amusement of kids because parents had specialists jobs that kept them very busy during the day Also used as a way to tell stories Jewelry was made for the appearance of women and men This was because the people had more social time so women and men started to care about their appearance Could also have been a way of showing wealth Not only this, but it could have also been a way to show religion, by putting Deities on the jewelry and having priest wear it.

Explain the relationship between settlements, surplus food, and storage.

When settlements were first made the people living in them were able to perform agriculture. This then made it possible for food to be stored thus, creating a surplus of food.(Implying that there was a gradual increase in the storage of food and not a decrease)

WHat does the citadel at mohenjo daro suggest?

that mohenjo daro was carefully planned. they knew of the khyber pass and its possibility to transport invaders, and they also knew water vry well. hence the sewage system and the great bath, and wells for ablutions (water rituals). KNew about science, aquaphysics, this required careful observtion of how water works, how it drains, overflowes, etc. this shows URBAN PLANNING. there's an indidual group of poeple who are aactually sitting down and creting blueprints. They are architects, mathematicians, physicists. they use a standard unit of measurement. they know HOW WATER WORKS! that's why the first floor has NO WINDOWS. beause what if the city flooded and the windos let water get into ter homes? tgus rucer valley flooded with frequency. Heck, not only did the inhabitants know aout this, they used it to their advantage to plant in fertile patches of land and maximize the amount of rice produced in rice paddies. they DEPENDED n these destructive and unpredicatble floods for their food supply. hence why most of the city's people lived underground.

5 key things that make civilization possible

uniformity, centralization, coordination, literacy,

the ECONOMIC impact caused by the switch to farming

well for starters now we actually HAVE an economy. You can trade baskets or makeup or jewelry for a certain amount of food. Heyyyyy some other people far away want some of the food and stuff we have here. So let's trade with them. Yum yum, now that our economy exists, it's actually flourishing.

What kinds of rituals would Neolithic communities performed?

- cosmic maintenance rituals - ancestor worship rituals

What did Neolithic humans construct at Gobekli Tepe 7000 years before Stonehenge? (Describe in detail).

11,000 years ago, that is 7,000 years before stonehenge, our ancestors, using only flint tools, carved massive pillars from a limestone quarry, then transported them as far as a quarter of a mile. Each pillar is shaped like a stylized human being: Its "head" like a capital T. some have relief carvings on their bodies indicating arms, hands, belts, and animal skin loin-kings, others are decorated animals then native to the area: bulls, foxes, cranes, lions, ducks, scorpions, ants, spiders, and snakes. These pillars supported domed roofs.

Temple (liminal space)

A doorway, something that is tangible & concrete buy Is symbolically used to enter into an abstract or spiritual realm or communicate with supernatural entities in other realms.

Plow

A large tool used to dig up fertile soil that will prepare soil for the sowing of seeds. Usually pulled by large domesticated animals.

Bureaucrat

A specialist with high social status that would assist the king or authoritative fibute in executing decisions crucial to the development of their community.

Corbelled

A trangle arch-like pathway usually made of stone, leading up into a room. Meant to shut out light, lead to a space of enclosed darkness, or allow light to stream in.

What did earlier digs discover about the construction c. 3000 BCE? How many pits? What are the pits called? Why? How were the blue stones originally placed c. 3000. How were they placed c. 2500? Why the change in placement?

A- 56 pits in the form of a circle B- The Aubrey holes named after John Aubrey C- outside in a ring D- within the circle of Sarsens E- They could've moved said bluestones when sandstones were being introduced

Why would Neolithic migrants bring bluestones from 130 miles away?

Ancestor Remembrance. Bringing a part of their identity to their new home outside of the caves, they thought that their ancestors' spirits were embedded in the bluestones Cosmic maintenance Association of sunlight with harvest Winter solstice = day of the year with the least light

What physical transition did humans living in the Fertile Crescent undergo 11,000 years ago? Why?

Approximately 11,500 years ago, towards the end of the last Ice Age as the weather became warmer, some of our early ancestors in the northern region of what we now know as the Fertile Crescent began to move their places of religious ritual beyond the cave and rock walls. Göbekli Tepe is the first evidence of this physical transition.

What transition in power did shaman have to undergo at this time? Why?

As foragers, their population may well have increased to a size that eventually made a more hierarchical organization imperative. Shamans would still be looked to for guidance and from this already somewhat elevated position they were perhaps able to take control. As community leaders, a priesthood of sorts, they would command the numbers of people needed to initiate this transformation: to create a new tiered cosmos beyond the cave walls.

How did the growth of trade come out of settlement? List three items traded along with their uses.

As neolithic people become more skilled in their craftS, THEY WANTED MATerials that would improve he sstenth and the beauty of the things they made. Getting those resources became the job of traders. Traders searched for flint and obsidian. Obsidian is black volcanic glass. Craftspeople used it to make sharp knife blades, arrowheads, and mirrors. People also treated for beauty products like shell ornaments and a red ore called hematite. Women rubbed hematite on their lips and cheeks to make them redder.

Sacred/Holy

Assigning or attaching religious significance to a place or an object.

(X) Alien Intervention theory

Atkinson, Stone, Piggott (1956) Claims it is Mycenaean Architecture, from the greek bronze age Stonehenge was actually made in the STONE AGE!!! Neither scholar could have any idea of the true antiquity of Stonehenge, 3,000-2,500 years before the Romans came to Britain The english have always idealized the greeks. *everything came from them* *rolls eyes* Neolithic age people had EVERYTHING THEY NEEDED TO CONSTRUCT STONEHENGE> ALIEN INTERVENTION WOULDN'T BE NECESSARY

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different atomic masses due to having different numbers of neutrons in the nuclei, but which still have similar chemical properties.

Ancestors

Become the medium of the divine spirits and the humans on earth The cooperation of the living and the spirits

What two kinds of stone were used at Stonehenge?

Bluestones and 'Sarsen' Sandstone

Blue stones are from...? They weigh how much?

Bluestones are from wales, and weigh around 2-4 tons

Healing theory

Bluestones ring when struck - tourists taking chips of stonehenge and destroying them for souvenirs/trinkets was considered evidence for this (wtf)

Flex-in- utero

Bodies were buried in the flex-in-utero position perhaps ready to be born anew in the spirit world; children who died young were buried intact;the fetal position in which the bones of deceased relatives are laid postmortem

What is a cremation burial?

Burning body to ashes and then burying them

How were the stones shaped? By whom?

By stonemasons, using pounding stones

Memorial to the sun

Clive Ruggles (1997) [pg. 75] "Archaeo-astronomer" Stonehenge is a monument that memorializes key events like the summer and winter solstices After observing the sun, stonehenge was built to align with the behavior of the sun during the summer and winter solstices. It wasn't made to predict any

Woodhenge (Durrington walls) Why is Woodhenge made of wood?

Closer to the river Avon than Stonehenge Wood symbolized life, the human world, impermanence. Wood is temporary. Stone symbolized death, the spirit realm, eternity. Stone is forever.

What is Einkorn wheat and what role did it play in enabling the transition to settlement?

Einkorn wheat, a forerunner of domestic wheat, grows wild in the region and scholars suggest that some of the grain might well have fallen along the way as people travelled there year after year. Once it grew it was picked and eventually became domesticated,

What longstanding theories of the Neolithic Revolution has recently come into question with excavations at Gobekli Tepe? Why?

Gobekli Tepe and other recently excavated sites in the near east lead scholars back to the long-standing idea of the Neolithic Revolution, a concept invented by V, Gordon Childe back in the 1920s which claimed that agriculture, stimulated by population growth, gave rise to organized religion. Gobekli Tepe instead lead scholars to conclude that the reverse was true instead: The transformation to organized regional religion gave rise to farming.

In what way did permanent settlement lead to new specialized tasks other than producing food? Provide three examples of specialized tasks.

Having a stable food supply allowed people to develop new kinds of jobs. With farms providing steadier supplies of food, neolithic people could develop more specialized skills. Besides farmers, there were weavers, basket makers, toolmakers and traders in Catal Huyuk. Neolithic people didn't merely want to survive they wanted to make themselves, and their surroundings more beautiful.

List and explain three benefits did permanent shelters bring to Neolithic humans?

Houses gave people protection from harsh weather and wild animals Houses made life more comfortable Houses enabled people to settle together in larger communities

Anthropomorphization

Humans making their gods more human-like.

Where did farming take root about 5,000 years ago?

In the fertile crescent, agriculture took root around 5000 years ago.

Infectious Disease

Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, or other antigens. Under certain conditions, some organisms may cause disease. Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Some are transmitted by bites from insects or animals. And others are acquired by being exposed to organisms in the environment.

(X) Druid temple theory

John aubrey proposed the theory in the mid-17th century (1650) William Stukeley elaborated (1750) Julius Caesar incorrectly assumed that stonehenge belonged to the druids Druids worship in forests and do not and have never worshipped in man-made monuments. Although Classical authors referred to ancient druids worshipping only in wooded groves - there is no mention of any link between druids and stone monument, let alone Stonehenge - the association of druids with Stonehenge has become fixed in the public consciousness. The nature of the druidic religion is worshipping in forests or groves of trees, so worshipping in a man made structure was highly unlikely because of these nature-oriented religious tendencies. but to some ppl in the 1600s-1700s julius caesar could have never been wrong!!!11!11!1

10. What is the processional avenue? How might they have used it?

Leading to river avon, for burials of people held in high regard. Grooves, coincidentally, were aligned with the axis of the sunrise and sunset on the day of the winter solstice. created by peri-glacial

Where did the first towns emerge? Provide the name of one town.

Many neolithic settlements were located in the fertile crescent, east of the mediterranean sea, where the land was fertile. Here people built towns such as Jericho, Catal Huyuk and Jarmo.

Neolithic

New stone age. 8000 to 3500 BCE. Homo sapiens. Agriculture, domestication, development of communities, trade, artificial shelter, landscape, complex tools, focal points in altars and intricate places of worship, burials. Fertile crescent. Shamanism on steroids

Scribes

Non-food producing specialists sustained by taxation who have received proper education, able to read and write records monitoring the supplies of certain goods.

Provide a theory about how the stones were moved?

On wooden rafts of logs to roll the stones across, using rope or twine and manpower (probably no more than 200 men) From experiments performed by University College London researchers in the city's Gordon Square, though, it seems the journey may not have been quite as taxing as it sounds. The team built a special sycamore sled for a 1-tonne stone, then used a series of silver birch rollers to drag the rock. They found that ten people could then pull the stone about 10 feet every five seconds, which the team thinks is surprisingly fast. The stones are approx 2 tonne.

What structures are found on the islands of Malta and Gozo? How old are these structures?

Over 23 megalithic temples were discovered at Malta and Gozo. These temples are from 3700-2400 BC.

How did the people of Catalhoyuk build their homes? Why?

Over the span of 1,000 years people continuously inhabited the site, rebuilding their houses atop one another, creating a mound ("hoyuk") some sixty feet high. Not surprisingly people built homes reminiscent of their caves, creating spaces of symbolic architecture which still reflected their close connection to a three-tiered cosmos and spirit world. The cosmos and its animals were embedded in the house.

Why does a larger community require a symbolic religious system?

Religion brings community together, establishes set rules, prototypes for potential future laws. Religion unites community, organizes it, and inspires innovation.

What is iconography? What is its purpose?

Reminding participants of the stories and myths of the time as a totem might or as a statue does in a modern church or temple. The interpretation of visual images and symbols used in works of art, usually religious.

Summer ritual: vs. Winter ritual:

Sacrifices of celebration and giving the spirits their thanks for a successful year of harvest. day witht he most sun = day with the most life. festivities, probably centered around woodhenge. grand feasts and large-scale festivals celebrating life in all its glory and impermanence. Woodhenge symbolizes life. Asking the spirits for repentance and pleading for the world not to end. day with the least sun = day with the least amount of life. making a human sacrifice, large-scale rituals as the sun sets between the sarsens that embody the ever-eternal souls of their mighty ancestors, who will 'chase' the sun and act as intermediaries, pleading for the sun's return on behalf of their kindred. it's a very serious and solemn day.

What did pilgrims probably do once they reached the enclosed, underground temples? How do archaeologists know this?

Sacrifices, animal or otherwise. . Archaeologists found lots of meanings of bones.

What was discovered at Nevali Cori?

Smaller pillars with similar imagery to the pillars of Gobekli Tepe were found at Nevali Çori, a settlement 20 miles away from Gobekli Tepe.

Artesans

Specialist that make fine art or items of craftsmanship. Metalworkers, jewelers, basket weavers, etc.

10 most important developments that enabled the emergence of civilization

Surplus- It enabled jobs that were not related to the harvesting of food, otherwise known as specialization. In order to run a systematic government, non-agricultural jobs would be required. Such could only be achieved if there was a surplus of food, enabled by agriculture. Agriculture also enabled trade and helped build an economy. Specialization- Specialization of jobs allowed people to become kings or chiefs in a society. Without specialization, everyone will be hunters and gatherers and chiefs will be non-existent leading to no empires. Stored food is essential for feeding non-producing specialists, and certainly for supporting whole towns of them. Hence nomadic hunter-gatherer societies have few or no such full-time specialists such as bureaucrats, who first appear in sedentary societies. Domestication/Agriculture- The humans who domesticated animals were the first to fall victim to bacterial infection, but then those humans developed resistance to such diseases. When such partly immune people came into contact .with others who had no previous experience to germs transmitted by livestock, epidemics resulted in which up to 99 percent of the previously unexposed population was killed. Taxation- Because taxation is the way to feed people that have specialized jobs. The specialists do not farm but need food to survive. Taxes (food) will be collected to feed and satisfy those that cannot produce food like chiefs, priests, traders, etc. Without taxation, chiefs would not exist, so there will be no empires. Population Growth- Population growth was enabled by the use of fertilize and the domestication of crops and animals. With a larger population, militaries could be established. It also enabled specialization. Storage- Storages allowed the supply of food for people during the winter or famine. Without storage, people would die out during famine seasons and not form an empire Disease- Most of the common diseases that originated during this period were from the animals being domesticated. animal-contracted diseases had a large impact on the recent European conquests of history and it killed a lot of the people. Transportation- Domesticated animals provided a means of travel across long distances that did not require traveling by foot. It made transfer of surplus goods across long distances easier and more convenient. Big domestic mammals further revolutionized human society by becoming our main means of land transport until the development of railroads in the 19th century Sedentary- People of many hunter gatherer societies move frequently in search of wild foods, but farmers must remain near their fields and orchards. The resulting fixed abode contributes to dense human populations by permitting a shorter birth interval. A hunter-gatherer woman who is shifting camp can only carry one child and a few possession, she cannot afford to bear her next hid until the previous toddler can walk fast enough to keep up with the ever-moving tribe Nomadic hunter-gatherers space their children about four years apart by means of lactational amenorrhea, abstinence, infanticide, and abortion. By contrast, sedentary people, unconstrained by problems of carrying young children on treks, can bear and raise as many children as they can feed. The birth interval for farm people was around 2 years. Fertilizers- Fertilizer allowed agriculture, which enabled population growth and it also allowed people to settle down. As the population increased, empires were formed. Fertilizer contributed to society by enabling a larger annual crop yield, which, in turn, enabled large surpluses readily available to boost the population Priesthood- Stored food can also feed priests, who provide religious justification for wars of conquest. Bureaucracy- Hunter-gatherer societies tend to be relatively egalitarian, to lack-full time bureaucrats and hereditary chiefs, and to have small-scale political organization at the level of the band or tribe. That's because all able-bodied hunter-gatherers are obliged to devote much of their time to acquiring food. In contrast, once food can be stockpiled/stored, a political elite can gain control of food production, assert the right of taxation, escape the need to feed only itself, and engage in full-time political activities. Hence moderate-sized agricultural societies are often organizer in chiefdoms, and kingdoms are confined to large agricultural societies. Those complex political units are much better able to mount a sustained war of conquest than would an egalitarian band of hunters. Kingship- Kingships were sustained by stockpiled food. Moderate sized agricultural societies are often organized in chiefdoms and kingdoms are confined to large agricultural societies because of this. Military Force- A stored food surplus can feed a professional army. That was the major decisive factor in the british empire's defeat of the new zealand's indigenous maori tribe population. Which the maori achieved some stunning temporary victories,they could not maintain an army constantly in the field and were in the end worn down by 18,000 fulltime british troops.

Why is the 'Oracle Room' an acoustic marvel? Explain.

The 'Oracle Room' is an acoustic marvel because according to Glenn Kreisberg "[The Hypogeum] appears to have been intentionally carved into the form of a wave guide". When one speaks in the Hypogeum their voice echoes and stays in the air for around 8 seconds.

What conclusion about Catalhoyuk Is evident in the following quote? "In effect, the roofs of the town created a new land surface, probably, we argue, a replication of the cosmological level on which people lived their daily lives. ... descent, limited light and the need to crawl through small openings between chambers are akin to the experience of moving through limestone caves. ... The cosmos and its animals were embedded in the house."

The Shamans of Altamira of Lascaux used their caves' natural shapes to create three-dimensional spirit bison or horses, focal points in altars, and replicating the limestone cave experience by recreating the structure of these caves in their own man-made, artificial homes. The people of Catalhoyuk believed that designing their houses in such a way that replicates the experience of living in caves in itself is a form of cosmic maintenance.

What does the anthropologist Maurice Bloc think of the use of powerful animals on the walls?

The anthropologist Maurice Bloc noted that many of the images are violent and favor powerful animals; or birds that symbolize transmigration. It's as if the transition to a new stage or state was experienced as violent but necessary; it suggests that through death and rebirth, it was possible to see oneself and others as part of something permanent and life-transcending,

Axis Mundi

The axis mundi, in certain beliefs and philosophies, is the world center, or the connection between Heaven and Earth.

What is contained in the ceremonial hall?

The ceremonial hall lead to a room called the Holy of Holies that overlooks the spot where around 7000 bodies were buried

What meaning does the term "cosmic maintenance" have in relation to Neolithic humans' relationship to nature?

The collaboration from the unknown worlds to ensure and improve survival in the known world becomes the new way to understand and think about solutions to problems of survival. It awwma that for the first time we began to think of ourselves as separate from the natural world which in sometimes in opposition to us and which we need to control, because we are the only ones with the power and the capability to do so. The neolithic shamanism no longer had to rely on the natural topography of each cave, but designed and built their own structures, repeating the cave experience. In doing so they gained greater control over the cosmos and were able to 'adjust' beliefs about it in order to suit social and personal needs.

Cosmic Maintenance

The collaboration from the unknown worlds to ensure and improve survival in the known world; to ensure through magic, ritual, and sacrifice, the collaboration of the spirit world and of their newly conceived gods of nature: sun, wind, rain and soil, they needed the help of the gods to maintain this new world of comparative plenty;performing rituals to allow the world to stay in motion.

Specialization

The creation of jobs not directly related to the production of food.

Agriculture

The domestication of animals and farming

What comprises "agriculture"? What is its main benefit?

The growing of crops and the domestication of animals are called agriculture. The main benefit of agriculture is that people had control over their food supply.

Describe what it is like to be inside the Hypogeum? What are its honeycomb and spiral/swirl patterns reminiscent of?

The hypogeum is said to replicate the feeling of being inside a womb. The honeycomb patterns is reminiscent of the tiered cosmos.

How did the idea of the spirits change? What role did ancestors now play in the tiered cosmos?

The idea of a spirit changed because spirits morphed into gods and took on human-like features. These gods as well were seen as something to worship and not negotiate with. The ancestors were liminal and the connection between humans and the gods.

What purpose did the idea of the tiered cosmos serve 5,000 years after Gobekli Tepe and 3,000 years after Catalhoyuk demise?

The idea of a tiered cosmos served 5,000 years after Gobekli Tepe and 3,000 years after Catalhoyuk demise, because it let humans communicate with spirits/gods. A tiered cosmo also shows the humans how to keep balance through cosmic maintenance.

Where did the people who founded Catalhoyuk come from?

The limestone caves in the Taurus Mountains of southern Turkey were thought to have been the initial homes of a hunter-gatherer society who, once the weather improved, moved about two day's journey away. There they built a neolithic settlement known sd Çatalhöyük.

What major shift in economic system marks the end of the Paleolithic Age and the beginning of the Neolithic?

The neolithic age began when people started to farm and produce their own food.

What new role emerged from shamanism?

The new role that emerged from shamanism was priesthood. Humans thought that the gods controlled all natural events and kept the balance of the universe. They thought that for the gods to keep the balance they had to be pleased through sacrifice. Priests had the responsibility of worshipping the gods and conducting these sacrifices. Worshipping the gods became a full time job. The priests also held more power in the community because they chose the judge and controlled the food distribution.

How long did the Old Stone Age last? How about the New Stone Age?

The old stone age, or paleolithic age, began about 2 million years ago with the first toolmaking hominids and lasted until about 8000 BCE. The new stone age, or neolithic age, began when people started to farm and produce their own food. It began around 8000 BCE and lasted until about 3000 BCE

Biomass

The total amount/weight of organisms in a given area. As societies become sedentary, eventually creating empires, he amount of biomass readily available for human consumption increased exponentially. More and more people could settle in one area because the land could sustain enough crops to feed more people than ever before.

How was the trance state transformed?

The trance state was incorporated into the architecture of several building in Neolithic times such as the Hypogeum.

List three changes that settling brought to human societies.

There was no need for dangerous or lethal hunting, where hunters were often injured or killed Settling enabled people to form larger communities, which made it possible for people to organize themselves more efficiently With many of their basic needs now met, people had more time and energy for other activities

What is a pilgrimage? What evidence exists that pilgrimages took place?

These buildings would have been visible from a very long distance away yet there is no sign of habitation, so it seems certain that this was a meeting place used for religious and ceremonial purposes only. it seems likely that once pilgrims reached Göbekli Tepe they made animal sacrifices. More recently, freestanding sculptures of animals have been found within the circles.

Appeasement

To please or satisfy the gods and spirits through magic, ritual and sacrifice.

Foraging

To search for resources like food growing naturally in the environment; The change from nomadic foraging to foraging in settlements.

(X) Astronomical observatory

Toms & Hawkins (1964; 1971) Stonehenge predicts lunar and solar eclipses - wrong b/c they saw the solstice sun setting on the grooved processional avenue of river avon, were like holy shiitake mushrooms the sun sets here and commemorated the event of the sunrise and sunset on the winter solstice by building stonehenge as a memorial to the sun.

What three possible uses could domesticating animals have?

Travel by animal made trade more efficient Their skins, meat and milk Their ability to carry heavy loads and pull plows

Bluestonehenge

Walk along the river, deposit the ashes of the ancestors in the river Avon, and be accompanied by the spirits along the processional walk up to stonehenge, where a sacrifice would be made just as the sun set between the two sarsens.

What is a henge?

a prehistoric monument consisting of a circle of stone or wooden uprights.

What is the Hypogeum? According to archaeologists, how was it constructed?

the Hypogeum is a 3-story underground necropolis and temple. It was built by carving away limestone bedrock.

Equinox

the time or date (twice each year) at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when day and night are of equal length (about September 22 and March 20).

Iconography

the visual images, symbols, or modes of representation collectively associated with a person, cult, or movement; a depiction of a holy figure;the prhghghgactice of depicting a holy figure, likely with the purpose of worship.

Where? When? Who? _____ was stonehenge built _____ built stonehenge

who? neolithic cheifdoms where? salisbury plain, england (UK), river avon when? near the end of the neolithic age