Neuro Chapter 9: Sleep and Biological Rythms
We spend about ________ of our lives in sleep
1/3
Stage 2 of sleep generally occurs _______ minutes after stage 1
10
As adults, what percentage of our sleep is REM?
15%
circadian rhythms are how long of cycles or periods
24 hour
sleep terrors occur in stages ____________ vs nightmares which occur mainly in _________ sleep
3 or 4 REM
It is difficult to rouse from the SWS which occurs in stage ____ of sleep.
4
At what age do humans experience the greatest amount of REM sleep?
40 weeks
The basic sleep cycle is around ____________________
90 minutes
Neurotransmitters involved in arousal are ______________, _____________, ____________, _____________, _______________
Acetylcholine Norepinephrine Serotonin Histamine Hypocretin (orexin)
When neurons run out of glucose when they are very active they look to ________________. These provide additional glucose by mobilizing __________________ from storage
Astrocytes Glycogen
Summated brain wave activity is measured through an _______
EEG
Eye movements are shown through an ________
EOG
activity of vlPOA neurons is measured by levels of what
Fos protein
People with what allele for sleep break down adenosine more slowly and as a result, spend more time in SWS than those with the G/G allele.
G/A
The REM-ON and REM-OFF regions are interconnected by means of inhibitory what
GABAergic neurons
the major sleep promoting region and major wakefulness promoting regions are connected by
GABAergic neurons
ACh is released in its highest amounts from the __________________ during the REM stage of the sleep wake cycle
Hippocampus
this is a temporary phenomenon where after several days people who have crossed several time zones find it easier to fall asleep at the appropriate time and their daytime alertness improves
Jet lag
sudden and sharp spikes in waves cause
K complexes
many believe that the what increase an animals ability to pay attention to stimuli in the environment
LC neurons
The SCN projects to this which connects with the pineal gland which secretes melatonin
PVN
SLD cells fire at a high rate during what
REM
during ________ sleep there are signs of sexual arousal
REM
a neurobiological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out their dreams
REM sleep behavior disorder
Once we fall asleep, the activity of orexinergic neurons stops, removing one source of excitatory input to the what region of the REM flip-flop
REM-OFF
Persons awakened from ____________ appear groggy and confused
SWS
____________ precedes REM sleep
SWS
during ___________ of the sleep-wake cycle, ACh is released in it lowest amounts from the cortex and hippocampus
SWS
prolonged bed rest show no real changes in ____________
SWS
Loss of ____________ or ______________ sleep is made up somewhat on following nights
SWS REM
a disorder in which the person leaves his or her bed and seeks out and eats food while sleepwalking, usually without memory for the episode the next day- problem with SWS
Sleep-related eating disorder
_______________ is thought of as the transition between sleep and wakefulness.
Stage 1
______________ effected by REM sleep effects alertness to the environment
Vigilance
REM sleep may effect ________________, __________________, and _____________________.
Vigilance Consolidation Facilitation of brain development
the basal forebrain and pontine regions contain
acetylcholinergic neurons
a neuromodulator that is released by neurons engaging in high levels of metabolic activity; may play a primary role in the initiation of sleep
adenosine
The process of astrocytes mobilizing glycogen from storage to provide additional glucose to the neurons produces ____________________ which is an _________________ neuromodulator
adenosine inhibitory
A fall in the level of glycogen due to prolonged wakefulness causes an increase in the level of extracellular
adeonsine
a 4-hour advance in rhythms of sleep and temperature cycles, apparently caused by a mutation of a gene (per2) involved in the rhythmicity of neurons of the SCN
advanced sleep phase syndrome
SCN lesions in male hamsters cause them to secrete testosterone when?
all year long
The conscious attempt to control our sleep is what in nature; a term that refers to reactions to stressful events in the environment that serve to override homeostatic control?
allostatic
firing rate of LC neurons was high during wakefulness, low during SWS, and what during REM
almost zero
8-12Hz waves produces ____________ activity
alpha
_________________ is smooth electrical activty of 8-12 Hz recorded from the brain; generally associated with a state of relaxation
alpha activty
When a person is awake, an EEG typically shows what two basic patterns of activity?
alpha and beta
during non-rem sleep, ________, ___________ and ___________ activity are present in the EEG record
alpha, delta, theta
In an EEG, when eyes are closed, ___________ activity appears, and this presents _______________ which shows high amplitude, and low frequency waveforms.
alpha; synchrony
these cells in the retina send output to the SCN. this pathway may account for the ability of light to reset the biological clock which is known as what function.
amacrine/ganglion zeitgeber
With the loss of orexinergic neurons in narcolepsy, emotional episodes such as laughter or anger, which activate the _____________, tip the REM flip-flop into the ON state, and the result is an attack of ________________.
amygdala cataplexy
when the flip-flop is in the wake state, what is active
arousal systems
During the _________________ phase of slow oscillation of a single cells activity shown in an EEG, the neurons fire.
ascending
sleep is a _______________
behavior
13-30 Hz waves produces _________ activity
beta
During REM sleep, there is presence of ______ activity
beta
In an EEG, wakefulness is shown through ________ activity. This presents ______________ which is low amplitude, high frequency waveforms.
beta; desynchrony
the SCN contains a _________________ that governs some circadian rhythms
biological clock
It is unlikely that sleep is controlled by ______________________ in the general circulation since conjoined twins share the the same circulatory system but sleep independently
blood-borne chemicals
REM may help to facilitate ______________________ as infants spend more time in REM sleep.
brain development
electrical stimulation of the _______________ induces arousal. Electrical stimulation uses ___________________.
brain stem radio frequencies (RF)
complete paralysis that occurs during waking
cataplexy
The axons of the histaminergic neurons project primarily to where
cerebral cortex thalamus basal ganglia basal forebrain
SCN cells exhibit _____________ rhythms in activity
circadian
time of day factors that tend to restrict our period of sleep to a particular portion of the day/night cycle
circadian
a daily rhythmical change in behavior or physiological process
circadian rhythm
SCN cells may not require direct neural connections to control _________________, but may do so using a chemical signal
circadian rhythms
lesions of the SCN disrupt what
circadian rhythms
Human sleep deprivation studies indicate that sleep deprivation can impair _______________________.
cognitive function
during non-rem sleep, dreams are ____________ and __________________
cold and rational
The nature of _______________ is changed during sleep
consciousness
ACh is released in its highest amounts from the ________________ during the active waking stage of the sleep-wake cycle
cortex
SWS sleep facilitates consolidation of what kind of memories
declarative
a 4-hour delay in rhythms of sleep and temperature cycles, apparently caused by a mutation of a gene (per3) involved in the rhythmicity of neurons in the SCN
delayed sleep phase syndrome
less than 3.5 Hz produces ____________ activity
delta
stage 4 of sleep contains ______________ activity
delta
the end of stage 3 of sleep contains _______________ activity
delta
accumulation of adenosine increases __________________
delta waves
_________________ waves appear as small, chaotic wave forms without a clear pattern in EEG data
desynchronized
during the day cycle, this inhibits the vlPOA and excites the brain stem and forebrain arousal systems
dorsomedial hypothalamus
the DMH is known as the
dorsomedial hypthalamus
we experience some __________ during sleep
dreaming
mental activity continues during sleep and is shown because _________ occur during SWS and REM sleep
dreams
__________________ instruments can be used in the sleep laboratory to assess the physiological changes that occur during an episode of sleep
electrophysiological
In a sleep laboratory, the sleeper will be prepared for _________________________ measurements by attaching electrodes to the scalp to monitor the brains activity with an ______________________ and to the face to monitor muscle activity with an ___________________.
electrophysiological; electroencephalogram; electromyogram
The rate of cerebral blood flow during REM is high in the
extra striate cortex
____________ movements are some of the very few movements that occur during sleep
eye
an electro-oculogram monitors____________________.
eye movements
hypnic jerks are often experienced along with a _____________ sensation
falling
inherited neurological disorder that results in damage to portions of the thalamus causing deficits in attention and memory, followed by dreamlike, confused state; loss of control of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system; increased body temperature; and insomnia. progressive insomnia
fatal familial insomnia
reciprocal inhibition of the vlPOA and the arousal system regions characterizes an electronic circuit known as what
flip-flop
Blood flow to the ______________ occurs in sleep
genitals
Neurons use ______________ as their source of fuel
glucose
SCN _____________ metabolism is higher during the day than the night
glucose
prolonged wakefulness causes a decrease in the level of what in the brain?
glycogen
In humans, narcolepsy appears to be caused by what
hereditary autoimmune disorder
Orexin and what follow the same pattern during various stages of sleeping and waking
histamine
the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus contains
histaminergic neurons
The control of sleep is what in nature, and follows the principles that regulate our eating and drinking?
homeostatic
During the descending phase of slow oscillation of a single cells activity shown in an EEG, the neurons are ___________________ and do not fire.
hyperpolarized
vivid dreams that occur just before a person falls asleep; accompanied by sleep paralysis
hypnagogic hallucination
___________________ are experienced in stage 1, and are characterized as muscle contractions followed by relaxation
hypnic jerks
the raphe nuclei are located where
in the medullary and pontine regions of the RF (reticular formation)
Exercise resulting in a temperature increase results in an _______________ of SWS
increase
ACh agonists _______________ arousal, ACh antagonists _______________ arousal
increase decrease
activity of vlPOA neurons does what during sleep
increases
damage to the REM-ON region removes the motor inhibition of REM and what happens
individual physically acts out their dreams
In the flip-flop circuit, either the sleep neurons are active and inhibit wakefulness or the wakefulness neurons are active and do what to the sleep neurons
inhibit
adenosine is what
inhibitory neuromodulator
difficulty falling asleep after going to bed or after awakening during the night
insomnia
This part of the LGN sends output the the SCN. this pathway may mediate the ability of other environmental stimuli to reset circadian rhythms
inter-geniculate leaflet
An EEG in stage 2 is typically _________________ but contains periods of theta activity as well as ________________ and ________________.
irregular sleep spindles K complexes
The ventral pathway of neural regulation of arousal is RF to ___________________________ , ___________________ , and ______________________
lateral hypothalamus, basal ganglia, the forebrain
The Consolidation of what is effected by REM sleep
learning and memory
What type of respiration happens during non-REM sleep?
light and even
a dark colored group of noradrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the fourth ventricle; involved in arousal and vigilance
locus coeruleus
an awareness that they are dreaming and are not awake
lucid dreaming
The signs of REM occur in all ______________
mammals
The dorsal pathway of the neural regulation of arousal is RF to ___________________ to ____________________.
medial thalamus cortex
a photopigment present in ganglion cells in the retina whose axons transmit information to the SCN, the thalamus, and the olivary pre-tectal nuclei
melanopsin
a hormone secreted during the night by the pineal body in circadian and seasonal rhythms
melatonin
during ling nights, the pineal gland secretes high amounts of this
melatonin
SWS may reflect restoration as shown that _________________ increases SWS
mental activity
Sleep attacks can be diminished by stimulants such as _________________ which is a catecholamine _____________.
methylphenidate (ritalin) agonist
a drug that suppresses the drowsiness associated with narcolepsy by stimulating the release of orexin in the TMN which activates the histaminergic neurons located there
modafinil
narcolepsy is most often treated with what
modafinil
the insistent urge of sleepiness is a _________________ that forces us to seek out a quiet warm and comfortable place to lie down and remain there fir several hours which is a ________________
motivation behavior
tossing and turning happens in non-REM sleep due to presence of ______________________
muscle control
The signs of REM include ________________, ________________, and__________________
muscle paralysis; EEG desynchrony; eye movements
_______________ is measured through an EMG
muscle tone
during REM sleep, there is a loss of ________________ also known as paralysis
muscle tone
a sleep disorder characterized by periods of irresistible sleep, attacks of cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations
narcolepsy
loss of orexin neurons or receptors causes what
narcolepsy
Like narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder appears to be what type of disorder
neurodegenerative
allostatic control is mediated primarily by hormonal and neural responses to stressful situations and by _________________ such as orexin that are involved in hunger and thirst
neuropeptides
in the SCN there are less than 10,000 neurons, dendrites synapse with each other and neurons are clustered around capillaries and may be what type of cells
neurosecretory cells
________________ can occur during stage 4 of SWS
nightmares
REM sleep facilitates consolidation of what kind of memories
nondeclarative
as sleep progresses, the activity of what two neurons gradually decreases. as these two decrease, the REM-OFF region loses excitatory input, and REM flip flops to REM-ON
noradrenergic, serotonergic
the locus coeruleus contains
noragrenergic neurons
The flip flop states are referred to as
on or off
a peptide, also known as hypocretin, produced by neurons whose cell bodies are located in the hypothalamus; their destruction causes narcolepsy
orexin
daytime sleepiness and fragmented sleep occur in narcoleptics because without the influence of ____________, the sleep waking flip-flop becomes unstable as the secretion of this in the REM-OFF region normally keeps the REM flip-flop in the off state
orexin
the destruction of a peptide, also known as hypocretin, produced by neurons whose cell bdoies are located in the hypothalamus, causes narcolepsy
orexin
motivation to remain awake or events that disturb sleep activate what neurons
orexinergic
______________________ and ____________________ as well as impaired ability to concentrate have been reported during sleep deprovation
perceptual distortions hallucinations
Sleep deprivation does not result in __________________ stress response nor does it interfere with normal bodily function
physiological
a gland attached to the dorsal tectum; produces melatonin and plays a role in circadian and seasonal rhythms
pineal gland
this interacts with the SCN to control seasonal rhythms
pineal gland
Activation of ACh neurons, in the ___________ and _________________, produces behavioral activation and _________________________.
pons, basal forebrain cortical desynchrony
adenosine may be a sleep ________________ agent in the brain
promoting
a group of nuclei located in the reticular formation of the medulla, pons, midbrain, situated along the midline; contain serotonergic neurons
raphe nuclei
almost all of the brains serotonergic neurons are found where
raphe nuclei
The increased frequency or intensity of a phenomenon after it has been temporarily suppressed; for example, the increase in REM sleep seen after a period of REM sleep deprivation
rebound phenomenon
Brain activity is ___________ during SWS giving evidence for brain restoration and repair during sleep
reduced
during rem sleep, ______________ and _______________ are enhanced
respiration blood pressure
Animal studies indicate drastic health consequences of sleep deprivation. rats that were forced to walk on _______________________ lose sleep. Sleep deprived rats exhibited increased ____________ and ______________ and eventually became ill and died.
rotating platform; eating and activity
REM eye movements resemble those made when a person ___________ a visual image
scans
lesions of the SCN, PVN, or of the connection between the two disrupts this
seasonal rhythms controlled by day length
cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations can be treated with antidepressant drugs which facilitate what activity?
serotonergic and noradrenergic
the raphe nuclei contains
serotonergic neurons
_____________ is a behavior and an altered state of consciousness
sleep
cessation of breathing while sleeping
sleep apnea
an irresistible urge to sleep during the day, after which the person awakens feeling refreshed
sleep attack
paralysis ocurring just before a person falls asleep
sleep paralysis
Stage 2 of sleep contains ______________ and _______________ in the wave forms
sleep spindle K complexes
12-14 Hz bursts produce
sleep spindles
short bursts of waves of 12-14 Hz occurring 2-5 times per minute during stages _____-______ of sleep.
sleep spindles
stages 3 and 4 of sleep are termed ___________________ sleep.
slow wave (SWS)
Exercise and forced bed rest have a _____________ effect on sleep
small
sleep spindles play a role in keeping individuals asleep especially in response to stimuli such as _______________ and __________________________
sounds (unexpected) consolidation of memories.
The rate of cerebral blood flow during REM is low in the
striate cortex and prefrontal cortex
a region of the dorsal pons, just ventral to the locus coeruleus, that forms the REM-ON portion of the REM sleep flip-flop
sublaterodorsal nucleus
REM-ON neurons are found in a region of the dorsal pons called the
sublaterodorsal nucleus (SLD)
EEG electrodes record from many neurons all at once, reporting on the _________________________________.
sum of their electrical activity
damage to the vlPOA neurons does what to sleep
suppresses
a nucleus situated atop the optic chiasm. it contains a biological clock responsible for organizing many of the body's circadian rhythms
suprachiasmatic nucleus
The SPZ is known as the
supraventricular zone
Each SCN cell appears to have its own clock, yet SCN clock cells act in a __________________ fashion
synchronized
Stages 3 and 4 of sleep contain_________________ delta activity.
synchronized
________________ waves appear as large, clear waves in EEG data
synchronized
The SCN plays a role in governing seasonal rhythms. _______________ secretion in male hamsters shows an annual rhythm with increased secretion as length of day increases.
testosterone
3.5-7.5 Hz waves produces ___________ activity
theta
stage 1 of sleep is when ____________ activity occurs
theta
REM sleep contains first ______________ then ________________ in the wave form
theta activity beta activity
application of a weak current to the scalp of participants to activate the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
trans cranial direct stimulation
a nucleus in the ventral posterior hypothalamus, just rostral to the mammillary bodies; contains histaminergic neurons involved in cortical activation and behavioral arousal
tuberomammillary nucleus
the cell bodies of the histaminergic neurons are located in the
tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN)
In bottle nose dolphins, the _________________ sleep independently
two hemispheres
sleep is associated with ________________________ for several hours in a quiet environment
urge to lie down
A region of the dorsal midbrain that forms the REM-OFF portion of the REM sleep flip-flop.
ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter
REM-OFF neurons are found in a region of the what
ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter
a group of GABA-ergic neurons in the pre-optic area whose activity suppresses alertness and behavioral arousal and promotes sleep.
ventrolateral pre-optic area
Sleep is noted in all ________________
vertebrates
We may recall ______________ of the mental activity that occurred during sleep
very little
REM sleep is accompanied by high levels of blood flow in the _________________________ but low levels in the ________________________
visual association cortex inferior frontal cortex
`During rem sleep dreams are ___________ and _______________
vivid and emotional
when the flip-flop is in the sleep state what is active
vlPOA
a stimulus (usually the light of dawn) that resets the biological clock responsible for circadian rhythms
zeitgebers
