not psy fl 3
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Drive reduction theory holds that all behavioral motivation can be attributed to satisfying a biological need. The four underlying principles of drive reduction theory are:
1) the actor's drive is essential for a response to occur 2) the actor must perceive both the stimulus and response for conditioning to occur 3) the actual response must take place in order for conditioning to occur 4) conditioning will occur if the reinforcement satisfied a need
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
1-3 years -children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence
medulla oblongata function
primarily involved with controlling autonomic functions and coordinating body movements
parallel processing
process of blending different clues to determine what something is
generalization
process of taking a rule in a given situation and applying it more broadly
retrieval cues
recalling memory
front stage self
refers to interactions with society, in which an individual knows his/her behaviors will be openly judged
appraisal
refers to stress stimulus
Passage 2 (Questions 6 - 9) Charles Darwin postulated that there are six universal emotions evolutionarily programmed within the human race that are detectable across cultures. There has been debate over whether the ability to express and recognize emotion is an innate or learned ability. To answer this question, researchers developed an experiment to study emotional communication in children.
The types of emotions expressed using facial expressions, their frequency, and the ability of children to accurately detect these emotions was measured. 180 children were chosen to participate in the study. Sixty children from each of the following demographic groups were picked: 3rd generation or higher Americans, 1st generation Asian-Americans, and 1st generation African-Americans. Within each demographic subset, the children were split into three age groups, with half from each group being congenitally blind, and half being sighted. Video cameras were placed in common areas to record the behavior of the children, both in their own homes and at school or daycare. Each child was recorded for 3 hours in a private and public setting each. Scientists with expertise in detecting human emotion via microexpressions viewed the videos and categorized each emotional display, counted frequency, and added an audible beep to the video when the emotion was expressed. The results showed that both blind and sighted children produced the same six universal emotions at similar frequencies. Table 1 shows the frequency of emotion in the different groups in public and private settings. Table 1. The frequency of emotions averaged within age groups of each demographic The sighted study subjects were then asked to participate in the second phase of the experiment. They viewed videos of a randomly selected subset of other subjects, both sighted and blind. They were then asked to label the emotion being expressed in the cult video. The accuracy of responses, in comparison to the analysis of the experts, is recorded in Table 2. fig 2 = accuracy at which subject detect emotion
observational learning
"how-to" process of learning
Identity vs. role confusion
12-18 years -teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity
Intimacy vs. isolation
19-40 years -young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people
Initiative vs. guilt
3-5 years -children need to begin asserting control and power over their environment
Generativity vs. stagnation
40-65 years -adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often with children or creating positive change that benefits other people
Industry vs. inferiority
6-11 years -children need to cope with new social and academic demands
Ego integrity vs. despair
65+ years -older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment
Prior research has shown that whether an individual belongs to an individualist or collectivist society affects how they explain their own and other people's behaviors. Which theory best accounts for these findings? A) Attribution Theory B) Egocentrism C) Ethnocentrism D) Self-concept and identity
A) Attribution Theory Attribution theory describes the way a person uses information to develop causal explanations. (A) would account for how people explain their own and others' behaviors with culture being one aspect of the process.
Further research has shown that individuals with psychopathic personality traits are overly concerned with details and have more trouble with big-picture concepts. What method of perception might these individuals primarily use? A) Bottom-up processing B) Top-down processing C) Gestalt principles D) Somatosensation
A) Bottom-up processing When using bottom-up processing, individuals start with the details and then create the bigger picture. Thus individuals overly concerned with details would primarily use bottom-up processing.
Which of the following parts of the central nervous system is responsible for voluntary movement? A) Cerebrum B) Cerebellum C) Medulla D) Pons
A) Cerebrum The cerebrum is responsible for integration of sensory input, conscious thought, and all voluntary actions.
A sociologist is interested in whether an individual's education levels affects their perception of a teacher who identifies as homosexual. Which of the following is the best study modification to test this theory? A) Expanding the study to include individuals in the surrounding community B) Extending the study longitudinally, so students are tested throughout college C) Using the university's alumni connections to recruit a greater variety of participants D) Compensating participants with a cash reward to incentivize more participants
A) Expanding the study to include individuals in the surrounding community By recruiting individuals from the community, the researcher would have the opportunity to collect data from participants of varying education levels (less than high school, high school, some college, college, professional degree, etc.)
Which of the following would be an effective policy for improving the upward mobility of women in male-dominated fields? A) Increased mandatory gender quotas in upper level positions for fields historically male-dominated B) Increasing women's wages by 5-10% in fields that have been historically male-dominated. C) Volunteer programs that expose women and encourage them to enter male-dominated fields. D) An increased awareness of sexual harassment in the workplace and harsher penalties for violations.
A) Increased mandatory gender quotas in upper level positions for fields historically male-dominated Any policy that would enhance the status of women within the field by allowing them access to positions with greater power/status would enhance their social mobility. (A) mandates increased gender quotas for upper level positions, which would theoretically ensure women are in higher positions within the field.
Which of the following processes best explains why a higher score on the Teaching and Interaction dimension would have a positive impact on a child's expressive vocabulary? A) Modeling B) Top-down processing C) Attachment D) Generalization
A) Modeling The TI dimension in the study assessed children and teachers' interactions. The interactions can help improve children's scores on the cognitive assessment in a number of ways, including encouraging the children to learn and providing opportunities for learning. During interactions, teachers are demonstrating language and new vocabulary, and children learn through observing and interacting.
A non-profit organization is hoping to increase their number of volunteers for events. A psychologist suggests using a technique that follows the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. Which of the following would the psychologist be most likely to suggest? A) People are asked initially to volunteer to complete a small task and then approached later on about volunteering a greater number of hours for events B) People who are already volunteers are encouraged to ask their friends and families to participate in upcoming events and raise awareness C) Creating a better marketing plan where the non-profit organization partners with a well-liked business within the community. D) Creating a token-economy system within the organization, where volunteers get points for each volunteer activity and can redeem the points for prizes
A) People are asked initially to volunteer to complete a small task and then approached later on about volunteering a greater number of hours for events The foot-in-the-door phenomenon refers to people's tendency to be more likely to comply with larger requests after first agreeing to complete a smaller request.
How might game theory be applied to explain behavior that appears altruistic in nature? A) People will only help others if they can rationalize a benefit from helping. B) We help others who we perceive to be on the same "team" as us C) We help others only after knowing we have a decisive advantage to win. D) Helping others confers us a biological advantage as it labels us as "heroic" and thus superior.
A) People will only help others if they can rationalize a benefit from helping. Game theory would explain acts of altruism by arguing that people were helping others because it did serve some self-interest.
A child with brain damage was told a disheartening story, threatened by another child, and subjected to a loud noise; he exhibited no emotional displays. The child was able to express positive emotion in appropriate scenarios. Which area of the brain was likely damaged? A) Prefrontal cortex B) Cerebellum C) Pons D) Medulla oblongata
A) Prefrontal cortex The right hemisphere, and specifically the right prefrontal cortex deals with processing and displaying negative emotions. Because the child produced no emotional response to scenarios in which a negative response is expected, it can be inferred that damage was to this hemisphere.
A person who regularly cooks Brussels sprouts sees them being prepared and immediately senses the sulfur smell even though it is not present. The erroneous sensation is most likely the result of: A) classical conditioning B) operant conditioning C) parallel processing D) observational learning
A) classical conditioning A stimulus causing a secondary stimulus response fits with classical conditioning. The subject is used to smelling sulfur when cooking Brussels sprouts, and thus reacts as though he or she smells it just based on the visual stimulus.
According to Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, at the time they were entering the study (2 years old), all of the children were most likely would have been able to: A) understand object permanence B) partake in extensive pretend play C) understand conservation D) display theory of mind
A) understand object permanence According to Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, two year-olds would have been transitioning from the first stage, sensorimotor, to the second stage, preoperational. In the first stage, children explore and manipulate objects, use intentional behavior and learn about object permanence.
peer pressure
refers to the act of an individual's attitudes and values being highly influenced by the peer group surrounding them
attachment
refers to the emotional bond that develops between a child and the caregiver
inclusive fitness theory
refers to the idea that an organism improves its own genetic success through altruistic social behavior
egocentrism
refers to the inability to take the perspective of another person
assimilation
refers to the loss of the cultural identity of a minority group when living within a larger, more dominant culture
back stage self
refers to the private areas of our lives, where we do not have to "act" but rather can be our true selves
self-concept and identity
refers to the way an individual views him or herself
Which of the following is an example of an individual using cultural capital to enhance their upward mobility? A) A 25 year-old male who uses his inheritance to fund his political career B) A 29 year-old female who uses a business degree to further her career C) A 37 year-old actress who uses her disadvantaged background as motivation to excel in her career D) A 50 year-old male whose wealthy wife funds his start up business
B) A 29 year-old female who uses a business degree to further her career Cultural capital can help a person gain social mobility, where they improve their status/role within a society.
Which one of the following is an example of an individual facing demands from the cultural majority? A) A juvenile who is pressured by his elders to not get a tattoo B) A crossdresser who is pressured to dress in gender "appropriate" attire C) A new mother who is pressured by her co-workers to breastfeed D) A new resident who is pressured by her neighbors to paint her house green
B) A crossdresser who is pressured to dress in gender "appropriate" attire Culture refers to a group of people in a society that share common beliefs, customs, and ways of life. (B) shows that crossdressers being the minority group face pressures to conform to larger societies' views on what is acceptable
How can the two concepts of altruism and inclusive fitness work together to explain and individual's actions? A) The two concepts are wholly distinct, with widely disparate conclusions and therefore cannot be combined. B) Inclusive fitness theory can partially be explained through the concept of altruism C) Altruism provides a biological explanation within which inclusive theory can operate D) Altruism describes the type of people that would be most likely to engage in inclusive fitness behaviors.
B) Inclusive fitness theory can partially be explained through the concept of altruism
A 39-year-old woman is diagnosed with otosclerosis, an ear disorder in which excessive bony growth develops around the stapes. As a result of otosclerosis, the woman has developed a mild to moderate hearing loss. Which part of the woman's ear has been affected? A) Outer B) Middle C) Inner D) Cochlea
B) Middle The ear is composed of three different sections: outer, middle, and inner ear. The middle ear is an air filled cavity that has the ossicle bones (malleus, incus, stapes). The question stated that the woman's stapes bone was affected, therefore, the disorder would be affecting the middle ear.
operant conditioning
related to rewards and punishments
brainstem functions
responsible for controlling the very basic necessities for sustaining life, such as breathing, hunger, and adjusting heart rate
somatosensation
senses in the body outside the five traditional senses such as balance, proprioception and kinesthesia
deindividuation
social phenomenon in which an individual may lose his or her identity in a group setting
bottom-up processing
start with details and then create the bigger picture
social identity theory
states that a person's self-concept is partially determined from their perceived membership in a social group.
If it was found that open communication about sexual orientation by the instructors was effective in making the learning environment less hostile for homosexual students, then which of the following strategies would most likely be effective? A) A written university policy prohibiting students from rating teachers based on their gender, race, or sexual orientation B) Increased university efforts to hire more administrators that identify as being heterosexual C) Student and teacher groups that promote awareness and provide support for individuals that identify as homosexual D) A mandatory school-wide workshop focused on the importance of treating fellow students with respect
C) Student and teacher groups that promote awareness and provide support for individuals that identify as homosexual If it was found that teachers sharing their own sexual orientation created a more tolerant and open environment, any other policy that promoted awareness and tolerance would likely have the same effect. (C) describes a situation that would encourage not only support, but increase awareness about homosexuality.
Which of the following would best explain the adaptive origins of someone being averse to ingesting Brussels sprouts as a result of their sulfur odor? A) Vegetables have been cooked for a relatively short period within human existence. B) Other plants that release sulfur odors, such as garlic, are consumed far more sparingly than Brussels sprouts C) A sulfurous odor was indicative of a harmful compound present in a prevalent potential food source D) Vegetables that do not release sulfur odors usually do not contain harmful compounds
C) A sulfurous odor was indicative of a harmful compound present in a prevalent potential food source The correct answer would present a clear reason as to why someone would be averse to eating Brussels sprouts based on an adaptive reaction. (C) suggests that chemoreceptors responsible for detecting sulfur would have protected those who were presented with harmful food by indicating danger.
Which of the following best explains how social identity may work in the coercive actions framework? A) If an individual is surrounded by aggressive acts, he too will engage in similar behavior. B) If an individual is labeled as aggressive by society, he will engage in the behavior expected. C) An individual may use aggression to help defend or assert his membership in a social group D) An individual may use aggression if they want to distance themselves from a label or social group.
C) An individual may use aggression to help defend or assert his membership in a social group
A 5 year old participant is told by a researcher that she will receive a candy bar if she is able to correctly identify 90% of the emotional cues. What tactic is employed by the researcher? A) Classical conditioning B) Intrinsic motivation C) Extrinsic motivation D) Operant conditioning
C) Extrinsic motivation The 5 year old is enticed by the candy bar. This is an example of extrinsic motivation, or external reward.
According to Erikson's theory of identity development, normally developing children testing at the end of the study (4 years old) would have most likely been in which of the following stages? A) Industry and inferiority, when they develop a sense of accomplishment B) Trust versus mistrust, in which they are learning to trust their caretaker C) Initiative and guilt, when they begin to develop peer relationships D) Autonomy and doubt, when they begin to question caretaker motives
C) Initiative and guilt, when they begin to develop peer relationships According to Erikson, children ages three to five would then be in the third stage, the initative versus guilt stage, when they begin to develop peer relationships and language to communicate.
When researchers altered the topic of the lecture, they found an interesting gender effect. When the lecture contained scientific or math related material, female respondents' retention scores significantly dropped. Which sociological process may help explain these findings? A) Prejudice B) Self-fulfilling prophecy C) Stereotype threat D) Fundamental attribution error
C) Stereotype threat Stereotype threat is the paradoxical effect where if one is aware of a negative stereotype of their social group, they are more likely to conform to that stereotype. The example in this question is that females are stereotyped to do less well in math than males. Thus, when the subject of the test was switched to math, females suddenly performed worse.
The KOF index is a well-known measure of a country's degree of globalization relative to the other countries of the world. It is measured in three dimensions: economic, social, and political. Which of the following is LEAST likely to be directly relevant to the KOF calculation? A) The number of internet users with access to the worldwide internet network (per 1000 people) B) The sum of arrivals and departures C) The magnitude of CO2 emissions per person D) The number of McDonald's restaurants per capita
C) The magnitude of CO2 emissions per person Globalization is the phenomenon of the exchange of ideas, information, and culture across borders creating a more homogenous "world" culture. (C) is neither a contributor to, nor a measure of, the exchange among countries.
If Machiavellianism were to be categorized under a theory of personality, which of the following theories would provide the best model? A) Psychoanalytic theory B) Conflict theory C) Trait perspective D) Biological perspective
C) Trait perspective The trait perspective believes that individual personality can be broken down into countless stable traits that are ubiquitous across all humans and cultures. Machiavellianism would be considered one of these traits, the tendency of an individual to justify questionable means with the end.
humanistic perspective
states that personality and nature follow a hierarchy of needs in which the most basic needs such as food and water are at the bottom, whereas philosophical needs, such as self-realization are at the pinnacle.
fundamental attribution error
tendency for people to judge individuals based on their personal traits than the environmental factors surrounding the event
Weber's law
tests the threshold at which a stimulus is detected
signal detection theory
tests whether a specific stimulus is detected
10 To investigate whether culture influences communication, a psychologist paired U.S. citizens with either another U.S. citizen or a foreign visitor. Participants were then asked to choose a happy or sad message to convey to their partner through nonverbal communication. Which of the following is the independent variable? A) Country of origin B) Type of message C) Type of nonverbal communication D) Communication partners pairings
D) Communication partners pairings The independent variable in the study refers to the variables being manipulated to see if it has an effect on the result. In this study, the communication pairings are being manipulated to see if it has an effect.
According to the passage, which of the following examples best represents the family socialization process for immigrant families in the United States? A) A boy from Korea is adopted by an American family and grows up bilingual, speaking both Korean and English. B) A girl from Russia moves to the United States to attend college and decides to stay in America after graduating C) A father raised in Venezuela reluctantly abandons his traditional family beliefs so he can raise his son according to American values. D) A mother who moved from China to America selectively emphasizes traditional Chinese values to her daughter that coincide with American values.
D) A mother who moved from China to America selectively emphasizes traditional Chinese values to her daughter that coincide with American values. Immigrant families will face demands from the majority culture, which they will have to reconcile with their beliefs from their origin culture.
Which of the following is an example of parallel processing? A) Two students in a math class learn the material better when presented with visual aids. B) A student consistently approaches problems by first considering the larger context and then examining the smaller details. C) Two students are able to improve the efficiency and quality of their writing by developing a general organizational plan and consistently applying it. D) A student is capable of simultaneously perceiving color, shape, and motion of a steel ball during a physics experiment.
D) A student is capable of simultaneously perceiving color, shape, and motion of a steel ball during a physics experiment. Parallel processing refers to one's ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information about objects in the environment. (D) discusses how an individual is simultaneously processing three separate pieces of visual information about an object.
Which of the following diseases is NOT associated with increased urbanization? A) Diabetes B) Asthma C) Influenza D) Lyme disease
D) Lyme disease Lyme disease is an infectious disease associated with bites from deer ticks. These ticks live in the woods of North America and rarely venture in to urban areas. Thus, this disease is not associated with urbanization. Urbanization is associated with decreased physical labor and a more sedentary lifestyle (diabetes), increased pollution and exposure to polluted areas (asthma), and increased risk for communicable diseases (influenza)
While modern America has enjoyed a decline in prejudicial attitudes, some sociologists argue that surveys do not reflect people's true beliefs. Instead, they argue that Goffman's theory of dramaturgy can be applied to modern racism, arguing that overt racism is unacceptable. How might Goffman's theory explain "modern racism"? A) People may not consciously hold prejudicial beliefs, but subconsciously hold such attitudes. B) People are most likely to lie when confronted by a stranger (or researcher) than when asked by a friend. C) People will only convey their true feelings in situations in which they already have a strong sense of self. D) People are hesitant to share their true feelings in public if they know such beliefs are not acceptable.
D) People are hesitant to share their true feelings in public if they know such beliefs are not acceptable. Since racism is unacceptable in modern society, some sociologists use Goffman's theory to argue that individuals may be managing their self-presentation by denying such beliefs in public, but hold prejudicial beliefs in private.
Individuals with psychopathic personalities have difficulty with which of the following social aspects? A) Deindividuation B) Groupthink C) Assimilation D) Socialization
D) Socialization
After surveying 1,000 people, a sociologist finds a positive correlation between wealth and happiness for individuals living at or below poverty level and a negative relationship for individuals living in households where the family income exceeded $100,000. Based on the results, which of the following is true? A) People who live at or below poverty level are dissatisfied with their lives. B) People who live above poverty level are satisfied with their lives. C) People who live at poverty level report higher satisfaction than people who live below it. D) There is no correlation between wealth and life satisfaction for individuals living above the poverty level.
D) There is no correlation between wealth and life satisfaction for individuals living above the poverty level.
Sensory information for taste is perceived by chemoreceptors in the tongue and projected to the brainstem. Before being routed to the cortex, through which of the following structures must the sensory information for taste pass? A) inferior colliculus B) hippocampus C) hypothalamus D) thalamus
D) thalamus The thalamus is the brain's sensory relay station responsible for sorting sensory stimuli before routing to the target areas in the cortex.
explicit bias
involves an individual knowingly making stereotypes or judgements about a group of people
socialization
life-long process in which individuals learn to behave within the acceptable limits of social norms
top-down processing
look at the bigger picture first and then infer the details
spreading activation
memory storage
heuristics
mental shortcuts
Why do workplace-related mental health issues continue to rise?
Due to the perception of the Monday-Friday work week as inviolable and to slow-moving institutional change, over-burdened individuals have disproportionately little downtime to compensate for rising workplace demands.
In the last 50 years, a growing number of parents have elected to place their children in child-care. While the majority of research has found that child-care services can have a beneficial impact on a child's cognitive and language development, the differences in the quality of care between services has been less studied. Researchers conducted a longitudinal study of Canadian children to examine the associations between the quality of childcare and children's school readiness, receptive and expressive vocabulary, and numeracy knowledge at age 4.
Families with children two years old that attended child-care on a regular basis (at least 10 hrs/week) were invited to join. The final cohort had 257 families. Parental interviews and child-care quality assessments were given when the children were 2, 3, and 4 years old. A single cognitive assessment of the child was collected when the child was four years old. The researchers scheduled visits with the child-care services each year to measure the quality of care provided. Previous research had identified two factors as important in assessing quality; namely the Teaching and Interactions (TI) dimension and the Provisions for Learning (PL) dimension. The TI dimension assessed the overall quality of the interactions between caretakers and children, taking into account the warmth, richness, and appropriateness of the interactions. The PL dimension focused more on the material given, including the children's access to and use of learning materials. Maternal, child, and family characteristics collected from hospital records and parental interviews were used as control variables. The researchers found that higher ratings of TI dimensions had a positive association with numeracy, receptive and expressive vocabulary, and school readiness at 4 years. No association, however, was identified between children's scores on cognitive tests at age 4 and schools' measures on the PL dimension.
Trust vs. mistrust
Infancy - 1 year old -sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection
prejudice
act of judging an individual based on the social group the individual belongs to
avoidance reinforcement
actively avoiding potential penalty
cultural capital
any non-financial social asset that helps improve an individual's position/status in society
escape reinforcement
based on behavior eliminating an existing negative consequence
Gestalt principles
based on visual cues causing specific types of conceptual or visual recognition
self-fulfilling prophecy
belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true -involves an expectation upon an individual rather than a group
social cognitive perspective
centers around the idea that personality is something that can be learned through observation and social interaction
dissociative disorders
classified as conditions in which the building blocks of reality, such as memory, identity, or awareness are broken down
ethnocentrism
occurs when individuals compare their own cultural practices with others
Top-down processing
people form their perceptions by starting with the larger concept or picture and then working their way down to the finer details.
social facilitation
phenomenon by which individuals are more likely to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
globalization
phenomenon of the exchange of ideas, information, and culture across borders creating a more homogenous "world" culture
social loafing
phenomenon where individuals who work in a group to achieve a task exert less effort than if they were working alone to achieve the same task.
representativeness heuristic
predicated on categorizing items based on whether they fit the prototypical image of that category
cerebellum function
primarily coordinates and regulates muscular activity
Goffman's theory of dramaturgy
concerns an individual's sense of self and self-presentation that changes depending on the situation
selective attention
defined as focusing one part of the sensory environment while ignoring other stimuli
negative punishment
desired stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited
display rules
determine how emotions are displayed in public
psychoanalytic perspective
focuses on an individual's childhood, subconscious development, and sexual instincts
game theory
focuses on the rational behavior of interacting people
altruism
idea of doing a good deed for someone else without any self-motive
Groupthink
idea that when an individual participates in a group, a consensus is always the most desired.
confidence intervals
identify the range in which the true mean for a population will fall based on the findings from the sample When comparing the mean and confidence interval for two samples, the two means can be said to be statistically distinct if the confidence intervals do not overlap.
mood disorders
illnesses affecting an individual's long term emotional state -major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
somatoform disorders
involve circumstances where the physical symptoms and individual is experiencing cannot be fully explained by a general medical condition
pons function
involved with arousal, controlling autonomic functions, and sleep
implicit bias
unconsciously stereotyping about a group of people
anxiety disorders
underlying issue is irrational fear or worry which may snowball out of control
upward mobility
when a person, social group, or class, is moved to a higher position of increased power or status within a society
