NR 228 Week 2

monosaccharide

basic unit of a carbohydrate made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms

glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

short chain fatty acids

can be absorbed and used for energy by the mucosa of the colon, thereby maintaining the health of the colon epithelial cells increase fecal matter bulk

glycogen

carbohydrate energy stored in the liver and in muscles

1-3%

carbohydrates are _____ of our body mass

lactose

composed of glucose and galactose

polysaccharides

consist of many units of monosaccharides joined together starch and fiber glycogen stored in the liver and muscles

dietary fiber

consists of substances in plant foods, including carbohydrates and lignin, that for the most part cannot be digested by humans

maltose

created when two units of glucose are linked available when cereal grains are about to germinate and the plant starch is broken down into ______ glucose and glucose

must be digested

disacchrides _____ and turned into monosaccharides before they can be used by the body

soluble dietary fiber

dissolve in fluids, include pectin, mucilage, psyllium seed

epinephrine

enhances the fast conversion of liver glycogen to glucose

brush-border cells

enzymes specific for disaccharides are secreted by the small intestine's _________, which then hydrolyze disaccarides into monosaccharides

glycolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid this happens in the cytoplasm of a cell

aspartame

formed by the bonding of the amino acid phenylalanine and aspartic acid digested and absorbed as two separate amino acids NutraSweet and Equal

steroid hormones

functions against insulin and promote glucose formation from protein

advantages of sugar alcohols

have several advantages when used to replace sugar less cariogenic than sucrose longer absorption time leads to a slower rise in blood sugar or reduced glycemic response good for diabetics

insulin

hormone produced by the beta cells of the islets of langerhans, lowers blood glucose levels by enhancing the conversion of excess glucose to glycogen through glycogenesis or to fat stored in adipose tissue also eases the absorption of glucose into the cells so the use of glucose as energy is increased

protein sparing effect

if enough carbohydrate is provided to meet the energy needs of the body, protein can be spared or saved to use for specific protein functions

disadvantage of sugar alcohols

if large quantities are consumed, they may ferment in the intestinal tract because of their slower absorption rate may cause gas and diarrhea

saccharin

in animals excessive consumption and the development of bladder cancer restrictions include that beverages may contain no more than 12 mg/oz or less than 30 mg per food serving Sweet N Low

ketones

intermediate products of fat metabolism

sucrose

is formed from the pairing of units of glucose and fructose table sugar

simple carbohydrates

monosaccharides and disaccharides

without

monosaccharides can be absorbed in the body ______ any digestion

cellulose

polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls humans have a hard time breaking cellulose down so it is primarily fiber

linear or branched

polysaccharides can be either _____ or ______

70 and 100 mg/dL

primary aspect of carbohydrate metabolism is the maintenance of blood glucose homeostasis between _______

glycogenesis

process of converting glucose to glycogen

insulin inhibitors

produced by the pituitary gland, growth hormone and ACTH function as _________

glucogenic

producing glucose

galactose

rarely found in nature by itself but is part of the disaccharide lactose, the sugar found in milk

somatostatin

secreted from the hypothalamus and pancreas, inhibits the functions of insulin and glucagon

three concerns about sugar

sources in the food supply consumption levels health effects

complex carbohydrates

starches found in grains, potatoes, and vegetables fiber

glucagon

stimulates conversion of liver glycogen to glucose, assisting the regulation of glucose levels during the night

starch

storage form of plant carbohydrate

Acesulfame K

synthetically produced, 200 time sweeter than sucrose, not digestible by the human body Sunnette

glycemic load

the amount of carbohydrate in a food multiplied by the glycemic index of the carbohydrate

90 g

the amount of glycogen held in the liver

150 g

the amount of glycogen held in the muscles

glucose

the liver removes fructose and galactose and converts them to _________ blood sugar the form of carbohydrate most easily used by the body

energy

the only real nutrient function of carbohydrates carbohydrates most efficient form

gluconeogenesis

the process of producing glucose from fat not as efficient as using carbohydrate directly for glucose

Glycemic index

the ranking of foods according to the level to which a food raises blood glucose levels compared with a reference food such as a 50-g glucose load

fructose

the sweetest of the sugars provides the characteristic taste of fruits and honey

portal blood circulatory system

transports glucose, fructose, and galactose to the liver

vitamins synthesized by colonic bacteria

vitamin K, biotin, B12, folate, and thiamin only vitamin K and biotin can be absorbed in sufficient amount from the colon to be significant

metabolic water

water generated in the tissues during the chemical breakdown of the energy-yielding nutrients in foods approx 200 mL

100g

we must use about _____ of carbohydrates as glucose for brain function

ketone bodies

Breakdown products from fat catabolism in cells; also called acetones

oligomer

Short chain of monomers that is not long enough to be considered a polymer.

type 2 diabetes mellitus

a form of diabetes mellitus in which the pancreas produces some insulin that is defective and unable to serve the complete needs of the body

phenylketonuria (PKU)

a genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing

sucralose

a nonnutritive sweetener, suitable for cooking, that provides no energy Splenda

Beta carotene

a substance the body can convert into vitamin A, may have a protective effect against some forms of cancer

keto-acidosis

affects the pH balance of the body, which can be lethal if uncontrolled

sugar alcohols

also called sugar replacers avoid confusion with noncarbohydrate alcohol, are nutritive sweeteners because they provide 2 to 3 kcal/g but fewer than 4 kcal/g

microflora

although human digestive juices cannot diges fiber, ___________________ that normally reside in the colon use fiber as a medium for microbial fermentation, resulting in the synthesis of vitamins and the formation of short-chain fatty acids

DRI for carbohydrates

130 g/day for adults between 19 and 30

AMDR for carbohydrates

45-65%

hexose

6 carbon sugar (glucose, fructose, galactose)

disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis. maltose, sucrose, lactose

polymer

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.